Acknowledgement

The successful completion of Internship can be attributed to not one but several individuals
without whose support, this wouldn’t have been possible. I would like to express my wholehearted
indebtedness to God Almighty for his gracious constant care and blessings showered upon us for the
successful completion of this internship.

I would like to extend my gratitude to the management of N.S.S College of engineering for all
kinds of support they provided towards the arrangement of this internship. The Principal, Prof. Sudha T
who allowed me to embark on this internship must be thanked as well for if it wasn’t for her
encouragement, it wouldn’t have been possible.

A special thanks to Prof. Nandakumar P, the head of the Electronics and Communication
department who willingly supported me. A special token of gratitude to Prof. Sidharth N, group tutor,
for his cooperation and guidance for this internship.

I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to Mrs. Indu Muraleedharan, Supervisor of

internship at BSNL Palakkad for providing a good learning environment.

Gratitude is extended to all BSNL staff members for their persistent encouragement and guidance.

1
 Abstract
Organizations are made up of people and function through people. Without people,
organizations cannot exist. The resources of men, money, material, machinery, and mechanism
are connected, coordinated and utilized through people. Engineers need to concentrate more on
mechanism and the way in which things have been made. The need of training arises for doing
things yourself, understanding its way.

Practical exposure for doing things makes a person conversant to the technicalities
involved in any job. In view of such benefits, imparting of vocational training has been made an
integral part of any academic structure.

In B.S.N.L., training is given to Engineering Aspirants to secure future in the dynamic

world of telecommunications. Today telecommunication industry is one of the very fastest
growing industries in the world.

In this order I have taken 8 days BSNL training. In my report I try to introduce the
various concepts introduced to me at BSNL Palakkad during my training.

2
 Contents
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................ 1

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 2

Contents ........................................................................................................................................................ 3

List of figures ................................................................................................................................................ 5

1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 6

2 GSM ...................................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1 Services and Features .................................................................................................................... 7

2.2 GSM System Architecture ............................................................................................................ 7

2.3 GSM Advantages ......................................................................................................................... 9

3 CDMA................................................................................................................................................. 10

3.1 Advantages of CDMA ............................................................................................................... 10

4 OFDM ................................................................................................................................................. 12

4.1 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES................................................................................... 13

4.1.1 ADVANTAGES ................................................................................................................. 13

4.1.2 DISADVANTAGES ........................................................................................................... 13

5 Wi-Fi ................................................................................................................................................... 14

5.1 Elements of a Wi-Fi Network ..................................................................................................... 15

5.2 Wi-Fi Security............................................................................................................................. 15

6 WiMAX .............................................................................................................................................. 16

6.1 WiMAX FORUM ....................................................................................................................... 16

6.2 CUOSTMER PREMISES EQUIPMENT (CPE) For WIMAX .................................................. 16

6.3 IEEE 802.16 SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................................................... 17

6.4 FEATURES OF WIMAX ........................................................................................................... 17

7 FTTH................................................................................................................................................... 18

7.1 Connectivity via FTTH: .............................................................................................................. 18

3
 7.2 The services over FTTH: ............................................................................................................ 19

8 Antennas ............................................................................................................................................. 20

8.1 Antenna types.............................................................................................................................. 21

8.1.1 Isotropic .............................................................................................................................. 21

8.1.2 Directional........................................................................................................................... 21

8.1.3 Omni directional ................................................................................................................. 22

9 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 23

References ................................................................................................................................................... 24

4
 List of figures
Figure 1 GSM architecture............................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 2 OFDM spectrum ........................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 3 Comparison of IEEE standards of Wi-Fi ...................................................................................... 14
Figure 4 BSNL FTTH Architecture ............................................................................................................ 18
Figure 5 Directional antennas at BSNL palakkad ....................................................................................... 21

5
 1 INTRODUCTION
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. was incorporated on 15th september 2000 . It took over the business
of providing of telecom services and network management from the erstwhile Central Government
Departments of Telecom Services (DTS) and Telecom Operations (DTO), with effect from 1st October‘
2000 on going concern basis.It is one of the largest & leading public sector units providing
comprehensive range of telecom services in India.

BSNL has installed Quality Telecom Network in the country & now focusing on improving it,
expanding the network, introducing new telecom services with ICT applications in villages & winning
customer's confidence. Today, it has about 36.42 million line basic telephone capacity, 7.13 million WLL
capacity, 95.96 million GSM capacity, 34,727 fixed exchanges, 1,17,090 GSM BTSs, 9,594 CDMA
Towers, 102 Satellite Stations, 7,73,976 RKm. of OFC, 4751 RKm. of microwave network connecting
646 districts, 4519cities/towns & 6.25 lakhs villages .

BSNL is the only service provider, making focused efforts & planned initiatives to bridge the
rural-urban digital divide in ICT sector. In fact there is no telecom operator in the country to beat its reach
with its wide network giving services in every nook & corner of the country & operates across India
except New Delhi & Mumbai. Whether it is inaccessible areas of Siachen glacier or North-Eastern
regions of the country, BSNL serves its customers with a wide bouquet of telecom services namely
Wireline, CDMA mobile, GSM mobile, Internet, Broadband, Carrier service, MPLS-VPN, VSAT, VoIP,
IN Services, FTTH, etc.

BSNL is one of major service provider in its license area. The company offers wide ranging &
most transparent tariff schemes designed to suit every customer. BSNL has 94.36 million cellular & 1.02
million WLL customers as on 31.10.2016. 3G Facility has been given to all 2G connections of BSNL. In
basic services, BSNL is miles ahead of its rivals, with 13.88 million wireline phone subscribers i.e.
56.96% share of the wireline subscriber base.

BSNL has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-protocol convergent IP infrastructure that
provides convergent services like voice, data & video through the same Backbone & Broadband Access
Network. At present there are 21.86 million broadband customers including both wireline & wireless
broadband.

6
 2 GSM
Global System for Mobile (GSM) is second generation cellular system standardthat was developed to
soke the fragmentation problems of the first cellular systems in Europe.GSM is the world's first cellular
system to specify digital modulation and network level architectures and services.

2.1 SERVICES AND FEATURES

GSM services follow ISDN guidelines and are classified as either teleservices or data services.
Teleservices include standard mobile telephony and mobile-originated or base-originated traffic. Data
services include computer-to- computer communication and packet switched traffic.

Most remarkable features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), which is a memory device.A
second remarkable feature of GSM is the on-the-air privacy which is provided by the system. It is
virtually impossible to eavesdrop on a GSM radio transmission.The privacy is made possible by
encrypting the digital bit stream sent by a GSM transmitter, according to a specific secret cryptographic
key that is known only to the cellular carrier.

2.2 GSM SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

The GSM system architecture consists of three major interconnectedsubsystems that interact between
themselves and with the users through certain network interfaces.The subsystems are the Base Station
Subsystem (BSS), Network and SwitchingSubsystem (NSS), and the Operation Support Subsystem
.The Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem, but is usually considered to bepart of the BSS for
architecture purposes.

The BSS, also known as the radio subsystem, provides and manages radio transmission paths between the
mobile stations and the Mobile Switching Center (MSC). The BSS also manages the radio interface
between the mobile stations and all other subsystems of GSM. Each BSS consists of many Base Station
Controllers (BSCs) which connect the MS to the NSS via the MSCs.

NSS manages switching functions of the system and allows MSC to communicate with other networks
such as the PSTN and ISDN.

7
The OSS supports the operation and maintenance of GSM and allows system engineers to monitor,
diagnose, and troubleshoot all aspects of the GSM system.

Figure shows the block diagram of the GSM system architecture. The Mobile Stations (MS) communicate
with the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) over the radio air interface.The BSS consists of many BSCs
which connect to a single MSC, and each BSC typically controls up to several hundred Base 1Tansceiver
Stations (BTSs). Some of the BTSs may be co-located at the BSC, and others may be remotely distributed
and physically connected to the BSC by microwave link or dedicated leasedlines. Mobile handoffs (called
handovers) between two BTSs under the control of the same BSC are handled by the BSC, and not the
MSC. This greatly reduces the switching burden of the MSC.

Figure 1 GSM architecture

The MSC is the central unit in the NSS and controls the traffic among all of the BSCs. The HLR is a
database which contains subscriber information and location information for each user who resides in the
same city as the MSC. Each subscriber in a particular GSM market is assigned a unique
InternationalMobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI), and this number is used to identify each home user. The
VLR is a database which temporarily stores the IMSI and customer information for each roaming
subscriber who is visiting the coverage area of a particular MSC.The Authentication Center contains a
register called the Equipment Identity Register (EIR) which indentifies stolen or fraudulently altered

8
phones that transmit identity data that does not match with information contained in either the HLR or
VLR.

The OSS supports one or several Operation Maintenance Centers (OMC) which are used to monitor
and maintain the performance of each MS, BS, BSC, and MSC within a GSM system.The OSS has
three main functions, which are

 To maintain all telecommunications hardware and network operations with a particular

market
 Manage all charging and billing procedures.
 Manage all mobile equipment in the system.

The Um Radio interface(between MS and base transceiver stations [BTS]) is the most important inany
mobile radio system.Interface which connects a BTS to a BSC is called the Abis interface. The Abis
interface carries traffic and maintenance data, and is specified by GSM to be standardized for all
manufacturers.The BSCs are physically connected via dedicated/leased lines or microwave link to the
MSC.The interface between a BSC and a MSC is called the A inter- face, which is standardized within
GSM.

2.3 GSM ADVANTAGES

 It is a wireless system. So mobile equipment (cell phone) can be on move.

 High secrecy in the system. So information cannot be tapped easily.
 Easy to carry MS. And consumes less power.
 GSM provides more voice channels in limited bandwidth.

9
 3 CDMA
One of the basic concepts in data communication is the idea of allowing several transmitters to send
information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to share a
band of frequencies. This concept is called multiple access.

CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each
transmitter is assigned a code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel.

By contrast, time division multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time that is different user use
different time slot of one frequency ,while frequency-division multiple access(FDMA) divides it by
frequency. Different users use different frequency.

CDMA is a form of spread spectrum signaling, since the modulated coded signal has a much higher data
bandwidth than the data being communicated. In CDMA different user use same frequency at the same
time, but with different spreading code

CDMA is a spread spectrum multiple access technique. A spread spectrum technique spreading the
bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. Spreading code is a pseudo-random code
that has a narrow ambiguity function, unlike other narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code
runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is combined via bitwise
XOR(exclusive OR) with the faster code.

Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the codes used to
modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems. The best performance will
occur when there is good separation between the signal of a desired user and the signals of other users.
The separation of the signals is made by correlating the received signal with the locally generated code of
the desired user. If the signal matches the desired user’s code then the correlation function will be high
and the system can extract that signal. If the desired user’s code has nothing in common with the signal
the correlation should be as close to zero as possible (thus eliminating the signal); this is referred to as
cross correlation. If the code is correlated with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation
should be as close to zero as possible. This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to reject multi-
path interference.

3.1 ADVANTAGES OF CDMA

 Frequency reuse factor is 1. Network design and expanding become much easier.
 Large Coverage, almost 2 times than GSM, saves money for operators.
 High spectrum capacity 8—10 times than AMPS, 4 -6 times than GSM.

10
 High privacy, hard to wiretapping.
 Perfect Power Control and voice activation make the MS power low, healthy for body green
mobile phone.
 CDMA makes soft handoff “make before break”and other systems make hard handoff “make
after break”.
 Use soft handoff, decreases call-drop rate.

11
 4 OFDM
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing or OFDM is a modulation format that is being used for
many of the latest wireless and telecommunications standards. OFDM has been adopted in the Wi-Fi
arena and It has also been chosen for the cellular telecommunications standard LTE / LTE-A, and in
addition to this it has been adopted by other standards such as WiMAX and many more.

OFDM is a form of multicarrier modulation. An OFDM signal consists of a number of closely spaced
modulated carriers. When modulation of any form - voice, data, etc. is applied to a carrier, then sidebands
spread out either side. The signals are transmitted close to one another they must be spaced so that the
receiver can separate them using a filter and there must be a guard band between them. This is not the
case with OFDM. Although the sidebands from each carrier overlap, they can still be received without the
interference that might be expected because they are orthogonal to each another. This is achieved by
having the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period.

Receiver acts as a bank of demodulators, translating each carrier down to DC. The resulting signal is
integrated over the symbol period to regenerate the data from that carrier. The same demodulator also
demodulates the other carriers. As the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period means
that they will have a whole number of cycles in the symbol period and their contribution will sum to zero
- in other words there is no interference contribution.

Figure 2 OFDM spectrum

One requirement of the OFDM transmitting and receiving systems is that they must be linear. Any non-
linearity will cause interference between the carriers as a result of inter-modulation distortion. This will
introduce unwanted signals that would cause interference and impair the orthogonality of the
transmission.

12
4.1 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

4.1.1 ADVANTAGES

OFDM has been used in many high data rate wireless systems because of the many advantages it
provides.

Immunity to selective fading: OFDM is more resistant to frequency selective fading than single carrier
systems because it divides the overall channel into multiple narrowband signals that are affected
individually as flat fading sub-channels.

Resilience to interference: Interference appearing on a channel may be bandwidth limited and in this
way will not affect all the sub-channels. This means that not all the data is lost.

Spectrum efficiency: Using close-spaced overlapping sub-carriers, a significant OFDM advantage is that
it makes efficient use of the available spectrum.

Resilient to narrow-band effects: Using adequate channel coding and interleaving it is possible to
recover symbols lost due to the frequency selectivity of the channel and narrow band interference. Not all
the data is lost.

4.1.2 DISADVANTAGES

Whilst OFDM has been widely used, there are still a few disadvantages to its use which need to be
addressed when considering its use.

High peak to average power ratio: An OFDM signal has a noise like amplitude variation and has a
relatively high large dynamic range, or peak to average power ratio. This impacts the RF amplifier
efficiency as the amplifiers need to be linear and accommodate the large amplitude variations and these
factors mean the amplifier cannot operate with a high efficiency level.

Sensitive to carrier offset and drift: Another disadvantage of OFDM is that is sensitive to carrier
frequency offset and drift. Single carrier systems are less sensitive.

13
 5 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is a generic term that refers to the IEEE 802.11 communications standard for
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). Devices that can use Wi-Fi technology include personal
computers, video-game consoles, smart phones and tablets, digital cameras, smart TVs, digital audio
players and modern printers. Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the Internet via a WLAN and
a wireless access point. Such an access point (or hotspot) has a range of about 20 meters (66 feet)
indoors and a greater range outdoors. Hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that
block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access
points.

Wi-Fi Networks use Radio Technologies to transmit & receive data at high speed. Following IEEE
standards are the widely used standards of Wi-Fi:

1. IEEE 802.11b
2. IEEE 802.11a
3. IEEE 802.11g

Comparison of IEEE Standards: following figure shows the comparison of the various IEEE
standards.

Figure 3 Comparison of IEEE standards of Wi-Fi

14
5.1 ELEMENTS OF A WI-FI NETWORK

• Access Point (AP) - The AP is a wireless LAN transceiver or “base station” that can
connect one or many wireless devices simultaneously to the Internet.

• Wi-Fi cards - They accept the wireless signal and relay information. They can be internal
and external. (eg: PCMCIA Card for Laptop and PCI Card for Desktop PC).

How a Wi-Fi Network (hotspots) works: A Wi-Fi hotspot is created by installing an access
point to an internet connection. An access point acts as a base station. When Wi-Fi enabled device
encounters a hotspot the device can then connect to that network wirelessly. A single access point can
support up to 30 users and can function within a range of 100 – 150 feet indoors and up to 300 feet
outdoors. Many access points can be connected to each other via Ethernet cables to create a single large
network.

5.2 WI-FI SECURITY

Wireless security is the prevention of unauthorized access or damage to computers

using wireless networks. The most common types of wireless security are Wired Equivalent
Privacy (WEP) and Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). WEP is a notoriously weak security standard. The
password it uses can often be cracked in a few minutes with a basic laptop computer and widely available
software tools. WEP is an old IEEE 802.11 standard from 1999, which was outdated in 2003 by WPA, or
Wi-Fi Protected Access. WPA was a quick alternative to improve security over WEP. The current
standard is WPA2; some hardware cannot support WPA2 without firmware upgrade or replacement.
WPA2 uses an encryption device that encrypts the network with a 256-bit key; the longer key length
improves security over WEP. The Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA and WPA2) security protocols were
later created to address the problems with WEP. If a weak password, such as a dictionary word or short
character string is used, WPA and WPA2 can be cracked. Using a long enough random password (e.g. 14
random letters) or passphrase (e.g. 5 randomly chosen words) makes pre-shared key WPA virtually
uncrackable. The second generation of the WPA security protocol (WPA2) is based on the final IEEE
802.11i amendment to the 802.11 standard and is eligible for FIPS 140-2 compliance. With all those
encryption schemes, any client in the network that knows the keys can read all the traffic.

15
 6 WiMAX
WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. WiMAX refers to broadband
wireless networks that are based on the IEEE 802.16 standard, which ensures compatibility and
interoperability between broadband wireless access equipment. WiMAX, which will have a range of up to
31 miles, is primarily aimed at making broadband network access widely available without the expense of
wires (as in cable-access broadband) or the distance limitations of Digital Subscriber Line.

6.1 WIMAX FORUM

The name "WiMAX" was created by the WiMAX Forum, which was formed in June 2001 to promote
conformity and interoperability of the standard, including the definition of predefined system profiles for
commercial vendors. The forum describes WiMAX as "a standards-based technology enabling the
delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL". IEEE
802.16m or Wireless MAN-Advanced was a candidate for the 4G, in competition with the LTE
Advanced standard.

A WiMAX system consists of

1) A WiMAX tower, similar in concept to a cell-phone tower - A single WiMAX tower can
provide coverage to a very large area as big as 3,000 square miles (~8,000 square km).

2) A WiMAX receiver - The receiver and antenna could be a small box or Personal
Computer Memory card, or they could be built into a laptop the way Wi-Fi access is
today.

6.2 CUOSTMER PREMISES EQUIPMENT (CPE) FOR WIMAX

CPE generally refers to devices such as telephones, routers, network switches, residential
gateways (RG), set-top boxes, fixed mobile convergence products, home networking adapters
and Internet access gateways that enable consumers to access communications service providers'
services and distribute them around their house via a local area network (LAN).

CPE types:

• Indoor self installed CPE (integrated antennas)

• Integrated outdoor CPE

• PC Card

16
 • Laptop integrated

6.3 IEEE 802.16 SPECIFICATIONS

• 802.16a : Uses the licensed frequencies from 2 to 11 GHz

Supports Mesh network

• 802.16b : Increase spectrum to 5 and 6 GHz

Provides QoS (for real time voice and video service)

• 802.16c : Represents a 10 to 66GHz

• 802.16d : Improvement and fixes for 802.16a

• 802.16e : Addresses on Mobile

Enable high-speed signal handoffs necessary for communications with users

moving at vehicular speeds.

6.4 FEATURES OF WIMAX

• Scalability The 802.16 standard supports flexible radio frequency (RF) channel bandwidths.
• The standard supports hundreds or even thousands of users within one RF channel
• As the number of subscribers grows the spectrum can be reallocated with process of
sectoring.
• Quality of Service Primary purpose of QoS feature is to define transmission ordering and
scheduling on the air interface

• These features often need to work in conjunction with mechanisms beyond the air
interface in order to provide end to end QoS or to monitor the behaviour of SS.
• Range Optimized for up to 50 Km
• Designed to handle many users spread out over kilometres
• Designed to tolerate greater multi-path delay spread (signal reflections) up to 10.0μ
seconds
• Coverage Standard supports mesh network topology
• Optimized for outdoor NLOS performance
• Standard supports advanced antenna techniques

17
 7 FTTH
Fibre to the Home (FTTH) is a unique technology being deployed by BSNL for the first time in India.
The fibre connectivity having unlimited bandwidth and state of the art technology provides fix access
platform to deliver the high speed broadband from 256 Kbps to 100 Mbps, IPTV having different type of
contents like HDTV and future coming 3D TV and range of voice telephony services. It provides a
comprehensive solution for the IP leased line, internet, Closed User Group (CUG), MPLS-VPN, VoIP,
video conferencing, video calls etc whatever the services available on the internet platform, bandwidth on
demand can be delivered by this connectivity to the without changing the access fibre and home device.
Customer will get a CPE called Home Optical Network Termination (HONT) consist of 4X100 Mpbs
Ethernet ports and 2 normal telephone ports. Each 100 Mbps ports will provide broadband, IPTVs, IP
Video call and leased line etc as required by the customers. Customer will get power back unit having full
load backup of four hours and normal backup of three days. This power backup will be AC input and
connecting to the HONT on 12V DC.

7.1 CONNECTIVITY VIA FTTH:

BSNL will extend fibre from its nearest Central Office (CO) location directly or through franchisee and
install HONT and battery backup at the customers identified locations. The services such as Voice,
Broadband, IPTV etc. will be enabled as per the customer”s request plans for the same.

Figure 4 BSNL FTTH Architecture

18
7.2 THE SERVICES OVER FTTH:

Basic internet Access Service controlled and uncontrolled from 256Kbps to 1000Mbps.

 TV over IP Service (MPEG2).

 Video on Demand (VoD)(MPEG4) play like VCR
 Audio on Demand Service
 Bandwidth on Demand (User and or service configurable)
 Remote Education
 Point to Point and Point to Multi Point Video Conferencing, virtual classroom
 Voice and Video Telephony over IP: Connection under control of centrally located soft switches
 Interactive Gaming
 VPN on broadband
 Dial up VPN Service
 Virtual Private LAN Service (VPLS)

19
 8 Antennas
An antenna is an array of conductors (elements), electrically connected to the receiver or transmitter.
During transmission, the oscillating current applied to the antenna by a transmitter creates an oscillating
electric field and magnetic field around the antenna elements. These time-varying fields radiate energy
away from the antenna into space as a moving transverse electromagnetic field wave. Conversely, during
reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave exert force on the
electrons in the antenna elements, causing them to move back and forth, creating oscillating currents in
the antenna.Antennas transform wire-propagated waves into space-propagated waves.

Antennas can be designed to transmit and receive radio waves in all horizontal directions equally
(omnidirectional antennas), or preferentially in a particular direction (directional or high gain antennas).
An antenna may include parasitic elements, parabolic reflectors or horns, which serve to direct the radio
waves into a beam or other desired radiation pattern.

Antennas can be classified as omnidirectional, radiating energy approximately equally in all directions, or
Directional, where energy radiates more along one direction than others. (Antennas are reciprocal, so the
same effect occurs for reception of radio waves.) A completely uniform omnidirectional antenna is not
physically possible. Many important antenna types have a uniform radiation pattern in the horizontal
plane, but send little energy upward or downward. A "directional" antenna usually is intended to
maximize its coupling to the electromagnetic field in the direction of the other station.

It is a fundamental property of antennas that the electrical characteristics of an antenna such as gain,
radiation pattern, impedance, bandwidth, resonant frequency and polarization are the same whether the
antenna is transmitting or receiving.An antenna transmits and receives radio waves with a particular
polarization which can be reoriented by tilting the axis of the antenna in many cases.

The physical size of an antenna is often a practical issue,particularly at lower frequencies (longer
wavelengths). Highly directional antennas need to be significantly largerthan the wavelength. Resonant
antennas usually use a linear conductor (or element), or pair of such elements, each of which is about a
quarter of the wavelength in length (an odd multiple of quarter wavelengths will also be resonant).
Antennas that are required to be small compared to the wavelength sacrifice efficiency and cannot be very
directional.At higher frequencies (UHF, microwaves) trading off performance to obtain a smaller physical
size is usually not required.

20
8.1 ANTENNA TYPES

8.1.1 ISOTROPIC

An isotropic antenna (isotropic radiator) is a hypothetical antenna that radiates equal signal power in all
directions. It is a mathematical model that is used as the base of comparison to calculate the gain of real
antennas. No real antenna can have an isotropic radiation pattern. However approximately isotropic
antennas, constructed with multiple elements, are used in antenna testing.

8.1.2 DIRECTIONAL

A directional antenna or beam antenna is an antenna which radiates or receives greater power in specific
directions allowing increased performance and reduced interference from unwanted sources. Directional
antennas provide increasedperformance over dipole antennas – or omnidirectional antennas in general –
when greater concentration of radiation in a certain direction is desired.

There are many ways to make a high-gain antenna; the most common are parabolic antennas, helical
antennas, yagi antennas, and phased arrays of smaller antennas of any kind.All practical antennas are at
least somewhat directional, although usually only the direction in the plane parallelto the earth is
considered, and practical antennas can easily be omnidirectional in one plane. The most common typesare
the Yagi antenna, the log-periodic antenna, and the corner reflector antennaFor Mobile communications
generally vertical polarization is used. For Broadcast systems horizontal polarization is used.

Figure 5 Directional antennas at BSNL palakkad

21
8.1.3 OMNI DIRECTIONAL

The classical omni directional lamda/2 antennas are of two types

1. Ground Plane

2. Lambda/4-skirt Antenna

The names indicate how the antenna is decoupled from the mast.In both cases the horizontal radiation
pattern covers 360 ° and vertical half power beamwidth is 78 °.Hence there will be lot of waste of energy
both upwards and downwards in the desired horizontal plane. Ground Plane Omni Directional Antenna
conductive plane is achieved via 3 counterweighted poles. The ground plane antenna can cover the
complete frequency range because it is a wideband antenna.

22
 9 Conclusion
Engineering student will have to serve in the public and private sector industries and
workshop based training and teaching in classroom has its own limitation. The lack of expo
sure to real life, material express and functioning of industrial organization is the measure
hindrance in the student employment. In the open economy era of fast modernization and
tough competition, technical industries should procedure pass out as near to job function as
possible.

Practical training is one of the major steps in this direction. I did my training from BSNL,
Palakkad, which is one of the best known communication service provider companies of
India. The training helps me in gaining in overview of the working of telephone exchange,
various technologies of BSNL –GSM, CDMA, WIMAX, Wi-Fi, FTTH and optical fiber
transmission as well as I got know about the persisting limitations of the current
technologies and how the employees are serving the customers in overcoming these
limitations.

In the end, I hereby conclude that I have successfully completed my industrial training on
the above topics.

23
 References
[1] www.bsnl.co

[2] www.newbsnl.co

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