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BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC

BASICS AND
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC ZONES

Dr. Ir. Vijaya Isnaniawardhani, M.T.

Komplek PLN Jl. Moh. Toha No. 176 Lama


Bandung – Jawa Barat 40423
Phone: 082311596074 – 081214044150
e-mail: prc_50@yahoo.com
website: www.penerbit-prc.com

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Biostratigraphy: Basics and Biostratigraphic Zones
Penulis: Dr. Ir. Vijaya Isnaniawardhani, M.T.
Editor: Prof. Dr. Ir. Hendarmawan, M.Sc.
Layout: Asep S. Muslim
Desain Sampul: Dino Octavianto

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Cetakan I: Juni 2015

ISBN 978-602-1311-15-8

Perpustakaan Nasional: Katalog Dalam Terbitan (KDT)

Dr. Ir. Vijaya Isnaniawardhani, M.T.


Biostratigraphy: Basics and Biostratigraphic Zones/Penulis: Dr. Ir.
Vijaya Isnaniawardhani, M.T., Editor, Prof. Dr. Ir. Hendarmawan,
M.Sc.
Edisi I, Bandung: Pustaka Reka Cipta, 2015
xiv + 208 hlm.; 16,0 x 24,0 cm

ISBN 978-602-1311-15-8

ii
PREFACE
Reference book of “Biostratigraphy: Basics and Biostratigraphic
Zones” is published as a part of Module and Online Course Launching
Program Series in Padjadjaran University; and integrated to program of
International Higher Education Accreditation for Geology. Hopefully
this reference provides a useful part of the basic background that
students need to advance into the geologic fields.
This reference book provides concept and analysis of
biostratigraphic studies. Topic I to III introduced concept of fossils
(include major applications of fossils studies to earth sciences research,
samples, analysis methods, macrofossils, microfossils and trace fossils).
Introduction and type of biostratigraphic units are stressed in Topic IV.
Topic V reviewed biostratigraphic zonations (foraminifera, nannofossils
and palynomorph), followed by application to correlation (Topic VI) as
well as interpretation of depositional environment (Topic VII). Topic
VIII and IX concerned the problems and new discoveries in
biostratigraphic studies. Within these topics are reviewing and
summarizing of publication that conducted by funding from
Padjadjaran University research grants as well as four months of
research in Japan by the grant from Higher Education Directorate,
Nations Education Ministry.
The deep appreciation is extended to Rector of Padjadjaran
University and Head of Institute of Learning Development and Quality
Assurance (Lembaga Pengembangan Pembelajaran dan Penjaminan
Mutu/LP3M) for encouragement and supporting in writing this book.
The author is intented to Prof. Dr. Ir. Hendarmawan, M.Sc. as editor for
reading of the manuscript and giving the valuable suggestions. Thanks
also to collegues and staff at Geology Faculty for assistance during
preparation.

Bandung, Mei 2015

Vijaya Isnaniawardhani

iii
Marker species Discoaster asymmetricus Gartner, Discoaster
surculus Martini & Bramlette, Discoaster brouweri Bramlette
& Riedel, Discoaster variabilis Martini & Bramlette Discoaster
pentaradiatus Bramlette & Riedel; from: Mimin K. Adisaputra
and M. Hendrizan, 2008. Hiatus Pada Kala Eosen-Miosen
Tengah di Tiggian Roo, Samudera Hindia, Selatan Jawa
Timur, Berdasarkan Biostratigrafi Nanoplankton. Jurnal
Geologi Kelautan, 2008. Vol. 6 No. 3, p. 154-166.

Hastigerina siphonifera d’Orbigny, Globorotalia tumida


(Brady); from: Mimin K. Adisaputra, 1992. Late Neogene
Planktonic Foraminifera of The Makassar Basin. Bull. Mar.
Geol. Inst., Vol. 7, No. 1, p. 15-23.

iv
CONTENT

Preface ......................................................................................... iii


Content ........................................................................................ v
List of Tables............................................................................... ix
List of Figures ............................................................................. xi
Topic 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................... 1
1.1 What‟s Biostratigraphy .......................................... 1
1.2 Biostratigraphy as a component of stratigraphy .... 1
1.3 Fossils in rocks ....................................................... 3
1.4 Major application of fossil studies to Earth
Science Research ................................................... 4
1.5 History of biostratigraphic studies ......................... 5
References ..................................................................... 6
Topic 2 SAMPLES AND (MICRO) FOSSILS ANALYSIS .. 8
2.1 Sample types ........................................................... 8
2.2 Analysis methods .................................................... 9
2.3 Field geology .......................................................... 10
2.4 Collecting rock samples .......................................... 12
2.5 Collecting fossils ..................................................... 12
2.6 Fossils content in sedimentary rocks ...................... 13
References ..................................................................... 14
Topic 3 FOSSILS IN BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC STUDIES ..... 15
3.1 Type of fossils: macrofossils, microfossils, and
tracefossils/ichnofossils ......................................... 15
3.2 Foraminifera ........................................................... 17
3.2.1 Planktic foraminifera .................................. 18
3.2.2 Benthic Foraminifera ................................. 35
3.2.3 Larger benthic foraminifera ....................... 41
3.3 Invertebrate fossil................................................... 46
3.4 Algae ...................................................................... 47

v
3.5 Nannofossils ........................................................... 50
3.6 Pollen and spores ................................................... 58
3.7 Ostracods................................................................ 60
3.8 Dinoflagellate cysts ................................................ 61
3.9 Silicoflagellates ...................................................... 63
3.10 Radiolaria .............................................................. 64
3.11 Diatoms ................................................................. 65
3.12 Trace of fossils ...................................................... 66
3.12.1 Skolithos ichnofacies ............................... 69
3.12.2 Zoophycos ichnofacies ............................ 69
3.12.3 Nereites ichnofacies ................................. 70
3.12.4 Other ichnofacies ..................................... 71
3.12.5 Significance of trace fossils ..................... 73
References ..................................................................... 76
TOPIC 4 BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNIT ................................ 78
4.1 Principle and concepts ........................................... 78
4.1.1 Principle of faunal succession ................. 78
4.1.2 Concept of stage ...................................... 78
4.1.3 Concept of zone ....................................... 78
4.2 Biostratigraphic units ............................................. 79
References ..................................................................... 86
TOPIC 5 FORAMINIFERA, NANNOFOSSILS, AND
PALYNOMORPH BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
ZONATIONS ..................................................... 87
5.1 Planktic foraminifera biostratigraphic zonations ... 87
5.1.1 Late Middle Eocene to Recent planktic
foraminiferal biostratigraphy by Blow
(1969, 1979)(1)(2) ...................................... 87
5.1.2 Paleocene-Eocene and Oligocene-
Miocene planktic foraminifera zones by
Postuma (1971)(14) ................................... 99
5.1.3 Cretaceous planktic foraminifera zones
by Caron, (1986)(5) ................................... 100
5.1.4 Paleocene and Eocene planktic
foraminifera zones by Tourmarkine and
Luterbacher (1986)(17) .............................. 107
5.1.5 Oligocene to Holocene low latitude
planktic foraminifera zones by Bolli and
Saunders (1986)(3) .................................... 115

vi
5.1.6. Neogene planktic foraminifera zones in
Indonesian basins (Case Studies)............. 124
5.2 Larger foraminifera biostratigraphic zonations...... 126
5.3 Small benthic / Rotaloid foraminifera
biostratigraphic zonations ...................................... 128
5.4. Nannofossil biostratigraphic zonations .................. 129
5.4.1. Mesozoic nannofossils biostratigraphic
zonations .................................................. 129
5.4.2. Cenozoic nannofossils biostratigraphic
zonations .................................................. 132
5.4.3. Neogene nannoplankton zones in
Indonesia basins (Case Study) ................. 140
5.5 Pollen-Sporabiostratigraphic zonations ................. 145
5.6 Biostratigraphic correlation and
biochronostratigraphy ............................................ 131
References ..................................................................... 149
TOPIC 6 CORRELATION AND STRATIGRAPHIC
MARKER................................................................................... 152
6.1 Introduction ............................................................ 152
6.2 Definition of correlation ........................................ 152
6.3 Types of correlation ............................................... 153
6.4 Lithocorrelation...................................................... 154
6.5 Biocorrelation ........................................................ 157
6.6 Chronocorrelation .................................................. 161
6.7 Key bed or marker bed........................................... 165
References ..................................................................... 166
TOPIC 7 PALEOENVIRONMENT AND BIOFACIES ....... 167
7.1 Delta System .......................................................... 167
7.2 Microfossils assemblages for depositional
environment interpretation ..................................... 169
7.2.1 Supratidal freshwater ............................... 169
7.2.2 Intertidal, freshwater ................................ 171
7.2.3 Marginal marine (intertidal zone and
areas of mixing of fresh and marine
waters), Upper estuarine .......................... 171
7.2.4 Marginal marine (intertidal zone and
areas of mixing of fresh and marine
waters), Lower estuarine, transitional
environment, backish water ..................... 172

vii
7.2.5 Marginal marine (intertidal zone), littoral 173
7.2.6 Shallow marine (inner neritic; low tide
to 30m) ..................................................... 178
7.2.7 Middle neritic, middle shelf, inner
sublittoral ................................................. 181
7.2.8 Outter neritic, outer shelf, outer
sublittoral ................................................. 183
7.2.9 Upper bathyal........................................... 184
7.2.10 Abyssal environments (4000 m and
deeper) ..................................................... 188
7.3 Quantitative analysis .............................................. 188
7.4 Interpretation of depositional environment on
Indonesian basins (Case Studies) ........................... 192
References ..................................................................... 194
Topic 8 BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC PROBLEMS ...................... 195
8.1 Samples containing species introduced from
elsewhere................................................................ 195
8.2 Conclusions not justified by observations ............. 195
8.3 Observed assemblages being atypical or
incomplete .............................................................. 196
8.4 Incomplete recording of microfossil content ......... 196
References ..................................................................... 197
Topic 9 DEVELOPMENTS IN BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
STUDY ......................................................................... 198
9.1 Age dating, environment interpretation and
correlations............................................................. 198
9.2 Biostratigraphy on integrated stratigraphic studies 200
References ..................................................................... 207

viii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Analysis methods in biostratigraphyc studies .......... 9


Table 3.1 The identification key for genus and species of
Cretaceous ................................................................ 19
Table 3.2 The identification key for genus and species of
Cenozoic ................................................................... 20
Table 3.3 The identification key for genus and species of
Pliocene to Recent (16)............................................... 23
Table 3.4 Range of selected planktic foraminifera marker
(Blow, 1979) (1) ........................................................ 31
Table 3.5 Description of benthic foraminifera genera which
cosmopolitan in Neogene sediment in Indonesia (1) . 37
Table 3.6 Range of selected larger foraminifera marker
species (1) .................................................................. 42
Table 3.7 Principal ichnofacies (2) ............................................ 68
Table 5.1 Correlation of the Late Miocene Planktic
Foraminifera Biostratigraphy in Central Bogor
Through with
Previously Standard Foraminifera Zonation (8) ........ 126
Table 5.2 Correlation of planktic foraminifera and larger
benthic biostratigraphic zonation on North West
Java ........................................................................... 127
Table 5.3 Cretaceous nannoplankton zonations by
Sissingh (1977) (16) ................................................... 131
Table 5.4 Paleogene Nannoplankton Zonation by Martini
(1971) (11) .................................................................. 135
Table 5.5 Neogene Nannoplankton Zonation by Martini
(1971) (11) .................................................................. 136
Table 5.6 Cenozoic nannoplankton zonations by Okada and
Bukry (1980) and its correlation with Martini
(1971) (12) .................................................................. 137
Table 5.7 Correlation of Nannoplakton and Foraminifera

ix
Biozonation, of Martini (1971), Okada and Bukry
(1980) and Blow (1969) (1)(12)(2)................................ 138
Table 5.8 Modified coccolith zones and subzones and
corresponding code numbers (Okada and Bukry,
1980) (12) ................................................................... 139
Table 5.9 Nannofossil Events, Biostratigraphic Zones in East
Java and Its Correlation with Martini's (1971) and
Okada and Bukry (1980) (10)..................................... 145
Table 5.10 Biostratigraphyc Correlation in Indonesia (18) .......... 147 1
Table 5.11 Neogene Biochronostratigraphy ............................... 149
Table 7.1 Deltaic environment classification based on
vegetation (Morley, 1977), Allen and Chambers
(1998) ....................................................................... 169
Table 7.2 Dominant foraminifera in shallow marine facies as
a function of salinity and substrate(6)........................ 176
Table 7.3 Relationship between % Pelagic Benthic Ratio,
Depht and Environment Grimshale and Van
Markoven (1955) (1) .................................................. 178
Table 7.4 Nannoplankton taxa as bathimetric marker in
Madura
Waters (2) .................................................................. 194
Table 9.1 Typical distribution of foraminifera in a Middle
Miocene depostional sequence (hypothetical well
section; for approximate position in model(1) ........... 207

x
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Biostratigraphy as a component of stratigraphy .. 2


Figure 1.2 Biostratigraphy and related studies...................... 3
Figure 2.1 Core samples........................................................ 9
Figure 2.2 Detailed mapping and measuring stratigraphic
sections were undertaken in order to acquire
relations between the widely spaced outcrop
sections in the study area, for establishing key
stratigraphic levels, which can be used for
defining positions of paleontological samples. (2) 10
Figure 3.1 The kingdom of live (3) ........................................ 17
Figure 3.2 Globigerinoides - Cenozoic planktic
foraminifera (9) ..................................................... 33
Figure 3.3 Globorotalia - Cenozoic planktic foraminifera (9) 33
Figure 3.4 Neogloboquadrina - Cenozoic planktic
foraminifera (9) ..................................................... 34
Figure 3.5 Orbulina universa - Cenozoic planktic
foraminifera
(9)
.......................................................................... 34
Figure 3.6 Pulleniatina obliqueloculata - Cenozoic
planktic foraminifera (9) ....................................... 35
Figure 3.7 Globoquadrina - Cenozoic planktic foraminifera
(9)
.......................................................................... 35
Figure 3.8 Benthic foraminifera taxa (8) ................................ 38
Figure 3.9 Planktic Foraminifera Orbulina universa and
globigerinid form (a); Miliolids benthic
foraminifera (b) in mudstone from Lulut area (11) 44
Figure 3.10 Nummulites sp. (a) and miliolids benthic
foraminifera (b) in wackstone (11) ........................ 45
Figure 3.11 Amphistegina sp. in wackstone from Lulut area
(11)
......................................................................... 45
Figure 3.12 Operculina sp. (a and b) in packstone from
Lulut area (11) ....................................................... 45
Figure 3.13 Larger foram in packstone from Lulut area (11) .. 46

xi
Figure 3.14 Cynophyte sedimentary structure (a) Stromalite
type of vertical section, (b) Girvanella tubes in
skeletal oncolite, (c) Ortonella tubes in skeletal
oncolite, (d) section through endolithic
cyanophyte boring and skeletal envelopes (3) ...... 49
Figure 3.15 (a) and (b) Microscopycally limestone features
consists algae (9) ................................................... 50
Figure 3.16 Coccolith (a) Recent coccolithosphore
Cycloccolithina with coccolith shields, (b) side
view of Cyclococcolithina coccolith with cross
section, (c) Pseudoemiliania distal view, (d)
same from proximal shield, (e)
Helicopontosphaera, (f) Zygodiscus, (g)
Prediscosphaera proximal and side view, (h)
Braadosphaera, (i) Rhabdosphaera side view,
(j) Discoaster (3) ................................................... 51
Figure 3.17 Calcareous nannofossils zonal marker of the
Pliocene and Pleistocene (14) ................................ 53
Figure 3.18 Calcareous nannofossils zonal marker of the
Miocene and Pliocene (14) .................................... 54
Figure 3.19 Morphology and terminology of trilete spores (3) 59
Figure 3.20 Morphology and terminology of monolete
spores (3) ............................................................... 59
Figure 3.21 Morphology and terminology of tricolpate and
related pollen grains (3) ....................................... 60
Figure 3.22 Dinoflagellates (a) Dinogymmium, a fossil
gymnodinialean cyst, (b) motile cell of Recent
Peridinium, (c) cavate cyst of Deflandrea, (d)
motile cell of Recent Gonyaulax, (e)
proximochorate cyst of fossil Spiniferites, (f)
proximate cyst of fosil Gonyaulacysta, (g)
chlorate cyst of fossil Hystrichospharidium, (h)
Nannoceratopsis, a fossil dinophysialean cyst(3) . 62
Figure 3.23 Silicoflagellates (a) living cell and skeleton of
Distephanus, (b) side view of Distephanus, (c)
Mesocena, (d) Dictyocha, (e) Corbisena, (f)
Vallacerta, (g) Cannopilus, (h) Navicupolis (3) ... 63
Figure 3.24 Radiolaria are found as zooplankton in the
upper layers of all oceans (9) ................................ 65

xii
Figure 3.25 Pennate diatoms (a) Pinnularia, (b) Fragilaria,
(c) Achanthes (3) ................................................... 66
Figure 3.26 Centric diatoms (a) Melosira, (b)
Coscinodiscus, (c) Actinoptychus, (d)
Thalassiosira (3) ................................................... 66
Figure 3.27 Trace fossil association characteristic of the
Skolithos ichnofacies: Ophiomorpha, 2.
Diplocraterion, 3. Skolithos, 4. Moncraterion(2) . 69
Figure 3.28 Trace fossil association characteristic of the
Zoophycos ichnofacies: 1. Phycosiphon, 2.
Zoophycos, 3. Spirophyton (2) .............................. 70
Figure 3.29 Trace fossil association characteristic of the
Nereites ichnofacies 1. Spirorhaphe, 2.
Uroheiminthoidea, 3. Lorenzinia, 4.
Megagrapton, 5. Paleodictyon, 6. Nereites, 7.
Cosmorhaphe (2) ................................................... 71
Figure 3.30 Trace fossil association characteristic of the
Psilonichnus ichnofacies: 1. Psilonichnus, 2.
Macanopsis (2) ...................................................... 72
Figure 3.31 Schematic representation of the relationship of
the characteristic trace fossils to sedimentary
facies and depth zones in the ocean (2)................. 75
Figure 3.32 Bioturbation features ........................................... 75
Figure 4.1 Examples of range, lineage and interval zones
(Article 51, Kind of Biostratigraphic Units) (2).... 82
Figure 4.2 Examples of assemblage and abundance zones
(Articles 51) (2) ..................................................... 83
Figure 4.3 Types of Interval Zone ........................................ 86
Figure 5.1 Palynological zone on Java ................................ 146
Figure 6.1 Principle of lithocorrelation ................................. 156
Figure 6.2 Lithocorrelation (Case study 1) ........................... 156
Figure 6.3 Lithocorrelation (Case study 2) ........................... 157
Figure 6.4 Principle of biocorrelation ................................... 158
Figure 6.5 Stratigraphic section showing occurrence of
Lepidocyclina and Miogypsina in Upper
Miocene sediments, Ketindingan Field (1) ........... 161
Figure 6.6 Geologic time-table calibrated in absolute age
(North American Geology) .................................. 163
Figure 6.7 Principle of chronocorrelation ............................. 164

xiii
Figure 6.8 Chronocorrelation with flattening on Top Early
Miocene (Te5) (Case Study)............................... 164
Figure 6.9 The correlation can lead to constructing of
facies changes during the time (Case Study) ....... 165
Figure 6.10 Lithocorrelation may be not equivalent to
chronocorrelation (Case Study) ........................... 166
Figure 7.1 Profile of Delta System........................................ 167
Figure 7.2 Distribution of Foraminifera (F) and
Ostracodes (O) in the western part of the
Mahakam Delta (6) ............................................... 168
Figure 7.3 Models of Cenozoic larger foraminifera
distribution in carbonate fasies (6) ........................ 180
Figure 7.4 Species diversity ( α diagram) showing fields
defined by α value for benthic foraminifera
assemblages from known environment (5) .......... 189
Figure 7.5 Shell type ratio triangular diagram showing
fields defined by benthic foraminifera
assemblages from known environment (5) .......... 190
Figure 7.6 E. huxleyi and others, Gephyrocapsa oceanica
and Florisphera profunda diagrams for
depositional environment interpretation
(2)
(Okada,1992) .................................................. 192
Figure 8.1 Typical distribution of microfossils in cutting
and resulting imprecise interpretation (non-
marine, baren intervals obsrcured by cavings
from overlying marine beds (Contaminated
sample)(1) ............................................................ 197
Figure 9.1 Comparison of relative abundancy, range,
datum levels and succession (modification from
Kellen, 1981) (1) ................................................... 202
Figure 9.2 Idealized depositional sequence model
(simplified from Haq, Hardenbol and Vail,
1987.(1) ................................................................. 206

xiv
TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. What’s biostratigraphy?

Biostratigraphy is stratigraphy based on paleontologic aspect of


rocks, or stratigraphy with paleontologic methods. The concept of
biostratigraphy is based on the observation that organism have
undergone successive changes throughout geologic time. Thus, any unit
of strata can be dated and characterized by its fossil content.
Biostratigraphy is refered as a sub-discipline of sedimentary geology
that relies on the zonation of biota, both in time and space, in order to
establish the relative stratigraphic position (i.e. older, younger, same
age) of sedimentary rocks between different geographic localities (4).
The characterization, separation, differentiation and correlation of
rocks unit on the basis of the description and study of their fossils
content are called biostratigraphy. This term was proposed by Dollo, in
1904 in a wider sense for the entire research filed in which
paleontology exercises a significant influence upon historical geology
(1), (2)
.
Stratigraphy based on the paleontologic characteristics of
sedimentary rocks is also referred to as stratigraphic paleontology. It is
defined as the study of fossils and of their distribution in various
geologic formations, emphasizing the stratigraphic relation (time and
sequence) of the sediment rocks in which they are contained (1), (2).

1.2. Biostratigraphy as a component of stratigraphy

The succession of rocks exposed at the surface of the Earth can be


arranged into a stratigraphyc column, with the oldest rocks at the base
and the youngest one at the top. Although the absolute age has been
determined from radioactive studies, it is customary to use the name of
stratigraphic units, mostly distinguished on the basis of differences in

1
their included fossils. These units are arranged into a number of
hierarchies relating to rock-based stratigraphy (lithostratigraphy), fossil-
based stratigraphy (biostratigraphy) and time-based stratigraphy
(chronostratigraphy) (2).
Lithostratigraphy units, such as beds, members and formations,
are widely used in geological mapping. The biozone is the fundamental
biostratigraphyc unit and comprises those rocks that are characterized
by the occurrence of one or more specified kind of fossil known as zone
fossils (2).

Figure 1.1. Biostratigraphy as a component of stratigraphy

Formal chronostratigraphy units (sequence of rocks bounded by


time) are also important and include the age, epoch, period and era. For
example Atdabanian Age, Comley Epoch, Cambrian Period, Palaeozoic
Era. Rock units deposited during these times are properly reffered to as
stages, series, systems and erathem (2).
Separation of rocks units on the basis of fossils content
(biostratigraphy) may or may not yield stratigraphic units whose
boundaries coincide with the boundaries of lithic stratigraphy unit
(lithostratigraphy). In fact, a lithostratigraphic unit (such as Formations)

2
commonly can be subdivided by distinctive fossil assemblages into
several smaller biostratigraphyc unit. Indeed, one of the primary
objectives of biostratigraphy is to make possible differentiation of strata
into small-scale subunits (zones) that can be dated and correlated over
wide geographic area, allowing interpretation of Earth history within a
precise framework of geologic time. On the other hand, it is quite
common for biologically defined stratigraphyc units to span the
boundaries or formally defined lithostratigraphic units. Some
biostratigraphic units may thus include parts of two lithostratigraphic
units (members or formations), for example, or even encompass two or
more entire lithostratigraphic units (1).
Biostratigraphy is one of the most important tools for
chronostratigraphy, but bio- and chronostratigraphy are not the same.

Hypothetical Microfossil Signature of Cyclic Deposition


TOTAL PALEOBATHYMETRY
# NEW
ABUNDANCE TERTIARY REWORKED FORAM/ ABUNDANCE
GAMMA
SPECIES DISTRIBUTION CHART TOTAL
AGE MESOZOIC
NANNO
UVIGERINA
RAY
NANNOS NANNOS PEREGRINA
DIVERSITY TOPS

SEQUENCE
SCALE

ACME
ZONE
SMW
MAXIMUMFLOODINGSURFACE MFS

* LAD S.ABIES HST


CONDENSED SECTION
PEAK
MFS
TST

* FAD D. TAMALIS LSW


TROUGH

TRUNCATE PEAK SEQUENCE

BASINWARD SHIFT = SEQUENCE BOUNDARY


BOUNDRARY
BFF

FLOODINGSURFACE
HST
FLOODINGSURFACE

PARASEQUENCE
SCALE
FLOODING
SURFACE
FLOODING SURFACE DISTANCE
NOTE
DIACHRONOUS

AFTER HAQ, 1991


MODIFIED BY RFW 7/02

Figure 1.2. Biostratigraphy and related studies

1.3. Fossils in rocks

Fossils are remains, traces or imprints of a animals, plant sand other


organism that has been preserved in the Earth‟s crust since some past
geologic time. The fossils and their placement in rock formation and
sedimentary layers (strata) are known as the fossils record (2).
Fossils usually contains in sedimentary rock. Un like most
igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and
3
pressures that do not destroy fossils. The microfossils are perhaps the
most important group of all fossils. They usually occur in all kinds of
sedimentary rocks. They are most abundant and most easily accessible
fossils (2).
There are few sediments from which some kind of microfossil
cannot be retrieved, the kind depending largely on the original age and
depositional environment of the sediment. Hence when a geologist
wishes to know the age of the rock or depth and salinity of water under
which it was deposited, it to microfossils that he will turn for reliable
answer. Many geological surveys, oil companies therefore employ a
team of micropaleontologist to learn more about sedimentary rocks they
are studying. There are natural and social sides to subject, however. Our
understanding of the development and stability of the global ecosystem
as well as climate changes has much to learn from microfossil record.
The importance of understanding microfossils is further augmented by
recent discoveries in Precambrian rocks; microfossils now provide the
main evidence for organic evolution through more than three-quarters
of the history of life on the earth (2).

1.4. Major application of fossil studies to Earth Science


Research

Fossils studies seek informatioan about several aspect of identity


and origin their environment and evolution of past life. It contributes to
petroleum exploration, engineering and environmental or ecological
studies as well as in general geology (mapping). In sedimentary basins
analysis, the succession of evolutionary appearances and extinctions
(micropaleontology zonation) is used to dating or determine the relative
age of sediments (biostratigraphy). The comparison of composition of
fossil assemblages with modern fauna and flora environmental ranges
can help interpretations of ancient depositional environment (biofacies
analysis) (3). Besides useful in age dating and paleoenvironmental
reconstruction, microfossils are also extremely useful in correlation.
The studies of fossils provide insight to Earth and life history, and are
also important links to geological history and the mass extinction that
punctuate the geological record.
Biostratigraphy is obviously closely allied to
(micro)paleontology, and a skilled biostratigrapher must also be well-
trained (micro)paleontologist. In fact, the application of biostratigraphy

4
is for specialists who have intimate knowledge about complex field of
large group of organisms and their temporal and spatial distribution.
Besides biostratigraphy and biofacies, fossil studies are also useful
in earth science research, as described follow:
a) Paleoceanography - Temperature and current patterns of ancient
oceans can be determined by occurrence of fossil assemblage. For
example, if a species lived only in warm tropical waters, then its
presence can be used to trace the geographic extent of tropical
waters through time. Thus, species “b”, which has been found in
Campanian sediment only off the coast of present-day Florida,
range from Florida to New Jersey during the Maastrichtian. It is
conclude that in the region north of Florida, ocean temperatures
were warmer during the Maastrichtian than during the Campanian.
b) Paleobiogeographic – The ancient climates, species migration
patterns, and continental relationships can be determined by similar
fossils(6).

1.5. History of biostratigraphic studies

Although the basic rules of biostratigraphic zonation were


establish in the late 18th to early 19th centuries in Europe (ultimately
resulting in the development of the Relative Geologic Time Scale), the
implementation of biostratigraphic techniques was in use in the United
States during the early to mid-1800‟s (4), (5).
Some of the first geological surveys to be completed in the United
States included those of the New York State Geological Survey. These
surveys focused not only on New York‟s geological resources, but also
emphasized the establishment of spatial and temporal relationships of
stratigraphic units based on both lithologic and paleontologic
composition. By the mid-1800‟s the New York Surveys had resulted in
the development of relative stratigraphic zonation based primarily on
fossil distribution. New York localities are world famous for Cambrian
through Devonian strata and fossils. The Ordovician rocks of central
New York State contributed to the establishment on a North American
focused biochronology. The rocks found in the central New York
Mohawk River Region, by definition of their fossil content, are
established as belonging to the Mohawkian Series of the Upper
Ordovician Period. Based on the fosil taxa present in the Trenton
Limestone that their distribution or occurrence within the overall
5
succession of Upper Ordovisian strata, they establish as Upper
Ordovisian time scale (4), (5).
In Indonesia, the significant geological investigation using the
main biostratigraphic tool started around 1850. Martini (1919) use the
older the rocks, the lower the number of still living species and the
percentage of recent species of molluscs to determine relative ages.
Quaternary rocks are characterized by more than 70% recent species,
Pliocene 50-70%, Young Miocene 20-50%, Old Miocene 8-20%, and in
the Eocene no recent species could be found (3).
Van der Vlerk and Umbgrove (1927) introduced a larger
foraminifera zonation, the famous Letter-classification of the Far East
Tertiary based on sections from East Kalimantan. The letter stages were
defined by ranges of about a dozen larger foram genera. In the entire
Indo-Pasific province, this biozones (labeled Ta to Th) could easily
determine the age of shallow marine larger foram-bearing beds. Tan Sin
Hok (1927) proposed some modification of this biozones (3).
In the late 1950”s and 1960”s, planktonic foraminifera zonations
were developed. Bolli (1966) introduce this zonation to applied in
Indonesia on material from the Bojonegoro-1 well, NE Java. Since the
early 1970‟s planktonic foraminifera have been the major group used
for dating deep marine sediments (3).
The additions to the Indonesia biostratigraphy tool kit are the
applications of pollen-spores and calcareous nannofossils. Since early
1970‟s, a broad zonation of pollen and spores that developed from
Brunei and Sarawak material is proposed to date non-marine beds.
Although one of the first ever nannoplankton studies is from the
Moluccas (Tan Sin Hok, 1927), the current zonation is also an
”imported” method, in use here since the late 1970‟s as an additional
method to date open marine deposits (3).

References:
(1)
Bates, Robert L., and Jackson, Julia, A. 1987. Glossary of
Geology, Third Edition, American Geological Institute,
Alexandria, Virginia, 788
(2)
Brasier, M.D. 1985. Microfossils, Fourth Edition, George, Allen
and Unwin (Publisher) Ltd.
(3)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proceedings Indonesian Petroleoum
Association Seventeenth Annual Convention, Indonesia

6
(4)
http://www.mcz.harvard.edu/Departments/InvertPaleo/Trenton/In
tro/GeologyPage/Sedimentary%20Geology/biostrat.htm)
(5)
http://strats.home.xs4.all.nl/biostrat.htm
(6)
http:geology.er.usgs.gov/paleo/nannos.shtml

7
TOPIC 2
SAMPLES AND (MICRO)
FOSSILS ANALYSIS

2.1. Sample types

There are 2 types of sample in geological survey:


1. Subsurface sample (deeper geological sample):
a core sample, a cylindrical section are most obtained by drilling.
The core samples are taken by:
a. Drilling exploration where a rotating annular tool backed up by
the cylindrical core sample storage device is pressed against the
subject materials to cut out a cylinder of the subject material.
They obtained with their long axis oriented parallel to the axis
of a bore hole. Core can be cut up to over 150 mm in diameter,
with the length up to around 100 meters.
b. Gravity coring, in which the core sampler is dropped into the
sample, usually the bed of a water surface body soft materials on
land. They obtained parallel to the gravity filed for the gravity-
driven tools.
c. Sidewall coring.
Coring uses robust cylindrical bullets explosively penetrated
into the borehole wall to take (relatively) small, short core
samples from the wall of an existing borehole.
The other common samples are cutting samples what obtained
during coring process (drilling fluid).
2. Surface sample or outcrop sample
Samples obtained in geological survey (walk-over survey, studying
outcrop and landform).

8
Figure 2.1. Core samples

2.2. Analysis methods

Table. 2.1. Analysis methods in biostratigraphyc studies

Qualitative Semi-quantitative Quantitative analysis


Analysis analysis

Object Categories data Categories data on Categories data on the basis


on the basis of the basis of their of their absolute abundance in
identifying relative abundance determining specific
occurrences to determining properties and yield more
general properties accurate data (composition,
the amount of each
compound in the sample)

Data Non statistical Non statistical data Statistical data is


analysis data usually in the form of
tabulations (tabs).
Findings are conclusive
and usually descriptive
in nature.

9
Purposes Determining of Deteermination of Determining of age
age age
Interpretation of depositional
Interpretation of
depositional Sequence stratigraphic,
geohistory, geo-modelling,
etc.

2.3. Field geology

Figure 2.2. Detailed mapping and measuring stratigraphic sections


were undertaken in order to acquire relations between the widely
spaced outcrop sections in the study area, for establishing key
stratigraphic levels, which can be used for defining positions of
paleontological samples.(2)

Before the geologist leaves the field, he should make sure that this
field notes include full descriptions of rock units and structures in all
parts of the area he has surveyed; otherwise he will not able to write an
accurate report on them (1).
Lithologic description made on the basis of both a single outcrop
and a number of outcrops. The descriptions are more usable if
recorded in a fairly systematic way, as by the outline that follows:
1. Name of unit and/or brief rock name
2. Specific locality or area to which description applies
3. Thickness and overall structure or shape of units in this area
10
4. Main rock types and their disposition within unit
5. Gross characteristic of area underlain by unit (topographic
expression, color and type of soil, vegetation, nature of outcrop)
6. Characteristic structures of unit:
a. Range of thickness and average thickness of beds or other
layered structures,
b. Shape of beds or other structure – tabular, lenticular, lineate
etc,
c. Primary features within beds or other structures – grading,
lamination, cross bedding, chanelling, distorted flow
banding, inclusions, etc,
d. Characteristic secondary structures, especially cleavage and
prominent weathering effects)
7. Fossil (especially if a lithologic characteristic of unit):
a. Distribution of fossil
b. Special characteristic of fossiliferous rocks
c. Position and condition of fossil (growth position,
fragmental, rounded, pitted or fluted by sollution, external
or internal molds, etc)
8. Description of rocks, with abundant variety described first
a. Color, fresh and weathered (of wet or dry rock?)
b. Induration (of weathered or completely fresh rock?)
c. Grainsize (range of size and principal or median size)
d. Degre of sorting or equigranularity
e. Shape of grains
f. Orientations or fabric of shaped grains, especially in
relation to rock structures
g. Nature and amount of cement, matrix or groundmass, if any
h. Nature and amount of pores (porosity), and any infications
of permeability
i. Constitution of grains (mineral, lithic, fossil, glass) and their
approximate percent by volume
9. Nature of contacts
a. Sharp or gradational, with description and dimensions of
gradation
b. All evidence regarding possible unconformable relations
c. Criterion or criteria used in tracing contact in field
Fault, unconforminites and intrusive contact are example of
structure that are likely to required systematic and through description

11
in the field notes (1).

2.4. Collecting rock samples

Even though fairly through lithologic description are made in the


field, rock samples must be collected for a number of reasons, such as:
1) Many rock can be identified more exactly in the champ or office
where help may be had from a microscope or a more
experienced geologist.
2) Important mineral or fossil composition are best determined in
the labrotary (1).
Specimens should be broken directly from the outcrop.
Unweathered samples are generally prefered to weathered ones; the
ideal specimen has one weathered side but is otherwise unweathered.
Size spesification for samples vary with the grain size and
homogeneity of the rock. For homogeneous rock with grains smaller
than 1/16 inch, samples measuring about 3x4x1 in. Are generally
adequate, but rocks with grains as large as 1/8 inch, are likely to require
samples about twice that size. Still larger samples should be collected
if rocks are coarser grained or show such small-scale structures as thin
beds, veins etc (1).

2.5. Collecting fossils

Fossil are collected for 3 basic reasons :


1) To determine the geologic age and sequence of rocks
2) To correlate rock units with other fossiliferous rocks, and
3) To help in determining the environment of deposition
sediments.
Other, to indications of climatic condition of the past (1).
Each of these reasons is so important that fossil should be sought
in every kind of sedimentary and pyroclastic rock and when found
should be collected with care. Before beginning a field study, it should
be determine that kinds of fossil will be particularly useful (1).
Fossils are so scarce in some areas that finding them may be a
considerable problem. The initial search should be concertrated on float
and weathered outcrop surfaces because fossil that are nearby invisible
on a freshly broken surface generally weather so as to contrast with
12
their matrix. Typically, weathered fossil are light gray, pale, tan, or
white, though some may be colored dark gray or black by
carbonaceous materials. The fossil should be numbered, their location
marked on the map, and a note entered to describe their location and the
manner of their occurence (1).

2.6. Fossils content in sedimentary rocks

1. In the sequence of clastic non calcareous rocks, beds containing


such fossils as mollusc, echinoderms and large foraminifera
typically stand out as relatively resistant calcareous ribs. The
fossil may also occur in calcareous concretions. Weathered
outcrop surfaces of these rocks are irregulary fluted and here and
there a particulary well-perserved fossil may be etched into relief.
2. In the sequence of limestones, sandstones and calcareous shales,
such fossil as algae, mollusc, coral, echinoderms, brachiopods and
foraminifera are likely to form massive relief accumulations
(bioherm) or thin, richly fossiliferous bed. This structures should
be sampled critically because large and spectacular specimens
consisting mainly of algae and corals may not be diagnostic.
Well-preserved fossils of floating or swiming invertebrates like
ammonites and foraminifera, as well as thin-shelled animals like
trilobite, are be sought in bedded shales and fissile or thin-bedded
limestone, while the delicate and important graptolites are
generally found in laminated shales or limestones that can be split
easily along bedding planes.
3. In non marine lacustrine, fluviatile, or deltaic deposits in
sedimentary and volcanic rocks, remains of the valuable
terrestrial vertebrates occur most frequently. These rocks are
commonly varicolored in shades of red, green, maroon or gray.
4. In shales, mudstones, siltstones, chalks, and friable siliceous or
tuffaceous rocks, microfossils is usually occur. These samples are
washed and sieved in the laboratory, and a binocular microscope
is used to pick the fossils out of the other clastic materials. Bulk
samples of nonfriable limestone and calcareous shales may be
collected for conodonts, diatoms and radiolaria because this
noncalcareous fossils can be separated by decomposing the rocks
in acid. Microscopic spores and pollen can also separated in this
way; they are most likely to occur in fresh, dark gray
13
(carbonaceous) shales and limestones. Foraminifera are leached
quite rapidly from porous rocks; therefore apick, mattock, or
some other entrenching tool must be used to cut down to fresh
(typically gray) rock.
5. Shales with gypsiferous crusts on their fractures are likely to be
barren of usable calcareous microfossils (1).
Fossil from unconsolidated Tertiary and Quarternary sediments can
be distinguished from modern specimen by:
1. their greater weight and
2. by the fact they do not give off a strong odor when held to a
flame (1).
If fossil are already loose, we may packed in a great deal of soft
paper and transported; but if they are found in an outcrop, they should
be removed carefully from their soft matrix. When fossil occur in a
firm matrix, it is better to collect them with some matrix rather than to
try to work them free in the field. This saves the fossils from being
spoiled by crude trimming technique and also protect them during
transport (1).
Each specimen should then be placed in a sample bag and marked
as described in the next section. In camp, specimens may be cleaned
and trimmed if a small hammer, sand bag, shellac and brushes are
available; however, specimens that are scarce, unussually well
preserved, or likely to be critical in age determination should be left (1).

References:
(1)
Compton, Robert R. 1961. Manual of Field Geology, Wiley
Eastern PVT. Ltd., Publisher, p. 1-20
(2)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya. 2012. Micropaleontology Research,
Academic Forum Seminar, Chiba University, unpublished

14
TOPIC 3
FOSSILS IN
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
STUDIES
3.1. Type of fossils: macrofossils, microfossils, and
tracefossils / ichnofossils

Fossils are remains, traces or imprints of a animals, plant sand other


organism that has been preserved in the Earth‟s crust since some past
geologic time.
1. Macrofossils are the fossils remain large enough to be observed by
direct inspection or naked eyes.
2. Microfossils
Microfossils are the small fossil remains that typically can be
studied only microscopically (by microscope or hand lens), include
protists, animals and plants. Unlike macrofossils, they are not
grouped according to their relationships to one another, but only
because of their generally small size and methods of study. Rock
samples must be processed in certain ways to remove them
(preparation) and microscope must be used to study them. For
example, fossils of foraminifera, diatoms, very small invertebrate
shells or skeletons, and pollen-spores (19). The study of microfossils
is properly called micropaleontology.
These groups are frequently of great value, because:
a. They can commonly be separated from rocks that are
otherwise unfossiliferous
b. Their large numbers and widespread distribution make them
ideal for biostratigraphic studies, and
c. They may be separated from drill core and cutting (5).
The larger microfossils can be seen readly with unaided eye and
can be identified approximately with hand lens. Examples of these
are the large foraminifera (fusulinids, nummulites, and orbitoids),
the ostracods, and larger conodonts. This fossil are most likely to
occur in limestones, shales and cherts (both bedded and nodular),
15
but they also occur in various sandstone. If friable clastic rocks, the
large foraminifera may be concentrated in more firmly cemented
calcareous layers or concretions (5).
Smaller microfossils range from size that can be seen readily with a
hand lens down to truly microscopic forms. The commonest of this
spores, pollen, small foraminifera, radiolaria, conodonts and
diatoms. This fossil is usually worthwhile collecting samples of
shales, mudstones, siltstones, chalks, and friable siliceous or
tuffaceous rocks. These samples are washed and sieved in the
laboratory, and a binocular microscope is used to pick the fossils
out of the other clastic materials. Bulk samples of nonfriable
limestone and calcareous shales may be collected for conodonts,
diatoms and radiolaria because this noncalcareous fossils can be
separated by decomposing the rocks in acid. Microscopic spores
and pollen can also separated in this way; they are most likely to
occur in fresh, dark gray (carbonaceous) shales and limestones.
Foraminifera are leached quite rapidly from porous rocks;
therefore apick, mattock, or some other entrenching tool must be
used to cut down to fresh (typically gray) rock (5).
3. Trace Fossils/Ichnofossils
The burrowing, boring, feeding and locomotion activities of
organism can produce a variety of trails, depressions, and open
burrows and borings in mud or semi-consolidated sediment
bottoms. Filling of these depressions and burrows with sediment of
a different type or with different packing creates structures that
may be either positive-relief features, such as trails on the bases of
overlying beds, or features that show up as burrow or bore fillings
on the tops of the underlying mud bed. Burrows and borings
commonly extend down into beds; therefore, these structures are
not exclusively bedding-plane structures. Tracks, trails, burrows,
borings and other structures made by organisms on bedding
surfaces or within beds are known collectively as trace fossils, also
referred to as ichnofossils, or lebenspuren (2).

16
Figure 3.1. The kingdom of live (3)

3.2. Foraminifera
1. Description
Foraminifera are a microfossil group, generally between 0.1 and
1 mm in size, average between 0.3 and 0.4 mm (fine sand
sized). This order are single-celled belonging to Subkingdom
Protozoa, Kingdom Protista. (von Eichwald, 1830) (13).
This cytoplasmic body enclosed in test or shell of one or
more interconnected chambers; wall may be homogeneous or of
similar or unlike layers or laminae, may be imperforate or finely
to coarsely perforate, basically proteinaceous but may have
agglutinated particles, or may deposit the mineral calcite,
aragonite, or rarely silica on the organic base, calcareous wall
may be porcelaneous, microgranular, or hyaline and optically or
ultrastructurally radiate or granular; canal or stolon system of
varied complexity may be present; commonmy test has one or
more main apertures through which pseudopodia protrude.
Sexual and asexual generatio may be suppressed; gametes
biflagellate, triflagellate, or amoeboid.

17
2. Signifance of Foraminifera
Foramifera live in Cambrian to Holocene. They are free-living
or rarely parasitic; benthic and attached or motile, or pelagic (8).
The foraminifera are almost entirely marine animals,
though a very few live in brackish or even fresh water. It
developed a test, either of agglutinated foreign material, or of
chitin, or of calcareous material secreted by the animal it self (6).
3. Sample preparation
Sample processing is relatively simple. Rocks are boiled in
hydrogen peroxyde or detergent to desintegrate the clays, clay is
washed off over a fine mesh sieve (63um), and foraminifera can
be picked with a fine brush or needle from the remaining
residue, or directly identified and recorded, under a 10 to 60x
magnification stereo microscope. Foraminifera in cemented
rocks (limestones, hard sandstones) need to be studied in thin
sections. Preservation is best in claystones. Calcareous tests may
be dissolved in some claystones rich in organic matter (prodelta)
or in rocks subjected to surface weathering (17).

3.2.1. Planktic foraminifera


1. Description
Planktic forams have thin, porous tests and live free floating in
the upper few 100 meters of the oceanic water column. They are
abundant in deep marine deposits, unless significant carbonate
dissolution takes place. In shallow marine deposits (50-100 m or
less) only impoverished assemblages are found, age
determination of which can be difficult (17).
2. Applications
The most comprehensive illustrated texts on tropical Tertiary
planktonics are Blow (1969, 1979), Stainforth et a1. (1975) and
Kennett and Srinivasan (1983). Species distribution changes
with latitude, but in the tropical belt more or less the same
assemblages are found worldwide. The rapid succession of
evolutionary appearances and extinctions in low latitudes
allowed the development of a high-resolution zonation system,
mainly between 1956 and 1969. Incursions of higher latitude
(colder water) species into the tropical belt can be used to
reconstruct paleoclimate changes (Van Gorse1 and Troelstra
1981 for an example from Indonesia), or for local correlation
18
purposes ("acme zones"). Among the vast literature good
introductory texts are Loeblich and Tappan (1964) and Haynes
(1981), while Barker (1960) and Belford (1966) illustrate most
of the species common in the Indonesian Neogene (17).

3. The identification key

Table 3.1. The identification key for genus and species of


Cretaceous (4)
1. Test trochspiral
1.1 Primary aperture umbilical-extraumbilical
1.1.1. With sutural supplementary apertures at umbilical
(Rotaliporinae) chamber spherical, without keel: Ticinella
With keel: Rotalipora
1.1.2. Without supplementary aperture at umbilical
a. Without keel (Hedbergellinae)
With lip: without relict aperture at spiral side:
Hedbergella
With lip: with relict aperture at spiral side: Loeblichella
With tegilla and infralaminal aperture accessories:
Globotruncanella
b. With 1 or 2 keel (composed of: pustules and/or
imbrication)
(Marginotruncaninae)
b.1. radial sutura, depressed at umbilical side
- with lip or portici, 1 keel: Praeglobotruncana
- with lip or portici, 2 keels: Dicarinella
- with tegila and infralaminal aperture accessories:
Abathomphalus
b.2. Sutura sigmoid at umbilical side, 2 keels:
Marginotruncana
1.2 Primary aperture umbilical
1.2.1. no distinctly keel or present fairly 2 keels, sutura radial at
umbilical side (Rugoglobigerinae)
Primary aperture nearly extraumbilical with portici:
Whitenella
Primary aperture umbilical with tegilla without costellae:
Archeoglobigerina
Primary aperture umbilical with tegilla with:
Rugoglobigerina
1.2.2. with 1 or 2 keel
Sutura sigmoid at umbilical side, tegilla with infra and

19
intralaminal aperture accessories: Globotruncana
2. Test early portion trochospiral later planispiral, aperture
extraumbilical, tending to become equatorial.
2.1. Chamber elongated with a hollow bulb-shape or spine-
like extension in equatorial plane: Schackoina
2.2. Chambers elongated, some or all chambers of the last
whorl with two or occasionally more, hollow bulb-shape
extension on each side of the equatorial plane:
Leupoldina
3. Test planispiral
Primary aperture equatorial bordered by a lip, with relict aperture:
3.1. With keel: Planomalina
3.2. Without keel:
Chamber globular to ovale: Globigerinelloides
Cahmber radial-elongae: Hastigerinoides

Table 3.2. The identification key for genus and species of


Cenozoic (15)
I. Test planispiral throughtout
A. Apertur equatorial
1. chambers spherical to ovate (early stage may be slightly
trochospiral
- Hastigerina THOMSON, 1876
2. chambers spherical in early stage, in adult radially elongate or
clavate
- Clavigerinella BOLLI, LOEBLICH and TAPPAN, 1957
3. chambers subglobular or radially elongate with tubulospines
- Hantkenina CUSHMAN, 1924

B. Primary aperture equatorial in position with secondary multiple


areal apertures consisting of small rounded openings above the
primary aperture, chambers sub globular with tubulospines
- Cribrobantkenina THALMANN, 1942

II. Test planispiral in early stage, becoming enroll biserial in adult


Aperture in young stage equatorial, in adult extraumbilical,
chambers globular to ovate
- Cassigerinella POKORNY, 1955

III. Test trochospiral throughout


A. Aperture umbilical
1. without bulla(e)
20
a. aperture with or without a thin lip, no secondary apertures
present
- Globigerina D‟ORBIGNY, 1826
b. aperture covered above by a flap or umbilical tooth, no
secondary apertures present
- Globoquadrina FINLAY, 1947
c. aperture (primary) with or without a thin lip, with sutural
secondary apertures
- Globigerinoides CUSHMAN, 1927
d. aperture in adult replaced by multiple sutural secondary
apertures
- Candeina D‟ORBIGNY, 1839

2. with bulla(e)
a. primary aperture in final stage covered by a single
umbilical bulla, with one or more infralaminal secondary
apertures (no sutural secondary apertures) – Catapsydrax
BOLLI- LOEBLICH and TAPPAN
b. primary aperture in final stage covered by an irregular
bulla expanding along the earlier sutures, with numerous
infralaminal secondary apertures (no sutural secondary
apertures) – Globigerinita BRONNIMANN, 1951
c. primary aperture in final stage covered by an umbilical
bulla, one or more sutural secondary apertures are present,
which are usually covered by sutural bullae, with
infralaminal secondary apertures – Globigerinoita
BRONNIMANN, 1952

B. Aperture extraumbilical-umbilical, without bulla(e)


a. without sutural secondary apertures
chambers ovate to angular rhomboid or angular conical,
with or without a single keel – Globorotalia CUSHMAN,
1927
adult chambers radially elongate, clavate or cylindrical –
no keel – Hastigerinella CUSHMAN, 1927
b. with sutural secondary apertures on the spiral side –
Truncorotaloides BRONNIMANN and BERMUDEZ,
1953

IV. Test trochospiral in early stage, last chamber(s) embracing partly or


completely the trochospiral stage which shows an umbilical aperture
1. without bulla(e)
21
a. early stage Globigerina-like, final chamber, provided with
sutural secondary apertures, embracing, umbilical region
– Globigerapsis Bolli, Leoblich and Tappan,
1957
b. early stage Globigerinoides-like, final chamber, provided
with sutural secondary apertures, embracing umbilical
region
– Orbulinoides Blow and Saito, 1968 or
– Praeorbulina Olsson, 1964
c. initial stage Globigerina-like, final chamber embracing
nearly or completely initial stage; aperture areal over a
great part of the test, small sutural secondary apertures
around the early Globigerine chambers where these are
visible – Orbulina D‟Orbigny, 1839
2. with bulla (e)
a. early stage Globigerina –like, enveloping final chamber
covering previous umbilical side, with sutural secondary
apertures, which are covered by small bullae, each with one
or more infralaminal openings
– Globigerinatheka Bronnimann, 1952
b. like Globigerinatheka, buth with the sutural bullae more
irregularly distributed and later chambers provided with
secondary areal apertures covered by small knobby pustule-
like bullae ; all bullae may have infralaminai openings
– Globigerinatella Cushman and Stainforth,
1945
3. with or without bulla(e)
early stage Globigerina-like, in final stage two or three embracing
chambers with one or more sutural secondary apertures, which
may be obscured by overchanging chamber flanges. Wall
structure in later chambers complex, consisting of more than one
layer of shell material – small bulla(e) may occasionally be
present.
- Sphaeroidinella Cushman, 1927

V. Test Trochospiral in early stage, becoming streptospiral in adult. In


young stage Globigerina- like with open umbilicus, in later stage no
umbilicus is present as axis of coiling changes.
- Pulleniatina Cushman, 1927

22
Table 3.3. The identification key for genus and species of Pliocene
to Recent (16)

1. Test surface rough under light microscope (spine, spine bases,


granules, pustulosus)
1.1 Spine visible on living or well-preserved specimens, spine-bases on
most specimens.
Located interporate area (Hastigeriniidae, Globigerinidae)
1.1.1. Spines or spine bases restricted to distal end of chambers
(Hastigerinidae)
a. Globular to subglobular chambers, planispiral
coiling (Hastigerina): H. pelagica, H.
parapelagica
b. Elavate chambers, streptospiral coiling
(Hastigerinopsis): H. digitiformans
1.1.2. Spines or spine baseson all portion of test wall
(Globigerinidae)
a. Primary aperture only
a.1. radially elongate chambers
low trochospiral (Globigerinella): G. adamsi, G.
aequilateralis, G. calida, medium trochospire or
streptosspire, (Bella): B. digitata
a.2. globular or spherical chambers (Globigerina): G.
antartica, G. bermudezi, G. bulloides, G. decoraperta,
G. falconensis, G. quinquiloba, G. umbilicata
b. Supplementary aperture present
b.1. spherical to globular chambers
single spherical chambers (Orbulina): O. universa, O.
suturalis
subglobular chambers (Sphaeroidinella): S. dehiscens,
excavate
subglobular – spherical chambers (Globigerinoides): G.
conglobatus, G. elongates, G. fistulosus, G. obliquus, G.
pyramidalis, G. ruber, G. sacculifer
1.2 Pustules or granules visible under light microscope on test
surface, no spines or spine bases (Globorotalidae)
1.2.1. Surface granular, coarsely pitted
a. Pustules present only near aperture
Apertural tooth present (Globoquadrina): G.
conglomerate, G. pseudofoiliata
No apertural tooth (Globorotaloides): G.
hexagana
b. Pustules not prominent (generaly with apertural
23
tooth) (Neogloboquadrina) low to medium
trochospire: N. asonoi, N. eggeri, N. humerosa,
N. pachyderma, N. pseudohumerosa, N.
humiensis
Medium to high: N. dutertrei
1.2.2. Surface postulate
a. Peripheral keel absent
Singular pustules (Globorotalia): G. hirsute, G.
inflate, G. oceanica, G. scitula, G. tosanensis, G.
hessi, G. ronda
Multiple pustules (Neocarinina): N. blowi
b. Peripheral keel present (Globorotalia (keeled)):
G. frimbiata, G. flexuosa, G. menardii, G.
tumida, G. pertenuis, G. theyeri, G.
truncatulinoides, G. cultrate, G. ungulate, G.
viola
2. Test surface smooth to shiny under light microscope
(microgranular).
2.1 Surface visible perforate (Globorotalidae)
2.1.1. Trochospiral coiling, non keeled (Globorotalia): G.
bermudezi, G. crassaformis, G. inflate, G. planispira
2.1.2. Streprospiral coiling (Pulleniatina): P. finalis, P.
obliqueloculata, G. primalis, G. praecursor
2.1.3. Chambers flanges (Sphaeroidinella): S. dehiscens, S.
excavate
2.2 Surface looking imperforate (Candenidae, Heterohelicidae)
2.2.1. trochospiral coiling
a. Primary aperture with bulla
Strongly inflated chambers (Globigerinita): G.
glutinata, G. iota, G. uvula, G. minuta
Weakly inflated subglobular or radial elongated
chambers (Turborotalita): T. humilis
b. Primary aperture extraumbilical (Berggrenia): B.
praepumilio, B. pumilio, B. riedelli
c. Sutural aperture (Candeina): C. nitida
2.2.2. biseral coiling (Streptochilus): S. tokelauae

24
4. Marker Planktic Foraminifera in Indonesia (Case Studies)

In many Middle Miocene fine clastic sedimentary samples of


Jatiluhur Formation in Lulut area (claystone, siltstone and
sandstone intercalations), some planktic index foraminifera taxa
were recorded (11). Based on identification of planktic foraminifera
reffered to Postuma (1971), Saito et al (1981), Kennett and
Srinivasan (1983) and Bolli and Saunders (1996), the features of
index fossil are:
a. Globigerinoides primordius Blow and Banner
Test low trochospiral, unequally biconvex. Equatorial profil
elongate, equatorial periphery distinctly lobulate, axial
periphery rounded. Wall perforate, surface pitted. Chambers
inflated, subglobular, arranged in two to three whorls, three and
a half to four chambers in the final whorl, increasing rapidly in
size as added. Sutures of the spiral and umbilical side depressed,
radial to slightly curved. Surface on final chambers finely
hispid. Umbilicus small, narrow. Primary aperture
interiomarginal, umbilical, a low to medium arch, bordered by
faint rim. A single small, secondary sutural aperture is present
on spiral side.
b. Globigerinoides ruber (d‟Orbigny)
Test medium, low to high trochospire, equatorial periphery
distinctly lobulate, axial periphery broadly rounded. Chambers
highly inflated, spherical, arranged in three and half to four
whorls; with three subspherical chambers in the final whorl,
increasing moderately in size, are distinctly separated. Sutures
on spiral and umbilical side subradial to radial, distinctly
depressed. Surface coarsely perforate, surface pitted. Umbilicus
narrow. Primary aperture interiomarginal, umbilical, with a
medium arched opening bordered by a rim. Secondary /
supplementary sutural apertures, small, situated opposite sutures
of earlier chambers. This species is distributed stratigraphycally
in Late Middle Miocene Zone N.15 to Recent, widely
distributed in warm subtropical to tropical waters.
c. Globorotalia continousa Blow

25
Test low trochospiral, equatorial periphery lobulate, axial
periphery rounded, chambers subspherical to ovate, four in the
final whorl, increasing rapidly in size. Sutures on spiral and
umbilical sides radial, depressed. Surface coarsely pitted.
Umbilicus narrow, deep. Aperture interiomarginal, umbilical-
extraumbilical, a rather low arch bordered by a distinct rim. This
species is distributed stratigraphically in Early Miocene (N.4) to
Late Miocene (N.16) within tropical to cool subtropical waters.
d. Globorotalia siakensis (LeRoy)
Test very low trochospiral, equatorial periphery lobulate; axial
periphery broadly rounded, Wall rather coarsely perforate,
surface smooth. Chambers inflated, subglobular, slightly
embracing, arranged in about three whorls. The five to six
chambers of the last whorl increase regularly in size. Sutures on
spiral and umbilical side radial, depressed. Umbilicus fairly
narrow to deep. Aperture interiomarginal, extraumbilical-
umbilical, a fairly narrow, elongated arched opening, bordered
by a faint lip or rim.
e. Globorotalia mayeri Cushman and Ellisor
Test very low trochospiral, inflated. Equatorial periphery
lobulate. Axial periphery broadly rounded. Wall rather coarsely
perforate, surface smooth. Chambers inflated, subglobular,
arranged in about three whorls. The five to six chambers of the
last whorl increase regularly in size. Sutures on spiral side
slightly to moderately curved, depressed. On umbilical side
radial depressed. Umbilicus is fairly wide and deep. Aperture
interiomarginal, extraumbilical-umbilical, with a large, high
arch, bordered by a lip or rim.
f. Hastigerina siphonifera (d‟Orbigny)
Test planispiral in adult stage, trochospiral in early stage,
evolute. Equatorial periphery distinctly lobulate, axial periphery
rounded. Wall perforate, surface finely pitted, may be slightly
hispid. Chambers globular to subglobular, arranged in about
three and a half whorls. The five to six chambers of the last
whorl increase rapidly in size. Sutures radial, depressed.
Aperture in later stage interiomarginal, equatorial, a broad arch,
bordered by a faint rim.
g. Orbulina suturalis Bronnimann

26
Test almost globular, early stage trochospiral. Wall distinctly
perforate, surface moderately pitted. Chambers spherical. The
much inflated final chamber not entirely enveloping the early
part of the test. Transitions from forms in which the last
chamber envelope about 75% of the earlier part to forms in
which the earlier chambers are only just visible have been
observed. Primary aperture interiomarginal, umbilical in the
early globigerine stage; in the adult areal with small openings,
which are scattered over the wall of the last chamber. Small
sutural secondary openings are present in the suture separating
the last chamber from the penultimate and earlier chambers (11).
From the Late Miocene of central Bogor Through in Java, a total of
four planktic foraminifera marker species have been selected; among
all: Globorotalia acostaensis, Globorotalia plesiotumida,
Globorotalia tumida, and Sphaeroidinella dehiscens(10). Systematic
description and synonym of these marker species refers to Postuma
(1971), Stainforth, et al. (1975), Saito, et al. (1981), Kennett and
Srinivasan (1983), Bolli and Saunders (1986), and Loeblich and
Tappan (1988) are as follows:
a. Globorotalia acostaensis Blow, 1959
Synonym:
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis Blow in Banner and
Blow, 1967
Globoquadrina continuosa (Blow) in Parker, 1967
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis acostaensis Blow in
Blow, 1969
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis tegillata Bronnimann
and Resig, 1971
Description:
Test: thick discoidal low trochospiral; equatorial periphery
lobulate; axial periphery rounded. Spiral outline subcircular,
strongly lobate; side profile parallel-side with blunty rounded
periphery, thickness more than half diameter. Wall: distinctly
perforate, rather thick, pustulose around umbilicus; Surface of
wall: pitted. Chambers: ovate to subspherical, arranged in about
three to six whorls, with five to six chambers in last whorl,
increasing regularly in size. Often the last chamber is much
reduced in size and occasionally somewhat displaced towards the
umbilical side. Sutures: straight, on spiral side radial to slightly

27
curved, depressed; on umbilical side radial, depressed, more
distinct than on spiral side. Umbilicus: indistinct, narrow, deep.
Aperture interiomarginal, extraumbilical-umbilical, a low arch,
usually bordered by a distinctive lip or rim. Size: diameter 0.25
to 0.5 mm.
b. Globorotalia plesiotumida Blow and Banner, 1965
Synonym:
Globorotalia (Globorotalia) tumida plesiotumida Blow and
Banner in Banner and Blow, 1965
Globorotalia tumida plesiotumida Blow and Banner in Bolli,
1966
Globorotalia plesiotumida Blow and Banner in Bermudez and
Bolli, 1969
Description:
Test a lenticular, very low trochospiral, rimmed by blunt keel,
unequally biconvex, compressed; equatorial periphery slightly
lobulate, equatorial profile ear-shaped, last chamber projecting
noticeably; axial periphery acute with a distinct keel, axial
profile biconvex, slightly more inflated on umbilical than on
spiral side. Wall finely perforate; surface are mostly smooth,
densely, but granules are developed on the area of the wall of the
first three chambers which immediately faces the aperture.
Chambers compressed, arranged in three whorls; the five to six
chambers of the last whorl increase somewhat irregularly in size
as added, especially in radial length. Sutures on spiral side
curved, limbate; later depressed to sunken, oblique to recurved,
coalescing into keel, ones becoming almost sub-radial; their
distal parts being strongly curved, flush to raised; on umbilical
side incised, radial, almost straight, to slightly curved, shallowly
depressed. Umbilicus: narrow to closed, deep, umbilical
shoulders developed only on last three chambers. Aperture:
interiomarginal, extraumbilical-umbilical, a rather low arch from
umbilicus almost to keel, bordered by a thick lip along whole
length. Size: diameter 0.5 to 0.7 mm.
c. Globorotalia tumida (Brady, 1877)
Synonym:
Pulvinulina menardii tumida Brady, 1877
Globorotalia tumida (Brady) in Cushman, 1927

28
Globorotalia (Globorotalia) tumida tumida (Brady) in Banner
and Blow, 1965
Globorotalia tumida tumida (Bardy) in Bolli, 1970
Description:
Test: a large, moderately low trochospiral, biconvex; spiral side
more convex than umbilical side, compressed; equatorial
periphery subcircular to slightly lobulate in the final stage,
equatorial profile ear-shaped, slightly lobate; axial periphery,
tumid trochospire rimmed by heavy, acute with a massive keel,
axial profile rhomboid to dropshaped. Wall: finely perforate,
thick; Surface of wall: smooth except for the umbilical side of
the early chambers of the last whorl and the umbilical margins of
the later chambers, centered on umbilicus, which are heavily
pustulose. Chambers: compressed, arranged in about three
whorls; the six chambers of the last whorl increase regularly to
irregularly in size as added, especially in radial length. Sutures:
on spiral side limbate, initially smoothly curved, later more
sharply curved to hooked obliquely backwards, coalescing into
thick keel, their proximal ends almost straight and nearly radial,
their distal ends re-curved almost tangentially to the periphery,
raised; on umbilical side almost radial to slightly sinuous,
depressed. Umbilicus: fairly narrow, deep. Aperture: a slit or low
arch between umbilicus and keel, interiomarginal,
extraumbilical-umbilical, a rather high arch, partially bordered
by a broad, thick lip or flap. Size: diameter 0.7 to 1.0 mm.
d. Sphaeroidinella dehiscens (Parker and Jones, 1865)
Synonym:
Sphaeroidina bulloides dehiscens Parker and Jones, 1865
Sphaeroidinella dehiscens (Parker and Jones) in Bolli, Loeblich
and Tappan, 1957
Sphaeroidinella dehiscens excavata Banner and Blow, 1965
Sphaeroidinella dehiscens dehiscens (Parker and Jones) in Blow,
1969
Description:
Test: trochospiral, compact; equatorial periphery very slightly
lobulate; axial perpihery rounded. Gross from egg-shaped,
gashes by apertural slits. Wall: primarily coarse perforate,
covered by secondary layers of shell material greatly reducing
the external openings of the pores of the primary wall or sealing

29
them; Surface of wall: smooth and glassy in appearance.
Chambers: subglobular, becoming increasingly embracing in the
adult, arranged in about three whorls; the three chambers of the
last whorl increasing raidly in size, sometimes relative sizes
variable and trochoid pattern not obvious, only last 3 chambers
visible externally. Sutures: indistinct, radial, slightly depressed to
flush where not modified by apertures, typically smooth and
vitreous owing to secondary covering, but abrasion or solution
may reveal coarsely perforate, almost latticelike primary shell.
Primary aperture interiomarginal, umbilical; one or two sutural
secondary apertures on opposite side of the final chamber are
present. Umbilicus: a deep irregular pit. Apertures: primary
aperture umbilical extended by reentranta along intercameral
sutures; secondary/supplementary apertures of similar aspect also
on spiral side, at least in adults. Apertures may be partially
obscured or with lips variying from the smooth or crenulate rims
overhanging chamber flanges. Size: diameter commonly to 1.0
mm (10).

30
Table 3.4. Range of selected planktic foraminifera marker
(Blow, 1979) (1)

31
continued:

32
a. Globigerinoides trilobus c. Globigerinoides conglobatus

b. Globigerinoides sacculiferus

Figure 3.2. Globigerinoides - Cenozoic planktic foraminifera (9)

a. Globorotalia menardii b. Globorotalia sp

Figure 3.3. Globorotalia - Cenozoic planktic foraminifera (9)

33
a. Neogloboquadrina dutertrei b. Neogloboquadrina humerosa

Figure 3.4. Neogloboquadrina - Cenozoic planktic foraminifera (9)

Orbulina universa

Figure 3.5.Orbulina universa - Cenozoic planktic foraminifera (9)

34
Figure 3.6. Pulleniatina obliqueloculata - Cenozoic planktic
foraminifera (9)

a. Globoquadrina altispira conica b. Globoquadrina altispira altispira

Figure 3.7. Globoquadrina - Cenozoic planktic foraminifera (9)

3.2.2. Benthic foraminifera

1. Significance of Benthic Foraminifera


Smaller benthic (or benthonic, bottom-dwelling) foraminifera are
found from brackish coastal waters (marginal marine waters) down
to the deepest marine environments. Most species have a calcareous
test, some benthic species have a test of cemented very fine sand or
silt grains (agglutinated or arenaceous foraminifera). More than

35
40000 species have been determinate. This group used in the
Tertiary of Indonesia foraminifera are the most versatile, providing
both age and paleoenvironmental information. Composition of
modern assemblages is known to change with water depth, salinity,
substrate, etc. Most species live on the sediment surface (epifaunal),
some on sea-grasses (epiphytic; planoconvex Cibicides, Discorbis,
etc.), some dig into the upper centimeters of unconsolidated mud
(infaunal; some Rotalia, Ammonia, buliminid and bolivinid species)
(17)
.

2. Benthic Foraminifera in Indonesia (Case Study)


Some benthic foraminifera are common in surface sediment from
Tambelan Sea. (8)

a. Amphistegina sp b. Operculina ammonoides (Gronovius)

c.Eponides repandus (Fitchtell and Moll)

Figure 3.8. Benthic foraminifera taxa (8)

36
3. The Identification Key

Table 3.5. Description of benthic foraminifera genera which


cosmopolitan in Neogene sediment in Indonesia (1)

37
38
39
40
3.2.3 Larger benthic foraminifera

1. Description
Larger foraminifera have large, complex calcareous tests (generally
2-5mm in diameter; giant variants of Cycloclypeus, Eulepidina and
Nummulites more than 5 cm).
2. Significance of Larger benthic Foraminifera
External features or random thin sections generally allow
identification at the species level, but oriented thin sections through
the embryonic stage are usually required for determination of species
or degree of development within an evolutionary series. They live in
shallow, clear, tropical or subtropical marine waters, and are often
associated with coral reefs. Some are bottom dwellers, others live
attached to sea grasses. Most, or all, have a symbiotic relationship
with algae or diatoms and are thus restricted to the photic zone (17).
References to most papers on Indo-Pacific Tertiary larger forams can
be found in Adams (1970, 1983) (17).

41
Table 3.6. Range of selected larger foraminifera marker species (1)

42
3. Larger benthic foraminifera in Indonesia (Case Study)
Larger benthic foraminifera associated with small form planktic
foraminifera which have calcareous test, are dominantly calcitic, were
well-preserved in limestone of Klapanunggal Formation in Lulut area
(11)
. According to taxonomic method by Cushman (1959), some larger
benthic foraminifera can be identified as follows:
1. Milliolid
Foraminifera belonging to the Suborder Miliolina have test wall
structure is described as porcelaneous, and it has a distinctive
appearance, being yellow or brown when viewed with plane-
polarized light and showing anomalous low birefrigence with
polars crosses, sometimes characterized by lost and walls appear
micritic. Adams and Mackenzie (1998) reported that the miliolids
are dominantly a Mesozoic and Cenozoic group. Scholle (1978)
recorded Milliolids are especially common in slightly restricted
back-reef or bank facies.
2. Nummulites spp
Test compressed, small, trigonal or suborbicular in plan. Surface
papillate. Embryonic apparatus excentric in position, composed of
two equal or subequal chambers, around which there are several
chambers whose features are intermediate in character between
the embryonic and the usual equatorial chambers. The early
chambers may be distinctly spiral in arrangement, later growth
mostly on only a segment of the periphery, and thereby
producting a triangular outline, or cyclical, but greater on one
than on the other side of the nucleoconch. A spiral canal and
interseptal canals are present. Equatorial chambers rhomboid or
elongate hexagonal. A net of canals in the chamber walls. Lateral
chambers well-developed. Pillars present; terinating in surface
papillae. They are disc-shaped and have a hyaline wall composed
of radial calcite, individual crystal being orientated with their long
axes at right angle to the wall. Cushman (1959) observed
Nummulites spp. in Oligocene-Miocene sediment.
3. Amphistegina spp. d‟Orbigny, 1826.
Test usually lenticular, trochoid, often involute on the dorsal side
in the adult, ventral side with supplementary chambers more or
less irregularly rhomboid. Sutures with a pronounced angle. Wall
calcareous, finely perforate, without a true secondary canal
system. Aperture small, ventral, the wall granular about the

43
opening. Amphistegina spp. occur in the Eocene to Recent
sediment (Cushman, 1959).
4. Operculina spp. d‟Orbigny, 1826
Test billaterally symetrical, planispiral, complanate, usually all
coils visible from the exterior, earlier coils sometimes involute,
chambers undivided, periphery with thickened marginal cord.
Wall calcareous, perforate, smooth or ornamented with bosses.
Aperture single, at the base of the apertural face, median.
Cushman (1959) found this taxa in Lower Cretaceous to Recent
material.
5. Cycloclypeous spp. W.B. Carpenter, 1856
Test in the young of the microspheric from like Operculina, early
chambers simple, later chambers annual, divided by radial
portions into rectangular chamberlets, test discoidal and much
compressed. According to Cushman (1959), Cycloclypeous spp.
lives in Tertiary to Recent (11).

Figure 3.9. Planktic Foraminifera Orbulina universa and


globigerinid form (a); Miliolids benthic foraminifera (b) in
mudstone from Lulut area (11).

44
Figure 3.10. Nummulites sp. (a) and miliolids benthic foraminifera
(b) in wackstone (11).

Figure 3.11. Amphistegina sp. in wackstone from Lulut area (11).

Figure 3.12. Operculina sp. (a and b) in packstone from Lulut area


(11)
.

45
Figure 3.13. Larger foram in packstone from Lulut area (11).

3.3. Invertebrate Fossil


The marine invertebrata fossils assemblage, such as Molluscs
(Gastropods, Pelecypods), Brachiopods, Coelenterata (anthozoa –
tetracoralia or rugosa, hexacorallite or zoanthariata, tabulata) were
found in organic clastic and biogenic limestones as well as clastic
sedimentary rocks in Lulut area.
1. Molluscs occupy habitats ranging from the deep ocean to shallow
waters in moist terrestrial niches.
a. Gastropods
Gastropods shells are nearly all made wholly of aragonite,
although there are a few with mixed mineralogy, comprising an
outer layer of calcite and an inner layer of aragonite. Shell
structures are cross-lamellar. In the samples, there are a thick-
shelled gastropods; in a number of places a trace of crossed-
lamelar structure is visible. Adams and Mackenzie (1998)
reported that Gastropods occur throught the Phanerozoic, but are
most abundant in Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments.
b. Pelecypods (= Bivalves)
All have shells composed of two piece known as valves. In the
most, the valves are of similar size. The shells vary greatly in
size, color and ornamentation. Bivalve shells can be wholly
aragonite, wholly calcite or a mixture of the two, and shell
structures also vary. Wall structure are foliated, prismatic,
crossed-lamelar and homogeneous. In the sample, there are shells
with fairly well-preserved structures from dominating calcite
46
shells, thick-shelled bivalve; outlined by a thin dark line probably
a micrite envelope. Lamellibranchiata can be identified, as
bivalve with two flat, lamelliform gills on each side of the body.
According to Adams and Mackenzie (1998), this taxa are being
present in marine environments since the Cambrian and in non-
marine environments since the Carboniferous.
2. Brachiopods
Articulate brachiopods have calcite cells and thus the primary wall
structure was preserved in samples. The shells identified by the large
pedicle valve, smaller brachial valve and their attachment. The wall
is impunctate, fairly thick made a foliated layer consisting of fine
fibres or prisms arranged with their long axes at a low angle to the
lenght of the shell wall. Some pseudopunctate have spines on both
valves. Adams and Mackenzie (1998) reported that this taxa are
major contributors to the bioclastic content of shallow marine
limestone, especially in Palaeozoic.
3. Coelenterata
The scleractinian coral, with hard parts composed of aragonite was
recorded in the limestone. Larger pieces can be recognized from
their size and gross morphology. Adams and Mackenzie (1998)
observed corals from Cenozoic limestone (11).

3.4. Algae
The green algae (Division Chlorophyta) and red algae (Division
Rhodophyta) comprise two major groups of the Kingdom Plantae
whose colour differences arise from their different photosynthetic
pigments. Both divisions of algae range from unicellular to complex
multicellular species. Their abundance in limestone, plus their general
ecological value, make these calcareous aglae a significant part of
micropaleontological inquiry (3).
1. Red-brown algae
The calcareous dark red-brown algae, exhibit many different
external forms, such as encrusing, nodular and branching,
segmented types, show fine cellular structure were founded in
limestone. Some alga are cylindrical branched, segmented, with a
poorly preserved internal structure, but apparently having walls of
microgranular or finely fibrous carbonate. They are classified as
red algae. Adams and Mackenzie (1998) reported that coralline

47
algae are being especially abundant in Cenozoic reefs and
associated environment (11).
2. Blue Green Algae
There was also found plants with numerous branches, the stem is
calcified with its central cell cavity surrounded by smaller cortical
cell cavities. They are classified as green algae. Adams and
Mackenzie (1998) found it in fresh or brackish water environment
(11)
.
a. Description: The cyanophyta are usually called blue-green
algae on account of the colour imparted by the
photosynthetic pigment phycocyanin. The living
cyanophyta may also be olive green or red. Cyanophytes
have relatively small cells, mostly less than 25 mikron in
diameter. These may be spherical (coccoid), ovoid,
discoidal, cylindrical or pear-shaped (pyriform) in outline.
The cell has nearther nuclear membrane, mitochondria nor
contractile cell vacuoles. The phycoxyanin and chlorophyll
pigments are distributed in lamellae around the edges of the
cell. Cells have a single (unicellular) or colonial
organization (bound by an outer mucilaginous sheath of
cellulose fibrils). The arrangement of cells in a colony may
be regular to irregular (flat, cuboid, spherical) uniseriate
filamentous or branched filamentous that compreise the
trihome. Cyanophytes construct organic materials from
inorganic ones by photosynthesis, evolving free oxygen in
the process. As these sheaths are of resistant cellulose, it has
a change of preservation in the fossil record. Classification:
Kingdom Monera, Division Cyanophyta, Class:
Cyanophyceae (3).

48
Figure 3.14. Cynophyte sedimentary structure (a) Stromalite type of
vertical section, (b) Girvanella tubes in skeletal oncolite, (c)
Ortonella tubes in skeletal oncolite, (d) section through endolithic
cyanophyte boring and skeletal envelopes (3).

b. Age: These have had an extensive geological history,


ranging back to some of the oldest known Precambrian rock
(3200 Ma before present). Their evolutionary significance
as Precambrian and Early Paleozoic zone fossils (3).
c. Environmental: Cyanophytes are very self-sufficient
organisms. They can tolerate extremely low oxygen
concentrations and some can live anaerobically.
Cyanophytes have a wide resistance to high and low
temperatures, ranging from polar climate to hot thermal
springs. Their lack of cell vacuoles give them great
resistance to desiccation and plasmolysis, hence their
presence in arid deserts, glacial regions, hypersaline seas
and freshwater lakes. They prefer neutral to alkaline
environments and never more acid than pH 4.0. The
photosynthetic pigment is sensitive to blue light and can
work under very low light concentrations. Cyanophytes
having been found living some 300 mm below soil the
surface on land and at depth of 1000 m or more in oceans.
These involved in the construction of organo-sedimentary
structures (stromalites and thrombolites), terrestrial
49
calcareous crust (travertine and tufa) and in the precipitation
and degradation of carbonate sediment in shallow marine (3).

Figure 3.15 (a) and (b) Microscopycally limestone features consists


algae (9).

3.5. Nannofossils
1. Description
Calcareous nannofossils (or coccolithospores) are extremely small
calcite plates that cover golden algae, unicellular planktonic protists
with chrysophyte-like photosynthetic pigments of algae
(coccolithophorids). This single-celled algae live only in the oceans.
Coccolithospores differ from most other Chrysophyta in having two
flagella of equal length and a third whip-like organ called a haptonema.
The group is an important component of the oceanic phytoplankton
providing a major source of food for herbivorous plankton. Because
they are plants they need sunlight, so they float near the surface of the
water. There are billions and billions of them living in the oceans today,
and they are eaten by anything that is bigger than they are. They are one
of the primary organisms at the base of the food chain (18) (3).

50
Figure 3.16. Coccolith (a) Recent coccolithosphore Cycloccolithina
with coccolith shields, (b) side view of Cyclococcolithina coccolith
with cross section, (c) Pseudoemiliania distal view, (d) same from
proximal shield, (e) Helicopontosphaera, (f) Zygodiscus, (g)
Prediscosphaera proximal and side view, (h) Braadosphaera, (i)
Rhabdosphaera side view, (j) Discoaster (3).

These algae make tiny calcite platelets called cocoliths (3-5


mikronmeter in diameter) inside their cells, and these platelets (the
calcareous nannofossils or nannos for short) move to the surface of the
cell. No one is certain why these platelets are formed, but after a while
they fall off the cell and slowly drift down to the ocean floor to build
deep-sea oozes and fossil chalks. These platelets land on the bottom of
the ocean, they are slowly covered up with remains of other plants and
animals and bits of mud and sand that have washed out with the rivers
of the world. At this point they are part of a mud or marl or sandy clay.
Eventually, there are many sediments on the ocean bottom, and their
weight is enough so that the lowest sediments are squeezed enough to
become rocks. If these rocks are almost entirely made of nannos, they

51
are a chalk. If there aren‟t so many nannos, they can be part of a
limestone or shale (18) (3).
These calcite platelets are preserved in the rocks and are the
fossils. Being both abundant and relatively easy to recover from marine
sediments, coccolith have been used increasingly for biostratigraphyc
correlation of the post-Triassic rock in which they occur (18) (3).

2. Significance of Nannofossils
Calcareous nannofossils have been living in the world oceans for
at least 200 million years (from the Triassic Period), and they have
evolved and changed constantly over time. For example, if a
paleontologist looks at an ocean bottom sediments from 1 million years
ago and compares it to a sediment that was deposited 60 million years
ago, most of the nannos in the two samples will be completely different
species. A calcareous nannofossils specialist can look at ocean bottom
sediment from anywhere in the world that was deposited less than 200
million years ago (one which does contain calcareous nannofossils) and
be able to tell you how old that sediment is. And he/she would be
accurate within 1-4 million years or even less (18).
They are useful for dating open marine beds, the same facies in
which planktonic foraminifera occur, and with a similar zonal
resolution. Used in conjunction with planktonic foraminifera, higher
resolution may be obtained than with either method alone. As a result of
their small size (around 10 microns) only a very small amount of
sample material is needed, which is useful in the study of sidewall
cores. When working with cuttings, however, it becomes very critical
which chips of rock are selected for processing: if recirculated sediment
is used, the floras studied may have little relation with the depth on the
sample bag (18).
A disadvantage of their small size is that traces of drilling mud on
a sample may contaminate a sample significantly. Field samples also
can easily be contaminated by dirty collecting tools, hands or natural
processes (runoff, wind).

3. Sample Preparation
Processing of samples is fast and simple: a small amount of material is
scratched off a rock sample (marl or clay), and, with some water
smeared over a glass slide. Identification requires a transmitted light
microscope with 400 – 1000 x magnifications and with polarization and

52
light contrast equipment. A Scanning Electron Microscope may be
needed for the determination of some species. Useful reviews of
nannofossils are Hay (1977) and Perch-Nielsen (1985) (18).

Figure 3.17. Calcareous nannofossils zonal marker of the Pliocene


and Pleistocene (14)

53
Figure 3.18. Calcareous nannofossils zonal marker of the Miocene
and Pliocene (14)

4. Marker Nannofossils in Indonesia Basin (Case Study)


For the Miocene interval of East Java a total of fifteen calcareous
nannofossil marker species have been selected; among all: Sphenolithus
ciperoensis, Cyclicargoltihus abisectus, Discoaster druggi,
Sphenolithus heteromorphus, Sphenolithus belemnos, Calcidiscus
macintyrei, Helicosphaera ampliaperta, Discoaster kugleri, Discoaster
hamatus, Discoaster neohamatus, Discoaster bellus, Discoaster
neorectus, Discoaster quinqueramus, Amaurolithus primus, and
Discoaster berggrenii.(12)

54
Systematic description of these marker species refers to Perch-Nielsen
(1985) and Bramlette and Wilcoxon (1967) are as follow:
a) Sphenolithus cipoeroensis Bramlette and Wilcoxon, n. sp.
Sphenolithus are very important for the subdivision of the
Oligocene to Early Miocene, which otherwise has few short-lived
forms or new forms with a wide distribution (Perch-Nielsen,
1985). Sphenolith small, with nearly uniform taper from base to
tip of apical spine; about 10-12 spines around the distinctly
depressed basal area. Apical spine pointed in most specimens but
slighty to strongly bifurcate in some otherwise identical forms.
The spine consist of coalesced units of calcite of slightly different
orientation (obvious with superimposed quartz plane), hence does
not normally show complete extinction between crossed nicols of
the apical spine in the position parallel to either nicol. Although
small, this form is conspicuous between crossed nicols, having a
particulary distinctive appearance with length of specimen and
apical spine at 450 to either nicol. A bifurcation of long, slender
branches can be seen; the angle between the branches seems
about 120°.
b) Cyclicargoltihus abisectus (Muller)
This species is the largest form of Cyclicargoltihus, but usually
smaller than D.bisectus which it co-occurs. The central opening is
oval to subround and small. The extinction lines between the wall
and the shields are typically disjunct, whereas they are curved but
continuous in D.bisectus and C.floridanus.
c) Discoaster druggi Bramlette and Wilcoxon
This species usually has 6 arms that may be blunty rounded,
truncated or notched at the tips. The central area is broad and
nearly flat and the arms taper slightly. It has a wide inter arm
area.
d) Sphenolithus heteromorphus Deflandre
This species has a more compact proximal shield and column,
where the columb and the lateral element are about equal in
height. It is formed by the basal quadrants instead of by the apical
complex. Sphenolithus heteromorphus looks like a butterfly when
seen between crossed nicols at 0° and has a very bright apical
spine at 45° (Perch-Nielsen, 1985). The appearance between
crossed nicol is characteristic, parallel to and at 45 0 to the nicols.
Study at various orientations in a viscous medium shows that a

55
series of eight or nine spines surround the depressed basal area
lacking spines, with radiating shorter spines above producing the
black cross between crossed nicols when the single big apical
spine is at extinction position. This apical spine varies markedly
in lengthband robustness (Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967).
e) Sphenolithus belemnos Bramlette and Wilcoxon, n. sp.
Sphenolithus is small with a narrow proximal column. This
species is characterized by its dart-shaped outline in side view,
with depressed base constructed of about 10-12 spines that
constitute about one half to one third of the length. The proximal
columb is relatively high, and certainly higher than the cycles of
lateral elements. The apical spine is bright when the specimen is
seen at 45° and disappears between the bright lateral elements
when viewed at 0°. The spenolith shows a uniform taper up to the
pointed apical spine. Much shorter lateral spines, extending
upward, are indicated between crossed nicols in the position with
the main spine (apical) at extinction. This species is most
distinctive and easily recognized between cross nicols, particulary
with the apical spine parallel to either of the nicols and thus at
extinction.
f) Calcidiscus macintyrei (Bukry and Bramlette)
Calcidiscus includes round coccolithaceae with open or closed
central area and mainly Neogene round forms with a distal shield
and simple proximal shield. C.macyntyrei only if we find more
than 40 elements and not only a size larger than 10μm.
g) Helicosphaera ampliaperta Bramlette and Wilcoxon, n. sp.
This usual form of the genus is nearly oval in outline, normally
showing little of the terminal flare of the larger (distal) shield, and
with no bridge in the large oval central opening. There is thus
superficial similarity to occasional specimens of other species
which have had the central bar broken out. Lack of any central
bar is evident in that a population includes none with a bar, nor
any irregularity around the peripheral edge of the central opening.
Length 7 – 12 μ. This distinctive species is not easily recognized
as belonging to the genus, except in side view, or by the
characteristic extinction lines between crossed nicols in plan
view. It is, however, stratigraphically very significant because of
its wide geographic and rather restricted time range.
h) Discoaster kugleri Martini and Bramlette

56
Specimen typically with stubby ray, less than half the diameter of
the central part. Tips slightly notched and thicker than the central
area of the asterolith, as is indicated by brighter, more condensed,
lighting near the tips of the rays. This species typically has 6
short, stubby arms. They are slightly notched and the central area
does not carry a central knob. It noted has a relatively large
central area, a knob on both sides and short arms, by the lack of
central knob and the lack of a bifurcation at the tip of the arms.
i) Discoaster hamatus Martini and Bramlette
This species is a large, 5-armed form with small knob in the
centre. The arms are long, somewhat curved, and turn sharply
clockwise and downward near the end, as viewed on the convex
side. A much smaller knob is usual as a bifurcation, although it
appears to be continuation of the main part of the arm as it
extends in the same direction.
j) Discoaster neohamatus Bukry and Bramlette
D.neohamatus differs from D.hamatus by having 6 arms instead
of only 5. This species has slender, tapering and terminally bent
arms. The outer ends of which consistently are bent in one
direction and terminate in points. The central area is very small
and no knob is present. In overgrown specimens, the arms appear
to be more bent than in better-preserved specimens.
k) Discoaster bellus Bukry and Percival
This species is a relatively small, simple 5-armed from lacking a
central knob. The arms taper slightly and terminate in points.
D.bellus is consistently smaller than D.hamatus and lack the tip
turned to the side of that species.
l) Discoaster neorectus Bukry
This species is a gigantic, 6-armed species with a small, twisted
central knob but no separately marked central area. The arms are
long and symmetrically arranged and tapering to a simple point.
m) Discoaster quinqueramus Gartner
This species has 5 tapering, long non-bifurcating arms arranged
symmetrically and robust central area with very prominent, 5-
armed central knob.
n) Amaurolithus primus (Bukry and Percival)
Amaurolithus contains the horseshoe-shaped coccoliths which
show no birefringence between crossed nicols. A.primus, the

57
oldest ceratolith, is a small, crescent-shaped from with short
horns and an extended apical region.
o) Discoaster berggrenii (Bukry)
This species is a symmetric, 5-armed from with tapering arms and
a very prominent knob consisting of the inwardly directed
prolongations of the ridges on the arms on one side and of ridges
extending from the interarm area over a depresses central area to
form a central knob (SEM in Perch-Nielsen, 1985) on the other
side. The free length of the arms is about equal to the diameter of
the central area, whereas it is longer in D.quinqueramus, which
has thinner arms and less prominent knobs.(12)

3.6. Pollen and spores.


1. Description
Pollen grains are very small, as a rule averaging between one
hundredth and one tenth of a millimeter in diameter. Easily carried out
by the wind, some of them are transferred into higher regions by
vertical air currents and remain there for days, week, or even months,
before they settle back to earth. In the meantime this plankton of air
may have moved over great distance (7).
The majority of pollen grains have two coats – an outer, the exine,
and an inner, the intine (Fritzche, 1837). The intine is not found in the
fossil state, at least not in peat, clay, brown-coal, etc. The extine consist
of two layers: extenxine and mesexine (7).
Pollen grains may broadly be grouped in three classes according
to their general shape: 1) tricolpote radiosymetrical grains with three
furrows, 2) monocolpate bilateral grains with one furrow, and 3)
acolpote grains without furrows. Tricolpate grains are found mainly in
dicotyledons, monocolpate grains in monocotyledons and
gymnosperms. Acolpate are rarer than monocolpate grains; they occur
in gymnosperms and angiosperms, both monocotyledons and
dycotyledons (7).
The spores of bryophytes and pteridophytes may also grouped
into three classes: 1) trilete radiosymetrical spores with a triradiate scar,
2) monolete bilateral spores with a single unbranched scar, and 3) alete
spores without scars (7).

58
Figure 3.19 Morphology and terminology of trilete spores (3).

Figure 3.20. Morphology and terminology of monolete spores (3).

59
Figure 3.21. Morphology and terminology of tricolpate and related
pollen grains (3)

2. Significance of Pollen and Spora


Pollen and spores can be very abundant in terrestrial and near shore
marine deposits. They from land plants and trees are the main group
of microfossils used for dating alluvial and coastal plain deposits.
Diversity in the Far Eastern region is extremely high; the number of
Recent taxa alone is about 30000 (Haseldonck 1977). For many
forms it is uncertain from which plants they were derived and what
their ecologic and stratigraphic distribution is (17).
3. Sample Preparation
Sample processing is elaborate, and includes treatment of rock with
various acids, centrifuging and sieving. Due to the small size (mainly
in the 20-40 micron range), cleaning of equipment can be difficult,
and contamination of samples is not uncommon (17).

3.7. Ostracods

1. Description
Ostracodes are small crustaceans with bivalve mollusc-like
calcareous shells. It is small laterally compressed Crustacea enclosed
within a protective shell. This shell is formed by two chitinous or
calcareous valves that hinge above the dorsal region of the body.
2. Significance of Ostracods
Ostracods have adapted to various niches in the ocean plankton, on
the sea floor, in freshwater ponds and even in humid forest soils.
60
They are commonest, however, as shallow marine benthic, where
they may number only less than the foraminifera amongst the fossil
microfauna. They live in fresh, brackish and marine waters and can
be observed in many samples, although rarely as frequent as
foraminifera. Processing of samples is the same as for foraminifera
(3) (17)
.
This group is particularly useful for biozonation of marine strata on a
local or regional scale and second to none as indicators of ancient
shorelines, salinities and relative sae-floor depth. They have a long
and and well documented fossils record from the early Cambrian to
present day. Eventhough they are good facies indicators and some
species may have stratigraphic significance, but since the early
papers of Le Roy (1939) and Kingma (1948) little work has been
done in Indonesia (17).

3.8. Dinoflagellate cysts

1. Description
The Pyrrhophyta, known as dinoflagellates (meaning whirling
whips), are single-celled organism, generally between 20 and 150
mikronmeter long, with both plant and animal characteristics. They
are usually considered as plants, however because of the presence of
cellulose in the cell wall and chlorophyll pigments in the
protoplasma. It is the carotenoid pigments dinoxanthin and peridinin,
though, which give to these organisms the flame-like colours from
which they derive their formal, botanical name of Pryyhophyta
(meaning fire plants). The majority of dinoflagellates are equipped
with one whip-like and one ribbon-like flagellllum for propulsion
and have a prominent nucleus and a sculptured cell wall (3).

61
Figure 3.22. Dinoflagellates (a) Dinogymmium, a fossil
gymnodinialean cyst, (b) motile cell of Recent Peridinium, (c) cavate
cyst of Deflandrea, (d) motile cell of Recent Gonyaulax, (e)
proximochorate cyst of fossil Spiniferites, (f) proximate cyst of fosil
Gonyaulacysta, (g) chlorate cyst of fossil Hystrichospharidium, (h)
Nannoceratopsis, a fossil dinophysialean cyst(3).

2. Significance of Dinoflagellates
Both heterotrophic and autotrophic modes of nutrition occur,
although the latter predominate and have formed an important
contingen of oceanic phytoplankton since at least mid-Mesozoic
times. Although these motile cells are abundant and wide ranging, it
is resistant resting cyst which leaves a fossil record. Dinoflagellate
cyst (or dinocyst) have proved to be valuable tool for
biostratigraphy, but they have contributed less to ecological and
evolutionary paleontology (3).

62
Dinoflagellate cysts, made by extremely small planktonic algae, are
a relatively new tool in biostratigraphy. They are used successfully
in the Paleogene and Mesozoic marine beds in areas like the North
Sea. For the Cenozoic a broad "world-wide'' zonation was proposed
by Williams (1977), but there is no published information on
Indonesian samples to test its validity here. Sample processing is the
same as for spores and pollen. The presence of common
dinoflagellates in palynology slides is usually taken as evidence of a
marine depositional environment, although some freshwater
dinoflagellates are also known to make cysts (17).

3.9. Silicoflagellates

Figure 3.23. Silicoflagellates (a) living cell and skeleton of


Distephanus, (b) side view of Distephanus, (c) Mesocena, (d)
Dictyocha, (e) Corbisena, (f) Vallacerta, (g) Cannopilus, (h)
Navicupolis (3).

63
1. Description
The chrysophytes are protest with a distinctive golden colour
imparted by their photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylla a and c, B-
carotene, fucox-anthin and carotenoids). Most are unicellular but
there are some colonial forms. The motile cell may have either one
or two flagella of unequal length inserted at the apex. Several group
with siliceous or calcareous skeletons in this division are
paleontological interest: silicoflagellates, diatoms and
coccolithosphores (3).
2. Significance of Silicoflagellates
Silicoflagellates has been minor component of marine phytoplankton
since early Cretaceous time. There are only well preserved in
siliceous rock such as diatomites, though, and have been little used
expect in deep oceanic strata where they are now widely employed
both for correlation and for estimation of paleoclimatic condition (3).

3.10. Radiolaria

1. Description
Radiolaria are a group of small marine planktonic protozoans with
intricate siliceous tests. They are free floating protest with roughly
spherical cells and thread-like pseudopodia extending radially over a
delicate endoskeleton. These two groups of the Actinopoda differ,
however, in that modern radiolarian are entirely marine with
representatives in Cambrian times, whereas the Helizoa are an
exclusively fresh water subclass with no fossil representatives before
the Pleistocene (3) (17).
2. Significance of Radiolaria
They are rare in nearshore waters and are common mainly in open-
ocean, high biological productivity regions. For this reason they will
never become a widely used tool in oil-well biostratigraphy.
Radialarian are most useful for biostratigraphy of Mesozoic and
Cenozoic deep-sea sediments and have great potential as
paleoenvironmental indicators. In Indonesia the first study of fossil
radiolaria is by Tan Sin Hok (1927). Very little additional work was
done since. A commonly used zonation of the tropical Cenozoic is
that by Riedel and Sanfilippo (1978). (3) (17).

64
Figure 3.24. Radiolaria are found as zooplankton in the upper
layers of all oceans (9).

3.11. Diatoms

1. Description
The Class Bacillariophyceae is known as diatoms are unicellular
algae with chrysophyte-like photosynthetic pigments. They differ
from other chrrysophytes in lacking flagekka. The cell wall is
silicified to form a frustule, comprising two valves, one-overlapping
the other like the lidnof a pillbox or an agar dish. Diatoms occupy a
very wide range of habitat and may occur in enormous numbers in
diatomites. (3) .
2. Significance of Diatoms
This group of siliceous microfossils is tests of unicellular brown
algae, which live in a wide variety of (semi-) aqueous terrestrial and
marine environments, but are restricted to the photic zone (generally
100 m or less). Some species are planktonic, others are bottom
dwellers. Planktonic diatoms can be useful biostratigraphic markers,
but they are found only in open oceanic deposits, where other, higher
resolution dating tools are available (planktonic forams,
nannoplankton) This group is also valuable tools in
paleoenvironment studies. Little work has been done on fossil
diatoms in Indonesia, although one of the early classic studies is
from Java material (Reinhold 1937). Burckle (1982) is one of the
very few more recent papers (3) (17).

65
Figure 3.25. Pennate diatoms (a) Pinnularia, (b) Fragilaria, (c)
Achanthes (3)

Figure 3.26. Centric diatoms (a) Melosira, (b) Coscinodiscus, (c)


Actinoptychus, (d) Thalassiosira (3)

3.12. Trace of fossils


Trace fossils are not true bodily preserved fossils; that is, they do
not form by conversion of a skeleton into a body fossil. They are simply
structures that originated through the activities of organism (2).
Biogenic structure can be considered to include the following:
1. bioturbation structures (burrows, tracks, trail, root penetration
66
structures)
2. biostratification structures (algal stromatolites, gradded bedding
of biogenic origin)
3. bioerosion structures (boring, scapings, bitings), and
4. excrement (coprolites, such as fecal pellets or fecal castings) (2).
Trace fossils are classified into ichnogenera on the basis of
characteristics that relate to major behavioral traits of organism and are
given generic names such as Ophiomorpha. Distinctive but less
important characteristic are used to identify ichnospecies, eg.
Ophiomorpha nodosa (2).
Trace fossils are produced by a host marine organism such as
crabs, flatfish, clams, molluscs, worms, shrimps, etc. In non marine
environments, organisms such as insects, spiders, worms, millipedes,
snails, and lizard can produce a variety of burrows and tunnels;
vertebrate organism leave tracks; and plants leave root trace. The
organisms that produce trace are rarely preserved with the traces; thus,
the trace maker is commonly not known. Therefore, the names applied
to ichnogenera and ichnofacies generally do not refer to the trace
makers themselves (2).
Study of trace-fossil assemblages has commonly proven to be
more useful than study of individual ichnogenera or ichospecies. A
trace fossils assemblage is a basic collective term that embraces all of
the trace fossils present within a single unit of rock. Although various
kind of trace-fossil assemblages are recognized, grouping of trace
fossils into ichnofacies has particular significance in
(2)
paleoenvironmental studies .
Seilacher (1964, 1967) introduced the concept of ichnofacies to
describe associations of trace fossils that are recurrent in time and space
and that reflect environmental conditions such as water depth
(bathymetry), salinity, and the nature of the substrate in or on which
they formed (eg. mud vs sand bottom). Fundamentally, ichnofacies are
sedimentary facies defined on the basis of trace fossils, and each
ichnofacies may include several ichnogenera. Seilacher (1967)
established six ichnofacies. Four of these (Skolithos, Cruziana,
Zoophycos and Nereites) were based on the marine depth at which they
are interpreted to occur. The Glossifungites ichnofacies was established
for trace that occurred in firm to hard marine surface, and the Scoyenia
ichnofacies characterized non marine environment. Frey and Silacher
(1980) established the Trypanites ichnofacies for hardgrounds and

67
rockground. Bromley, Pemberton and Rahmani (1984) proposed the
Teredolithes ichnofacies for borings in wood (woodgrounds). Frey and
Pemberton (1987) established for the Psilonichus ichnofacies for
softgrounds in marine to non marine environment. Skolithos, Cruziana,
Nereites and Zoophycos ichnofacies have the great potential for
interpreting ancient marine environmental conditions (2).

Table 3.7. Principal ichnofacies (2)


Ichnofacies Substrate Environment Water Water Distinguishing
depth energy characteristics
Estuarine, Club-shaped, stumpy to
Teredolites Woodground nearshore - - elongate, subeylindrical to
marine subparallel borings
Trypanites Rockground Rocky coast, - - Cylindrical, tear, or U-
reefs, hard- shaped, vertical to
grounds branching borings
Horizontal to curved or
tortuous burrows, sinuous
Freshwater,
Scoyenia Firmground - - crawling traces, vertical
terrestrial
cylindrical to branching
shafts; tracks and trails
Glossifung Firmground Marine to Various Various Vertical, cylindrical, U- or
ites nonmarine tear-shaped borings and/or
densely branching burrows
J-, Y-, or U- shaped
burrows, vertical shafts
Psilonichn Softground Marine to
- - and horizontal tunnels,
us sand, mud nonmarine
tracks trails, root traces

Skolithos Softground sand Marine Beach High Vertical, cylindrical, or U-


shaped burrows, very few
horizontal burrows, low
diversity
Mixed association of
Softground Lagoon, Medium vertical, inclined, and
Cruziana Marine
sand, mud shelf to low horizontal structures; high
diversity of traces
Zoophycos Softground mud Marine Slope- Low Simple to moderately
abyssal complex grazing and
feeding structures;
horizontal to slightly
inclined feeding or
dwelling structures
arranged in delicate sheets,
ribbons, lobes, or spirals
Complex horizontal,
Turbidity crawling, and grazing
Softground Slope-
Nereites Marine current traces and patterned
sand, mud abyssal
event feeding/dwelling traces;
low diversity

Data from: BromIey et al., 1984; Frey and Seilacher, 1980; Frey and Pemberton,
1987; Pemberton et al., 1992; Seilacher, 1967

68
3.12.1. Skolithos Ichnofacies
- Trace fossil of this association are characterized especially by
vertical, cylindical or U-shaped burrows (e.g., Ophiomorpha,
Displocraterion and Skolithos).
- Overall diversity of ichnogenera is low and few horizontal
structures are present.
- This ichnofacies is developed primarily in sandy sediment where
relatively high levels of waves or current energy are typical.
- Organism in this environment construct deep burrows to protect
against desiccation or unfavorable temperature or salinity changes
during low tide, and as a means of escaping the shifting substrate
of the surface.
- The skolithos ichnofacies is typical of sandy shore line
environment, but it may grade seaward into shallow shelf
environments. It has also been reported from some deeper-water
environments, such as deep-sea fans and bathyal slopes (2).

Figure 3.27.Trace fossil association characteristic of the Skolithos


ichnofacies: Ophiomorpha, 2. Diplocraterion, 3. Skolithos, 4.
Moncraterion(2).

3.12.2. Zoophycos Ichnofacies

- The Zoophycos ichnofacies most typical of quiet-water


environments with moderately low oxigen levels and muddy
bottoms but can occur in other substrate.
69
- It is characterized by traces that range from simple to
moderately complex, such as Spirophyton.
- Individual traces may be abundant, but overall diversity is low.
- Sediments of Zoophycos ichnofacies may be totally
bioturbated.
- Although commonly considered to indicate deeper water, it is
know to occur also in shallow water. Thus, its value as a
paleodepth indicator is problematical.
- Its distribution appears to be tied more closely to oxigen levels
and bottom sediment type than water depth (2).
-

Figure 3.28. Trace fossil association characteristic of the Zoophycos


ichnofacies: 1. Phycosiphon, 2. Zoophycos, 3. Spirophyton (2).

3.12.3. Nereites Ichnofasies

- The Nereites ichnofacies is characteristic of deep water and is


apparently restricted to turbidite deposits.
- It is distinguised by complex horizontal crawling and grazing
traces and patterned feeding or dwelling structures.
- The ichnogenera are ornate and complicated, such as
Paleodictyon, Spirorhaphe and Nereites.
- Total diversity of traces is high, but the abundance of individual
traces is low.
- The Nereites ichnofacies develops initially in sandy (turbidite)
substrate but may later colonize parts of some muddy (pelagic)
deposits that form on top of sandy turbidites (2).

70
Figure 3.29. Trace fossil association characteristic of the Nereites
ichnofacies 1. Spirorhaphe, 2. Uroheiminthoidea, 3. Lorenzinia, 4.
Megagrapton, 5. Paleodictyon, 6. Nereites, 7. Cosmorhaphe (2).

3.12.4. Other Ichnofasies

- The Psilonichnus ichnofacies is a softground ichnofacies


developed under nonmarine to very shallow marine or quasi-
marine conditions. It is characteried by J-, Y-, or U-shaped
burrows of marine organism, vertical shafts, and horizontal
tunnel of insects and tetrapods; tracks and trail of insects,
reptiles, birds and mammals; and root traces.
- The other ichnofacies distinguished by development in firm
but uncemented substrates, rocky substrates, or woody material
(2)
.

71
Figure 3.30. Trace fossil association characteristic of the
Psilonichnus ichnofacies: 1. Psilonichnus, 2. Macanopsis (2).

- Scoyenia ichnofacies, which occur in both terrestrial and


aquatic environments, are characterized by diverse traces that
include small, horizontal, curved, or tortuous feeding burrows,
sinuous crawling traces, tracks, trail and vertical cylindrical to
irregular shafts.
- The Trypanites ichnofacies develops in fully lithified marine
substrates (beachrock, rocky coast, hardgrounds, reefs). Traces
include cylindrical, tear-, or U-shaped borings, commonly vertical
to branching, most of which are dwelling structures for
suspension-feeding organism.
- Other structures in this ichnofacies include rasping and scraping
traces made by feeding organism, holes drilled by predatory
gastroods, and microborings made by algae and fungi.
- The Glossifungites ichnofacies develops in a variety of marine
environment in firm, but unlithified substrates that typically
consist of dewatered, cohesive muds. It is characterized by
vertical, cylindrical, U- or tear-shaped borings and/or densely
branching burrows of the suspension feeders or carnivores such as
shrimp, crabs, worms and pholadid bivalves. Individual structures
may be abundant but diversity is low.
- Teredolites ichnofacies are restricted to woody substrates (so-
called woodground) commonly in estuarine or very nearshore
environment where substantial amounts of woody material can
accumulate on the bottom. The traces consist of profuse club-
shaped borings that may be stumpy to elongate and subcylindrical
72
to subparallel (2).

3.12.5. Significance of Trace Fossils


Trace fossils are useful for:
1. Paleoecological indicators; however, they are not infallible
paleodepth indicators.
a) In general, organism in the littoral or intertidal zones adapt to
harsh conditions resulting from high wave or current energy,
desiccation and large temperature and salinity fluctuations by
burrowing into sand to escape.Thus vertical and U-shaped
dwelling burrows, some with protective linings, characterize
the Skolithos ichnofacies of this zone.
b) The neritic zone or subtidal zone extending from the low-tide
zone to the edge of the continental shelf (at about 200 m
water depth) is a less demanding environment, although
erosive current may be present. Vertical dwelling burrows
and protected, U-shaped burrow are less common in this
zone. Burrows tend to be shorter, and surface marking made
by organism such as crustaceans (or trilobites during early
Paleozoic time) are more common.
c) In the deeper part of the neritic zone, organic matter becomes
abundant enough for sediment feeders to become established
and produce feeding burrows. In these deeper water, vertical
escape or dwelling burrows thus tend to give way to
horizontal feeding burrows. This zone of the ocean is
distinguish by the Cruziana ichnofacies.
d) The deep bathyal and abyssal zones of the ocean exist below
wave base where low energy conditions generally prevail,
although erosion and deposition can occur in this zones
owing to turbidity current or deep-bottom currents. Complex
feeding burrows, such as those of the Nereites ichnofacies are
particularly common in these zones.
Although each of these marine ichnofacies tends to be
characteristic of a particular bathymetric zone of the ocean,
the individual trace fossils can overlap depth zones. No single
biogenic stucture is an infallible indicator of depth and
environment. The basic controls on the formation of trace
fossils are not simply depth but include nature of the
substrate, water energy, rates of deposition, water turbidity,
73
oxigen and salinity levels, toxic substances, and quantity of
available food (2).
2. An indicator of relative sedimentation rates based on the
assumption that rapidly deposited sediments contain relatively
fewer trace fossils than slowly deposited sediments.
3. An indicator of continuous sedimentation or marked by erosional
breaks, and they provide a record of the behavior patterns of
extinct organism.
4. Paleocurrent analysis; study of the orientation of resting marks of
organisms that may have preferred to face into the current while
resting establishes the paleocurrent-flow direction.
5. Top and bottom orientation of beds, such as U-shaped burrows,
which opened upward when formed.
6. Biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic significance for zoning
and correlation, and
7. Recognition of bounding discontinuities between stratigraphic
successions(2).

74
1. Polydora, 2. Entobia, 3. Echinoid borings, 4. Tryparites, 5 and 6 Pholadid
burrows, 7. Diplocraterion, 8. Unlined Crab Burrow, 9. Skolithos, 10. Diplocraterion,
11. Thalassinoides,12. Arenicolites, 13. Ophiomorpha, 14. Phycodes, 15.
Rhizocorallium, 16. Teichichnus, 17. Crossopodia,18. Asteriacites, 19. Zoophycos, 20.
Spirohaphe, 21. Zoophycos, 22. Paleodictyon, 23. Taphrhelminthopsis, 24.
Helminthoida, 25. Spirohaphe, 26. Cosmorhaphe
Figure 3.31 . Schematic representation of the relationship of the
characteristic trace fossils to sedimentary facies and depth zones in
the ocean (2).

75
Figure 3.32. Bioturbation features (9)
References:
(1)
Anwar, Khoiril M. 1999. Panduan Praktikum Foraminifera,
Laboratorium Mikropaleontologi Institut Teknologi Bandung,
tidak dipublikasikan
(2)
Boggs, Sam Jr. 2006. Principles of Sedimentology and
Stratigraphy, Fourth Edition, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
07458, p. 102-112
(3)
Braiser, M.D. 1985. Microfossils, Fourth Edition, George, Allen
and Unwin (Publisher) Ltd
(4)
Caron, Michele. 1985. Cretaceous Planktic Foraminifera in
Plankton Stratigraphy, edited by Bolli, H.M., Saunders, J.B., and
Perch-Nielsen, K., Cambridge University Press, p. 17-86
(5)
Compton, Robert R. 1961. Manual of Field Geology, Wiley
Eastern PVT. Ltd., Publisher
(6)
Cushman, J.A. 1969. Foraminifera Their Classification and
Economic Use, within an Illustrated Key to The Genera, Fourth
Edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts
(7)
Erdtman, G. 1943. An Introduction to Pollen Analysis, Chronica
Botania Company, p 1-54
(8)
Isnaniawardhani, V. 2014. Tambelan Seas Quaternary Shallow
Marine Smaller Benthic Foraminifera
(9)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya. 2012. Micropaleontology Research,
Chiba University Academic Seminar, Japan, unpublished
(10)
Isnaniawardhani, V, Adhiperdana, B.G, Nurdradjat. 2013. Late
Miocene Planktic Foraminifera Biostratigraphy of Central Bogor
Through, Indonesia, Pustaka Ilmiah Universitas Padjadjaran,
http://pustaka.unpad.ac.id/archives/126510
(11)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya, Rinawan, Rusman and Prianggoro,
Bambang. 2012. The fossil assemblage features of limestone and
clastic sedimentary rock in Lulut Area, Cileungsi District, Bogor,
West Java, Bulleton of Scientific Contribution Volume 10,
Nomor 2, Agustus 2012
(12)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya, Suparka, Emmy, and Adisaputra,
Mimin K. 2013. Miocene Calcareous Nannofossil Biostratigraphy
of East Java, Indonesia, Procceding of the 9th International
Congress on Pasific Neogene Stratigraphy, Tsukuba, Japan
(13)
Loeblich, A.R. Jr. and Tappan, H. 1988. Foraminiferal Genera
and Their Classification, Jilid 1 and 2, van Nostrand Reinhold,

76
New York, 970 p.
(14)
Perch-Nielsen. 1985. Cenozoic Calcareous Nannofossils, in Bolli,
H.M., Saunders, J.B., and Perch Nielsen, K. (Eds.) Plankton
Stratigraphy, Cambridge University Press, p. 427-554
(15)
Postuma, J.A. 1971. Manual of Planktonic Foraminifera, Elsevier
Publishing Company, Amsterdam, London, New York, 398 p.
(16)
Saito, T., Thompson, P.T., Dee Breger. 1981. Systematic Index of
Recent and Pleistocene Planktonic Foraminifera, University of
Tokyo Press, 190 p.
(17)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proceedings Indonesian Petroleoum
Association Seventeenth Annual Convention, Indonesia
(18)
http:geology.er.usgs.gov/paleo/nannos.shtml
(19)
www.ucpm.berkeley.edu/fosrec.lipps.1.html

77
TOPIC 4
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNIT

4.1. Principles and Concepts


4.1.1. Principle of faunal succession
William Smith, in late 1700s, is credited with discovering the
fundamental principle of biostratigraphy. He noted that the same
distinctive fossil assemblages characterized each layer in stratigraphic
succession wherever it was found throughout the region. It utilized
fossils as a practical tool to characterizing, subdividing, and correlating
strata from one area to another. The rocks formed during any particular
interval of geologic time can be recognized and distinguished by their
fossils content from rock formed during other time interval. This
concept has consequently become known as the principle of faunal
succession (3).

4.1.2. Concept of stage


D‟Orbigny recognized that similarity of fossil assemblages was
the key to correlating rock units, but he further propose that strata
characterized by distinctive and unique fossil assemblages might
include many lithostratigraphic units (formations) in one place or only a
single formation or part of a formation in another place. He defined as
stages groups of strata containing the same major fossil assemblages.
The boundaries of d‟Orbigny‟s stage were defined at intervals marked
by the last appearance, or disappearance of distinctive assemblages of
life forms and their replacement in the rock record by other
assemblages (3).

4.1.3. Concept of zone


In 1856 Oppel conceived the idea of small-scale units defined by
the stratigraphic ranges of fossil species irrespective of lithology of the
fossil-bearing beds. Oppel found that the vertical ranges of some
78
species were very short. He found also that the assemblages of fossils
that characterized the strata were made up of overlapping ranges of
fossils. He defined his zone by exploring the vertical range of each
separate species. Each zone was characterized by the joint occurrence
of species not found together above or below this zone. Thus, the range
of some species began at the base of a zone (the first appearance of a
species), others ended at the top of a zone (the last appearance of a
species), whereas still others ranged throughtout the zone or even
extended beyond it. Oppel noted that using species ranges, the
boundaries between small-scale rock units could be delineated, and a
succession of unique fossil assemblages could be distinguished. A zone
represents the time between the appearance of species chosen as the
base of the zone and the appearance of other species chosen as the base
of the next succeeding zone, recognition of zones thus permits
delineation of clear-cut, small-scale time units. Each of Oppel‟s zones
was named after a particular fossil species, called an index fossils, or
index species, which is but one fossil species in the assemblage of
species in the assemblages of species that characterize the zone ( 3).

4.2. Biostratigraphyc units


Biostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that deals with the
distribution of fossils in the stratigraphic record and the classification of
bodies of rock or rock material into biostratigraphic units based on their
contained fossils. Biostratigraphic units are distinct from all other kinds
of stratigraphic units because their contained fossils record the
unidirectional process of organic evolution. As such, the stratigraphic
record as a whole contains an unrepeated sequence of fossil taxa that
may be used to determine the relative age of their enclosing strata
(Article 48, Fundamental of biostratigraphy) (2).
Zone or biozone is the fundamental biostratigraphic unit. Zones
do not have any prescribed thickness or geographic extent. They may
range in thickness from thin beds a few meters thick to unit thousands
of meters thick and in geographic extent from local units to those with
nearly worldwide distribution (1) (2).
Recent attems to standardize nomenclature and usage of zones
have been made by the International Subcommision on Stratigraphic
Classification (Hedberg, 1976) in the International Stratigraphic Guide
and by the North American Code.

79
The North American Stratigraphic Code (1993) (2)

Nature and Boundaries:

(Article 49, Nature of Biostratigraphic Units in NACSN, 2005).

The North American Stratigraphic Code subdivides


biostratigraphic units into five specific kind of biozones:
a. range biozone
b. interval biozone
c. lineage biozone
d. assemblages biozone, and
e. abundance biozone.
Each of these zones is distinguished by different criteria, as
explained bellow:
These five kinds of biozones re not hierarchically interrelated. The
words "range," "interval," "lineage," "assemblage," and "abundance"
are merely descriptive terms. They represent different approaches in the
process of setting up, and in the recognition of, a biozone. The kind of
biozone chosen will depend on the nature of the biota, the approaches
80
and preferences of the individual scientist, and the specific problem
being investigated. The most common choice of biozone is one in
which both the lower boundary and the upper boundary are based on
the lowest occurrences of individual taxa; the two taxa may or may not
have a direct phylogenetic link. The ranges of the taxa whose lowest or
highest occurrences or maximum abundances define the boundaries of
the biozone are not necessarily restricted to the biozone, nor is it
necessary that they range through the entire biozone.

81
Figure 4.1. Examples of range, lineage and interval zones (Article
51, Kind of Biostratigraphic Units) (2)

82
Figure 4.2. Examples of assemblage and abundance zones (Articles
51) (2)

83
Rank of Biostratigraphic Units
Article 53. – Fundamental Units. The biozone is the
fundamental unit of biostratigraphic classification.

Biostratigraphic Nomenclature
Article 54. -Establishing Formal Units. Formal establishment of
a biozone must meet the requirements of Article 3 and requires a unique
name, a description of its fossil content and stratigraphic boundaries,
and a discussion of its spatial extent.

84
(North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature,1983) (2)

Consecutive-range zone

the base zone is placed at the first appearance of an


index fossil from its immediate ancestor .
The top of zone is placed at the first evolutionary
G.sellii appearance of a taxon from an index fossil, its
P.18
immediate ancestor
e.g.
G.tapuriensis Zone P.18 = Globigerina tapuriensis Consecutive-range
zone.
The base of the zone P.18 is placed at the first
G.tripartita evolutionary appearance of Globigerina tapuriensis from
its immediate ancesor, G.tripartita.
The top of zone is placed at the first evolutionary
apperance of Globigerina sellii from its immediate
ancestor, Globigerina tapuriensis

85
INTERVAL ZONE

Total Range Zone


delimited by the total stratigraphical extent of the
nominate taxon
(first & last stratigraphical appearance of index
fossil)

Partial Range Zone


slightly/ immediately subsequence to the horizon of
extinction or appearance of index fossil

Concurrent-range zone :

the base zone is placed at the first appearance of an


index fossil from its immediate ancestor .
The top of zone is placed at the horizon immediately
P.19 above the extinction of other index fossil

G.sellii

Pseudohastigerina barbadoensis

Figure 4.3. Types of Interval Zone


References:
(1)
Anonim. 1996. Sandi Stratigrafi Indonesia, Komisi Sandi
Stratigrafi Indonesia, Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia
(2)
Annonim. 1983. The North American Stratigraphic Code,
Appendix B, Articles 49 -52, North American Commission on
Stratigraphic Nomenklatur
(3)
Boggs, Sam Jr. 2006. Principle of Sedimentology and
Stratigraphy, Fourth Edition, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
07458

86
TOPIC 5
FORAMINIFERA,
NANNOFOSSILS AND
PALYNOMORPH
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
ZONATIONS
The applicability of a biostratigraphic zonation depends on
facies. In open marine environments planktonic foraminifera and
calcareous nannoplankton are used, in shallow marine and deltaic series
local zonations based on rotaliid benthic foraminifera may apply, in
shallow marine carbonate facies larger foraminifera are the most
important markers, and in coastal and alluvial plain environments
spores and pollen are used (18).

5.1. Planktic foraminifera biostratigraphic zonations

The planktic foraminifera zonation used most is that by Blow


(1969, 1979), largely because of its easy-to-use N (Neogene) and P
(Paleogene) number zones, but also because it uses relatively many
stages of evolutionary lineages, and it is more adapted to the Indo-
Pacific province than most other schemes, which are primarily based on
Caribbean and Atlantic material. More than 40 zones can be recognized
in the Cenozoic (average duration close to 1.5 m.y.) (18).

5.1.1. Late Middle Eocene to Recent planktic foraminiferal


biostratigraphy by Blow (1969, 1979) (1) (2)

The prefix “P” refers to zones of the “Paleogene” (Paleocene to


Oligocene) and “N” series of zone refers to the “Neogene” zones. In the
original abstract of zones, the base of „Neogene” was considered (as the
87
base of the Miocene) to be within the Globigerina ampliapertura zone
of Bolli. Thus, forms such as Cupuladria carariensis, Anadara
(Anadara), Chione, Timocles and Miogypsina occur in beds referable to
the later parts of Zone N.1 (=P.20), Zone N.2 (=P.21) and Zone N.3
(=P.22); these forms have been considered as typically “Neogene” by
many workers. These three zones are also probably present in the strata
of the Bormidian, and therefore, there is a prima facies case for
considering Zones N.1 (=P.20), N.2 (=P.21) and N.3 (=P.22) as
Miocene, and thus, Neogene in which case the “N” notation should
strictly apply. According to some worker‟s opinions, there is a point of
view that leads to a placement of Miocene/Oligocene (and therefore the
Neogene/Paleogene) boundary at a zone within Zone N.1 (=P.20),
probably not far form the base of Zone N.2 (=P.21) (1) (2).

Zone P.13
Orbulinoides beckmanni zone
Category: Total range zone
Author: Bolli, 1957, nom. corr. et transl. pro
Porticulasphaera mexicana zone, Bolli, 1957
Definition: The base of this zone is placed at the first
stratigraphical appearance of Orbulinoides
beckmanni.

Zone P.14
Truncorotaloides rohri – Globigerinita howei zone
Category: Partial range zone
Synonymy: Truncorotaloides rohri zone, Bolli, 1957, also
Blow and Banner, 1962 in Eames et al.
Definition: The base of zone is placed immediately
subsequent to the extinction horizon of
Orbulinoides beckmanni which appears to be
only slightly prior to the first appearance of
Globigerinita howei.

Zone P.15
Globigerapsis mexicana zone

88
Category: Partial range zone
Synonymy: Globigerapsis semiinvoluta zone, Bolli, 1957,
also Blow and Banner, 1962, emended, partim.
Age: Lower part of late Eocene
Definition: The base of the zone is placed immediately
subsequent to the extinction horizon of
Truncorotaloides rohri.

Zone P.16
Cribrohantkenina inflata zone
Category: Total range zone
Age: Middle part of late Eocene
Synonymy: Cribrohantkenina danvillensis zone Blow and
Banner, 1962, emended Globigerapsis
semiinvoluta zone, Blow and Banner, 1962,
partim. Globorotalia acostaensis zone, Bolli,
1957.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
development of the genus Cribrohantkenina (as
C. inflata) from Hantkenina alabanensis.

Zone P.17
Globigerina gortanii-Globorotalia (Turborotalia) centralis zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Latest Eocene
Synonymy: Globigerina turritilina turritilina zone, Blow
and Banner (1962)
Definition: The base of the zone is placed immediately
subsequent to the extinction horizon of
Cribrohantkenina inflata which is only slightly
subsequent to the horizon of development of
Globigerina gortanii gortanii from its
immediate ancestor G. gortanii praeturritilina.

89
Zone P.18
Globigerina tapuriensis zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Early Oligocene
Synonymy: Globigerina turritilina turritilina zone, Blow
and Banner (1962)
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the first
evolutionary appearance of Globigerina
tapuriensis from its immediate ancestor G.
tripartita.

Zone P.19
Globigerina sellii/Pseudohastigerina barbadoensis zone
Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Early to middle parts of Oligocene
Synonymy: Globigerina oligocaenica (G. sellii) zone, Blow
and Banner (1962)
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the first
evolutionary appearance of Globigerina sellii
from its immediate ancestor G. tapuriensis.

Zone N.1 (= P.20)


Globigerina ampliapertura zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Middle parts of Oligocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: The base of the zone is placed immediately
succeeds the horizon of extinction of
Pseudohastigerina barbadoensis.

Zone N.2 (=P.21)


Globigerina angulisuturalis/Globorotalia (Turborotalia) opima opima
zone
Category: Concurrent range zone
90
Age: Middle to later parts of Oligocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia opima opima zone Bolli, plus
Globigerina ampliapertura zone, Bolli (upper
part only)
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globigerina angulisuturalis.

Zone N.3 (= P.22) emended:


Globigerina angulisuturalis zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Latest parts of Oligocene
Synonymy: Globigerina ciperoensis ciperoensis zone, Bolli
(nom. corr: G. ouachitaensis ciperoensis zone,
Blow and Banner, 1962 ex Bolli). Globorotalia
kugleri zone (part) Bolli, Globorotalia kugleri
Total range zone (part) Banner and Blow, 1965
(i.e. “Zone N.4 part of Banner and Blow, 1965)
Definition: The base of the zone is placed immediately
above the top of the biostratigraphical range of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) opima opima, this
horizon of extinction of G. (T.) opima opima
occurring within the range of Globigerina
angulisuturalis.

Zone N.4 emended.


Globigerinoides quadrilobatus primordius/Globorotalia
(Turborotalia) kugleri zone
Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Earliest Miocene, Aquitanian, part
Synonymy: Globorotalia kugleri zone, Bolli, 1957, partim.
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) kugleri zone
(=Zone N.4), Banner and Blow, 1965.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the first
91
evolutionary stratigraphic occurrence of
Globigerinoides quadrilobatus primordius.

Zone N.5
Globoquadrina dehiscens praedehiscens – G. dehiscens dehiscens
zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Early Miocene, Aquitanian
Synonymy: Catapsydrax dissimilis zone Bolli, 1957 (nom.
corr: Globigerinita dissimilis zone, Blow and
Banner, 1962 ex Bolli
Definition: The base of the zone is placed immediately
above the top of the biostratigraphical range of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) kugleri.

Zone N.6
Globigerinatella insueta/Globigerinita dissimilis zone
Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Early Miocene, late Aquitanian to early
Burdigalian
Synonymy: Catapsydrax stainforthi zone, Bolli, 1957;
emend. Blow, 1959 (Globigerinita stainforthi
zone, nom. corr. Blow and Banner, 1962).
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first stratigraphical appearance of
Globigerinatella insueta.

Zone N.7
Globigerinatella insueta – Globigerinoides quadrilobatus zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Early Miocene, Burdigalian
Synonymy: Globigerinatella insueta/Globigerinoides
trilobus subzone, Blow, Globigerinatella insueta
(part only)
92
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon
immediately above the horizon of extinction of
Globigerinita dissimilis (s.l)

Zone N.8
Globigerinoides sicanus – Globigerinatella insueta zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Early Miocene, late Burdigalian
Synonymy: Globigerinatella insueta/Globigerinoides
bisphericus subzone, Blow, 1959. Partim:
Globigerinatella insueta zone, Bolli, 1957
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globigerinoides sicanus (= G. bisphericus), a
horizon which occur within the range of
Globigerinatella insueta.

Zone N.9
Orbulina suturalis – Globorotalia (Turborotalia) peripheroronda
zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Middle Miocene, early Langhian
Synonymy: Globorotalia fohsi barisanensis zone, Bolli,
1957, plus highest part only of Globigerinatella
insueta zone, Bolli, 1957
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at he horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of Orbulina
suturalis from its immediate ancestor.
Praeorbulina glomerosa circularis, which is a
horizon that occurs within the range of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) peripheroronda
(and within the ranges of Globigerinatella
insueta and Globigerinoides sicanus).

93
Zone N.10
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) peripheroacuta zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Langhian, part, middle Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia fohsi fohsi zone, Blow, 1959;
Globorotalia fohsi fohsi (part only) Bolli, 1957.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) peripheroacuta
from its immediate ancestor, G. (T.)
peripheroronda.

Zone N.11
Globorotalia (G.) praefohsi zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Langhian, part, middle Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia fohsi fohsi (part only) plus G.
fohsi lobata zone (part only). Bolli, 1957;
Globorotalia fohsi lobata Blow, 1959
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (G.) praefohsi from its immediate
ancestor, G. (T.) peripheroacuta.

Zone N.12
Globorotalia (G.) fohsi zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Langhian, part, middle Miocene
Synonymy: G. fohsi lobata zone (part only) plus G. fohsi
robusta zone (part only), Bolli, 1957;
Globorotalia fohsi robusta zone (part only),
Blow, 1959 (ex Bolli, emend).
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
94
Zone N.12
Globorotalia (G.) fohsi zone
Globorotalia (G.) fohsi from its immediate
ancestor Globorotalia (G.) praefohsi.

Zone N.13
Sphaeroidinellopsis subdehiscens subdehiscens – Globigerina druryi
zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Langhian, part, middle Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia fohsi robusta zone, Bolli, 1957,
Globorotalia fohsi robusta zone (part only) plus
G.mayeri/G.lenguensis subzone, Blow, 1959.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Sphaeroidinellopsis subdehiscens subdehiscens,
from its immediate ancestor S. seminulina
seminulina, which occurs within the range of
Globigerina druryi.

Zone N.14
Globigerina nepenthes/Globorotalia (Turborotalia) siakensis zone
Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Late Langhian, middle Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia mayeri/Globigerina nepenthes
subzone Blow, 1959 (nom. corr. subst. et
transl).
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of Globigerina
nepenthes, from its immediate ancestor,
Globigerina druryi, a horizon which occurs
within the range of Globorotalia (Turborotalia)
siakensis.

95
Zone N.15
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) continuosa zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Late Langhian-early Tortonian, middle to late
Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia menardii zone, Bolli, 1957 (part
only); Globorotalia menardii
menardii/Globigerina nepenthes zone, Blow,
1959
Definition: The base of the zone is placed immediately
above the horizon of extinction of Globorotalia
(Turborotalia) siakensis, which occur within the
range of Globorotalia (T.) continuosa.

Zone N.16
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis acostaensis – Globorotalia
(G.) merotumida - zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Tortonian, late Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia menardii menardii/Globigerina
nepenthes zone (part only) plus Sphaeroidinella
seminulina zone (part only), Blow, 1959.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis
acostaensis from its immediate ancestor, G. (T.)
continuosa.

Zone N.17
Globorotalia (G.) tumida plesiotumida zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Messinian, part, late Miocene
Synonymy: Sphaeroidinella seminulina zone (part only)
plus Globigerina bulloides zone (part only),

96
Blow, 1959.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (G.) tumida plesiotumida from its
immediate ancestor, G. (G.) merotumida.

Zone N.18
Globorotalia (G.) tumida tumida – Sphaeroidinellopsis subdehiscens
paenedehiscens zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Late Miocene-early Pliocene; late Messinian –
early Zanclian
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (G.) tumida tumida.

Zone N.19 emended


Sphaeroidinellopsis dehiscens dehiscens – Globoquadrina altispira
altispira zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Pliocene
Author: Banner and Blow, 1965
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Sphaeroidinellopsis dehiscens dehiscens
(including forma immatura) from its immediate
ancestor, Sphaeroidinellopsis dehiscens
paradehiscens.

Zone N.20 emended


Globorotalia (G.) multicamerata – Pulleniatina obliquiloculata
obliquiloculata zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Pliocene

97
Author: Banner and Blow, 1965
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis
pseudopima which occurs within the lower part
of the range of Pulleniatina obliquiloculata
obliquiloculata.

Zone N.21
Globorotalia (T.) tosaensis tenuitheca zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Pliocene to extreme basal Pleistocene
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (T.) tosaensis tenuitheca from its
immediate ancestor, G. (T.) crassaformis
oceanica.

Zone N.22
Globorotalia truncatulinoides truncatulinoides zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Pleistocene
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (G.) truncatulinoides
truncatulinoides from its immediate ancestor,
G. (Turborotalia) tosaensis tenuitheca.

Zone N.23
Globigerina calida calida/Sphaeroidinella dehiscens excavata
Category: Assemblage zone
Age: ? Late Pleistocene – Holocene

98
5.1.2. Paleocene–Eocene and Oligocene-Miocene planktic
foraminifera zones by Postuma (1971) (14)

Paleocene – Eocene Zones (from older to younger):


1) Globigerina daubjergensis zone,
2) Globorotalia uncinate zone,
3) Globorotalia angulata zone,
4) Globorotalia pseudomenardii zone,
5) Globorotalia velascoensis zone,
6) Globorotalia rex zone,
7) Globorotalia formusa – aragonensis zone,
8) Globorotalia bullbrooki zone,
9) Globigerapsis kugleri zone,
10) Globorotalia lehneri zone,
11) Orbulinoides beckmanni zone,
12) Truncarotaloides rohri zone,
13) Globigerapsis mexicana zone, and
14) Globorotalia cerroazulensis zone.

Oligocene – Recent Zones (from older to younger):


1) Globigerinatella insueta zone,
2) Globorotalia peripheroronda zone,
3) Globorotalia peripheroacuta zone,
4) Globorotalia lobata zone,
5) Globorotalia fohsi zone,
6) Globigerinoides subquadratus zone,
7) Globorotalia siakensis zone,
8) Globorotalia menardii zone,
9) Globorotalia acostaensis zone,
10) Globorotalia dutretrei zone,
11) Globorotalia margaritae zone,
12) Globoquadrina altispira zone,
13) Globorotalia tosaensis zone, and
14) Globorotalia truncatulinoides zone.

99
5.1.3. Cretaceous planktic foraminifera zones by Caron,
1986 (5)
To subdivide the time interval of some 55 m.y from Hauterivian
to the end of Maastrictian, 28 zones are proposed by Caron (1986),
from older to younger as follows (5)
1) Globuligerina hoterivica zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Hauterivian
Author: Van Hinte (1972)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Globuligerina
hoterivica to first occurrence of Hedbergella
sigali

2) Hedbergella sigali zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Barremian to early Aptian
Author: Moullade (1966)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Hedbergella
sigali to first occurrence of Globigerinelloides
blowi
Remarks: Joint occurrence of Hedbergella sigali and
Globuligerina hoterivica. First appearance of
the genus Hedbergella as very primitive small
sized and rare forms.

3) Globigerinelloides blowi zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Aptian
Author: Moullade (1974)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of
Globigerinelloides blowi to first occurrence of
Schackoina cabri
Remarks: Joint occurrence of Globigerinelloides blowi,
Hedbergella sigali, Globuligerina hoterivica

100
and Hedbergella bizonae.

4) Schackoina cabri zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Early Aptian to late Aptian
Author: Bolli (1959) by synonymy = Leupoldina
protuberans zone
Definition: Interval of total range of Schackoina cabri

5) Globigerinelloides algeriana zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Late Aptian
Author: Moullade (1966)
Definition: Interval of total range of Globigerinelloides
algeriana
Remarks: Joint occurrence of Globigerinelloides
algeriana, Hedbergella bizonae and
Globigerinelloides ferreolensis. In the middle
part of zone: extinction of Globigerinelloides
blowi. Top of zone: first occurrence of
Planomalina cheniourensis.

6) Hedbergella gorbachikae zone


Category: Partial range zone
Age: Late Aptian
Author: Longoria (1974)
Definition: Interval, with Hedbergella gorbachikae, from
taxa occurrence of Globigerinelloides algeriana
to first occurrence of Ticinella bejaounensis.
Remarks: Joint occurrence of Hedbergella gorbachikae,
Globigerinelloides ferreolensis and
Planomalina cheniourensis.

101
7) Ticinella bejaouensis zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Aptian to early Albian
Author: Moullade (1966)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Ticinella
bejaouensis to fisrt occurrence of Ticinella
primula.
Remarks: In the lower part of the zone, extinction of
Planomalina cheniourensis and
Globigerinelloides ferreolensis, and first
occurrence of Ticinella roberti.

8) Ticinella primula zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Albian
Author: Longoria and Gamper (1974)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Ticinella
primula to fisrt occurrence of Biticinella
breggiensis.
Remarks: Joint occurrence of Hedbergella gorbachikae,
Ticinella roberti and Ticinella primula.

9) Biticinella breggiensis zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Albian
Author: Postuma (1971)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Biticinella
breggiensis to fisrt occurrence of Rotalipora
subticinensis.

10) Rotalipora subticinensis zone


Category: Interval zone

102
Age: Late Albian
Author: Postuma (1971)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Rotalipora
subticinensis to fisrt occurrence of Rotalipora
ticinensis.

11) Rotalipora ticinensis zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Albian
Author: Dalbiez (1955)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Rotalipora
ticinensis to fisrt occurrence of Rotalipora
appenninica.

12) Rotalipora appenninica zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Albian
Author: Bronnimann (1952)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Rotalipora
appenninica to fisrt occurrence of Rotalipora
brotzeni.

13) Rotalipora brotzeni zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Cenomanian
Author: Lehmann (1966)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Rotalipora
brotzeni to fisrt occurrence of Rotalipora
reichelli.

14) Rotalipora reichelli zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Early to middle Cenomanian
103
Author: Bolli (1966)
Definition: Interval of total range of Rotalipora reichelli.

15) Rotalipora cushmani zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Middle to late Cenomanian
Author: Borsetti (1962)
Definition: Interval of total range of Rotalipora cushmani.
Remarks: First occurrence, in the lower part of zone, of
Whiteinella baltica and, in the upper part of the
zone, of Whiteinella paradubia,
Helvetoglobotruncana praehelvetica and
Dicarinella algeriana. Extinction of the genus
Rotalia marks the upper limit of the zone.

16) Whiteinella archaecretacea zone


Category: Partial range zone
Age: Early Turonian
Author: Bolli (1966) by synonymy = Praeglobotruncana
gigantea zone.
Definition: Interval with of total range of Whiteinella
archaecretacea, from the extinction of
Rotalipora cushmani to the first occurrence of
Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica.

17) Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Middle Turonian
Author: Sigal (1955)
Definition: Interval of total range of Helvetoglobotruncana
helvetica.

104
18) Marginotruncana sigali zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: LateTuronian
Author: Barr (1972)
Definition: Interval, with Marginotruncana sigali, from
extinction of Helvetoglobotruncana Helvetica to
first occurrence of Dicarinella primitive.

19) Dicarinella primitiva zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Coniacian
Author: Caron (1978)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Dicarinella
primitiva to first occurrence of Dicarinella
concavata.

20) Dicarinella concavata zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Coniacian to early Santonian
Author: Sigal (1955)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Dicarinella
concavata to first occurrence of Dicarinella
asymetrica.

21) Dicarinella asymetrica zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Upper part to early Santonian to late Santonian
Author: Postuma (1971) by synonymy = Globotruncana
concavata carinata zone
Definition: Interval of total range of Dicarinella
asymetrica.

105
22) Globotruncanita elevata zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Early Campanian
Author: Postuma (1971)
Definition: Interval, with of Globotruncanita elevate, from
last occurrence of Dicarinella asymetrica, to
first occurrence of Globotruncana ventricosa.

23) Globotruncana ventricosa zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Upper part of early Campanian to late
Campanian
Author: Dalbiez (1955)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Globotruncana
ventricosa to first occurrence of
Globotruncanita calcarata.

24) Globotruncanita calcarata zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Upper part of of late Campanian
Author: Herm (1962)
Definition: Interval of total range of Globotruncanita
calcarata.

25) Globotruncanella havanensis zone


Category: Partial range zone
Age: Lower part of early Maastrichtian
Author: Caron (1978)
Definition: Interval, with Globotruncanella havanensis,
from last occurrence of Globotruncanita
calcarata to first occurrence of Globotruncana
aegyptiaca.

106
26) Globotruncana aegyptiaca zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Maastrichtian
Author: Caron (1986)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Globotruncana
aegyptiaca to first occurrence of Gansserina
gansseri.

27) Gansserina gansseri zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Maastrichtian
Author: Bronnimann (1952)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Gansserina
gansseri to first occurrence of Abthomphasus
mayaroensis.

28) Abthomphasus mayaroensis zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Uppermost part of late Maastrichtian
Author: Bronnimann (1952)
Definition: Interval of total range of Abthomphasus
mayaroensis.

5.1.4. Paleocene and Eocene planktic foraminifera zones by


Toumarkine and Luterbacher (1986) (17)

1. Early Paleocene:

1) Globigerina eugubina zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Early Paleocene
Author: Luterbacher and Premoli Silva (1964)
Definition: Total range of Globigerina eugubina.

107
2) Morozovella pseudobulloides zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Paleocene
Author: Leonov and Alimarina (1961) as Globigerina
pseudobulloides – Globigerina daubjergensis
zone. Name shorted by Bolli (1966).
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Morozovella
pseudobulloides to first occurrence of
Morozovella trinidadensis.

3) Morozovella trinidadensis zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Paleocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval between first occurrence of
Morozovella trinidadensis and Morozovella
uncinata.

2. Middle Paleocene:

1) Morozovella uncinata zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Paleocene
Author: Bolli (1957) emended Bolli (1966)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Morozovella
uncinata to first occurrence of Morozovella
angulata.

2) Morozovella angulata zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Paleocene
Author: Alimarina (1963)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Morozovella

108
angulata to first occurrence of Planorotalites
pusilla pusilla.

3) Planorotalites pusilla pusilla zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Paleocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Planorotalites
pusilla pusilla to first occurrence of
Planorotalites pseudomenardii.

3. Late Paleocene:

1) Planorotalites pseudomenardii zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Late Paleocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Total range of Planorotalites pseudomenardii.

2) Planorotalites velascoensis zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Paleocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval from last occurrence of Planorotalites
pseudomenardii to first occurrence of
Morozovella edgari.

4. Early Eocene:

1) Morozovella edgari zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Eocene
Author: Premoli Silva and Bolli (1973)
109
Definition: Interval between last occurrence of
Morozovella velascoensis and last occurrence
of Morozovella edgari.

2) Morozovella subbotinae zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Eocene
Author: Soviet authors (Anonymous, 1963)
Definition: Interval between last occurrence of
Morozovella edgari and first occurrence
of Morozovella aragonensis.

3) Morozovella formosa formosa zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Eocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval between first occurrence of
Morozovella aragonensis and first
occurrence of Acarinina pentacamerata.

4) Morozovella aragonensis zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Eocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval between first occurrence of
Acarinina pentacamerata and first
occurrence of Turborotalia
cerrozulensis frontosa or Planorotalites
palmerae.

5) Acarinina pentacamerata zone


Category: Interval zone

110
Age: Early Eocene
Author: Introduced by Krasheninnikow (1965) as
a zubzone
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of
Turborotalia cerrozulensis frontosa to
first occurrence of representatives of the
genus Hantkenina.

5. Middle Eocene:

1) Hantkenina nuttalli zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Eocene
Author: Bolli (1957) emended Stainforth et al (1975),
renamed Toumarkine (1981)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from first
occurrence of representatives of the genus
Hantkenina to first occurrence of
Globigerinatheka mexicana mexicana.

2) Globigerinatheka subconglobata subconglobata zone


Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Middle Eocene
Author: Bolli (1957) emended Proto Decima and Bolli
(1970) renamed Bolli (1972), redefined
Stainforth et al (1975).
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from first
occurrence of Globigerinatheka mexicana
mexicana to last occurrence of Morozovella
lehneri.

111
3) Morozovella lehneri zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Eocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from last occurrence
of Globigerinatheka aragonensis to first
occurrence of Orbulinoides beckmanni.

4) Orbulinoides beckmanni zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Middle Eocene
Author: Bolli (1957) renamed by Cordey (1968) and
Blow and Saito (1968)
Definition: Total range of Orbulinoides beckmanni.

6) Truncorotaloides rohri zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Eocene
Author: Bolli (1957) renamed by Cordey (1968) and
Blow and Saito (1968)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from last occurrence
of Orbulinoides beckmanni to last occurrence of
Truncorotaloides rohri.

6. Late Eocene:

1) Globigerinatheka semiinvoluta zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Eocene
Author: Bolli (1957) modified by Proto Decima and
Bolli (1970)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from last occurrence
112
of Truncorotaloides rohri to last occurrence of
Globigerinatheka semiinvoluta.

2) Turborotalia cerroazulensis S.I zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Eocene
Author: Bolli (1957) renamed by Bolli (1966, 1972)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from last occurrence
of Globigerinatheka semiinvoluta to last
occurrence of Turborotalia cerroazulensis s.l.

7. Zonation of the Eocene based on the evolutionary lineage of


Turborotalia cerroazulensis:

1) Turborotalia cerroazulensis frontosa zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Early to middle Eocene
Author: Toumarkine and Bolli (1970), emended
Toumarkine (1986)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from its first
occurrence to first occurrence of Turborotalia
cerroazulensis possagnoensis.

2) Turborotalia cerroazulensis possagnoensis zone


Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Middle Eocene
Author: Toumarkine and Bolli (1970)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from its first
occurrence to last occurrence of Turborotalia
cerroazulensis frontosa.

113
3) Turborotalia cerroazulensis pameroli/T. cerroazulensis
cerroazulensis zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Eocene
Author: Toumarkine and Bolli (1970) emended
Toumarkine (1986)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from last occurrence
to last occurrence of Turborotalia
cerroazulensis frontosa to the extinction of the
genus Truncorotaloides and other spinosa form.

4) Turborotalia cerroazulensis cerroazulensis/ T. cerroazulensis


cerroazulensis cocoaensis zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Eocene
Author: Toumarkine and Bolli (1970) emended
Toumarkine (1986)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from the extinction
of the genus Truncorotaloides and other spinosa
form to the first occurrence of Turborotalia
cerroazulensis cunialensis.

5) Turborotalia cerroazulensis cunialensis zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Late Eocene
Author: Toumarkine and Bolli (1970)
Definition: Interval with the zonal marker. Its last
occurrence corresponds to the extinction
of all subspecies of Turborotalia
cerroazulensis cunialensis.

114
5.1.5. Oligocene to Holocene low latitude planktic
foraminifera zones by Bolli and Saunders (1986) (3)

1) Cassigerinella chipolensis/Pseudohastigerina micra zone


Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Early Oligocene
Author: Blow and Banner (1962) renamed by Bolli
(1966)
Definition: Joint occurrence of the two zonal markers.

2) Globigerina ampliapertura zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Oligocene
Author: Bolli (1957), redefined by Bolli (1966)
Definition: Interval between last occurrence of
Pseudohastigerina micra and first
occurrence of Globorotalia opima opima.

3) Globigerina opima opima zone


Category: Taxon range zone
Age: Middle Oligocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Range of zomel markers.

4) Globigerina ciperoensis ciperoensis zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Oligocene
Author: Cushman and Stainforth (1945) emended by
Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from last
occurrence of Globorotalia opima opima to
first occurrence of G. kugleri.

115
5) Globorotalia kugleri zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Oligocene
Author: Bolli (1957) emended Bolli and Saunders
(1986)
Definition: First occurrence of zonal marker to first
occurrence of frequent Globigerinoides
primordius and/or G. trilobus s.l.

6) Globigerinoides primordius zone


Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Early Miocene
Author: Blow (1969) emended Bolli and Saunders
(1986)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of frequent
Globigerinoides primordius and/or G. trilobus
s.l. to last occurrence of Globorotalia kugleri.

7) Catapsydrax dissimilis zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Miocene
Author: Cushman and Renz (1947) emended by
Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from last
occurrence of Globorotalia kugleri to first
occurrence of Globigerinatella insueta.

116
9) Globigerinatella insueta zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Miocene
Author: Cushman and Stainforth (1945), emended
by Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from last
occurrence of Catapsydrax dissimilis to the
first occurrence of.

8) Catapsydrax stainforthi zone


Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Early Miocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from first
occurrence of Globigerinatella insueta to
last occurrence of Catapsydrax dissimilis.

10) Praeorbulina glomerosa zone


Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Early Miocene
Author: Blow (1959), renamed by Bolli (1966)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from its first
occurrence to last occurrence of
Globigerinatella insueta.

117
Globorotalia fohsi zone s.l. :
Cushman and Stainforth introduced a „Zone III Upper (Globorotalia
fohsi) Zone‟ without formally defining it. Based on stratigraphically
successive subspecies of Globorotalia fohsi, Bolli (1951, 1957), Blow
and Banner (1966), Bolli (1967) subdivide the zone into subzones.
Boundaries between the fohsi zones are based on the first successive
subspecies. Because morphological changes form one subspecies to the
next younger are gradual, the lacing of the zonal boundaries remains to
some extent subjective. Except for the rapidly evolving fohsi lineage,
the interval remains markedly poor in other events in which might serve
for subdivision in the absence of the marker species.

11) Globorotalia fohsi peripheroronda zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Miocene
Author: Bolli (1957), renamed by Blow and Banner
(1966), Bolli (1967)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from last
occurrence of Globigerinatella insueta to
first occurrence of Globorotalia fohsi fohsi.

12) Globorotalia fohsi fohsi zone


Category: Lineage zone
Age: Middle Miocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker to its first
occurrence to first occurrence of
Globorotalia fohsi lobata.

13) Globorotalia fohsi lobata zone


Category: Lineage zone
Age: Middle Miocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from its first
occurrence to first occurrence of Globorotalia
118
fohsi robusta.

14) Globorotalia fohsi robusta zone


Category: Lineage zone
Age: Middle Miocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Range of zonal marker.

15) Globigerinoides ruber zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Miocene
Author: Bolli (1966)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from last
occurrence of Globorotalia fohsi robusta to last
Miocene occurrence of zonal marker.

16) Globorotalia mayeri zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Miocene
Author: Bronnimann (1951) emended by Bolli (1966).
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from last Miocene
occurrence of Globigerinoides ruber to last
occurrence of zonal marker.

17) Globorotalia menardii zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Miocene
Author: Stainforth (1948), emended by Bronnimann
(1951) redefined by Bolli (1966).
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from last occurrence
of Globorotalia mayeri to first occurrence of G.
acostaensis.

119
18) Globorotalia acostaensis zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Miocene
Author: Bolli and Bermudez (1965)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from its first
occurrence to first occurrence of
Globorotalia humerosa.

19) Globorotalia humerosa zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Miocene
Author: Bolli and Bermudez (1965), renamed by Bolli
and Saunders (1985).
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from its first
occurrence to first occurrence of Globorotalia
margaritae s.l.

20) Globorotalia margaritae zone


Category: Total range zone
Age: Early Pliocene
Author: Bolli and Bermudez (1965)
Definition: Range of zonal zonal marker.
a) Globorotalia margaritae margaritea subzone
Category: Lineage zone
Age: Early Pliocene
Author: Cita (1973) redefined by Bolli and Premoli
Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from first
occurrence of Globorotalia margaritae s.l to
the first occurrence of G. margaritae evoluta.
b) Globorotalia margaritae evoluta subzone
Category: Taxon range zone
120
Age: Early Pliocene
Author: Cita (1973)
Definition: Range of zonal marker from its development
from Globorotalia margaritae margaritae to its
extinction.

21) Globorotalia miocenica zone


Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Pliocene
Author: Bolli (1970), renamed by Bolli and Premoli
Silva (1973), redevined by Bolli and Saunders
(1985).
Definition: Interval with zonal marker between last
occurrence of Globorotalia margaritae evoluta
and last occurrence of G. miocenica and G.
exilis.
a) Globigerinoides trilobus fistulosus subzone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Pliocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with subzonal marker, between last
occurrence of Globorotalia margaritae evoluta
and last occurrence of subzonal marker.
b) Globorotalia exilis subzone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Pliocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from extinction of
Globigerinoides trilobus fistulosus to extinction
of Globorotalia miocenica or G. exilis.

121
22) Globorotalia tosaensis tosaensis zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Pliocene
Author: Bolli (1970), renamed by Bolli and Saunders
(1985).
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from extinction of
Globorotalia miocenica or G. exilis to first
occurrence of G. truncatulinoides
truncatulinoides.

122
23) Globorotalia truncatulinoides truncatulinoides zone
Category: Taxon range zone
Age: Pleistocene - Holocene
Author: Bolli and Bermudez (1965), renamed by
Bolli (1966) and Bolli and Premoli Silva
(1973)
Definition: Range of zonal marker.
a) Globorotalia crassaformis viola subzone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Pleistocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with subzonal marker, from first
occurrence of Globorotalia truncatulinoides
truncatulinoides to first occurrence of
Globorotalia crassaformis hessi.
b) Globorotalia crassaformis hessi subzone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Pleistocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with subzonal marker, from its first
occurrence to first occurrence of
Globigerina calida calida.
c) Globigerina calida calida subzone
Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Pleistocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with subzonal marker, from its first
occurrence to extinction of Globorotalia
tumida fexuosa.
d) Globigerina bermudezi subzone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Pleistocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with subzonal marker, from last
occurrence of Globorotalia tumida flexuosa
123
to first occurrence of G. fimbriata.
e) Globorotalia fimbriata subzone
Category: Taxon range zone
Age: Holocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Range of subzonal marker.
Other important papers on the subject, with similar zonations and
additional information, are Bronnimann and Resig (1971), Stainforth et
al. (1975), and Kennett and Srinivasan (1983). Little used possible
additional datum levels are coiling changes in some genera, and
incursions of cold water species, reflecting climate changes (18).

5.1.6. Neogene planktic foraminifera zones in Indonesian


basins (Case Studies)

Some index planktic foraminifera (Globigerinoides primordius,


Globigerinoides ruber, Globorotalia continousa, Globorotalia
siakensis, Globorotalia mayeri, Hastigerina siphonifera and Orbulina
suturalis) can be identified in carbonaceous clastic sedimentary rock in
Lulut Area. Biostratigraphycally, the appearance these index fossils
shown that the sedimentary rock of Jatiluhur sections deposited within
Middle Miocene Zones N.9 to N.14 (9).
A total of four planktic foraminifera marker species have been
selected and marked the Late Miocene interval of central Bogor
Through, among all: Globorotalia acostaensis, Globorotalia
plesiotumida, Globorotalia tumida, and Sphaeroidinella dehiscens.
Planktic foraminifera analysis reveal the appearance of important key
zone within Miocene sequences. The previous studies have recorded the
stratigraphyc distribution of these planktic foraminifera markers, as
follows: (8)
a) Globorotalia acostaensis
The first apperance of Globorotalia acostaensis is estimated at
about 10 Ma (Berggren, 1972 and Saito, 1977). Bolli and
Saunders (1986) dated the first appearance of this species is 11.3
Ma.
b) Globorotalia plesiotumida
The first apperance of Globorotalia plesiotumida are recognized
slightly bellow Pulleniatina primalis datum at about 6.2 Ma
(Saito, 1977)
124
c) Globorotalia tumida
The first appearance of Globorotalia tumida has been known by
many worker to be very close to the Miocene – Pliocene
boundary. No radiomatric time-scale are recorded the datum in
Asia Region.
d) Sphaeroidinella dehiscens
The first appearance of Sphaeroidinella dehiscens has been
recognized as a marker horizon for the Miocene-Pliocene
Boundary dated 5.3 Ma (Salvador, 1985). Bergreen (1972) dated
the first appearance of this species about 5 Ma.
For the purpose of the establishing level correlation in Bogor Through,
on the basis of interval zone lying between two horizon first appearance
of planktic foraminifera marker species, the four Late Miocene zones
established, starting from the oldest to youngest (8).:
a) Globorotalia menardii – Globorotalia acostaensis Interval Zone
Definition: The appearance of relatively common Globorotalia
menardii to the first appearance of Globorotalia acostaensis.
Age: Middle Miocene - Late Miocene or >11.3 my BP
Remarks: Bolli and Saunders, 1986 reported that the zone as
defined originally by Stainford (1948), emended by Bronnimann
(1951), redefined by Bolli (1966) as the interval zone defined
interval with zonal marker, from last occurrence of Globorotalia
mayeri to the first occurrence of Globorotalia acostaensis. This
zone is defined as N.15 zone (Blow, 1969, 1979) on Middle to
Late Miocene.
b) Globorotalia acostaensis – Globorotalia plesiotumida Interval
Zone
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from Globorotalia
acostaensis first appearance to first appearance of Globorotalia
plesiotumida
Age : Late Miocene (11.3 – 6.2 my BP)
Remarks: The first of Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis
acostaensis is used to define the base of N.16 zone (Blow, 1969,
1979) on Late Miocene.
c) Globorotalia plesiotumida – Globorotalia tumida Interval Zone
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from Globorotalia
plesiotumida to first appearance of Globorotalia tumida
Age : Late Miocene (< 6.2 my BP)

125
Remarks: The first of Globorotalia (Globorotalia) tumida
plesiotumida is used to define the base of N.17 zone (Blow, 1969,
1979) on Late Miocene.
d) Globorotalia tumida – Sphaeroidinella dehiscens Interval Zone
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from Globorotalia tumida
to first appearance of Sphaeroidinella dehiscens
Age : Latest Miocene (< 5.3 my BP)
Remarks: The first of Globorotalia (Globorotalia) tumida tumida
is used to define the base of N.18 zone (Blow, 1969, 1979) near
the Miocene-Pliocene Boundary.
The next table shows the Late Miocene planktic foraminifera
biostratigraphy of central Bogor through, and it‟s correlation with
previously standard foraminifera zonation. The biostratigraphy zones
indicate that thoughout Late Miocene interval, foraminifera provides a
high accurate biostratigraphy and it is a good tool for correlation (8).

Table. 5.1. Correlation of the Late Miocene Planktic Foraminifera


Biostratigraphy in Central Bogor Through with Previously
Standard Foraminifera Zonation (8)

STANDARD BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC ZONATION


CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY THIS STUDY
MA ZONES DATUM LEVEL
5.3
5 Sphaeroidinella dehiscens Sphaeroidinella dehiscens
PLIOCENE
N18
Globorotalia tumida Gr. margaritae Globorotalia tumida
B
Pulleniatina primalis D
MESSINIAN
N17
Coiling change
6.2 A
Globorotalia plesiotumidaS Gr. acostaensis Globorotalia plesiotumida
MIOCENE
UPPER

TORTONIAN N16

Globorotalia acostaensis Globorotalia acostaensis


11.3
10 N15

Banner & Blow (1965); Bolli (1957); Bolli & Bermudez


Haq. Hardenbol & Vail (1987) in
(1965), Blow (1969); Bolli & Permoli Silva (1973); Postuma
van Gorsel, 1988
(1971) Kennett & Srinivasan (1983) in van Gorsel, 1988

Figure 3. Correlation of the Late Miocene Planktic Foraminifera Biostratigraphy in Central Bogor
5.2. Larger foraminifera biostratigraphic
Through with Previously zonations
Standard Foraminifera Zonation

Larger foraminifera are the only microfossils used to date shallow


marine carbonates. A zonation (The "East Indian Letter Classification")
126
was introduced by van der Vlerk and Umbgrove (1927) and a modified
version is still in use (Tan Sin Hok 1939b, Rutten in Van Bemmelen
1949, and Adams 1970) (18).
Correlation of the letter zones with planktonic foraminifera zones
and time scale on our zonation chart was compiled from Clarke and
Blow (1969), Haak and Postuma (1975), Chaproniere (1984) and Van
Gorsel (1988). As the number of well documented cooccurrences of
diagnostic planktonic and larger foraminifera assemblages is limited,
the calibration of both scales may need revision in the future. Higher
resolution in relative age dating may be obtained by using successive
stages of well-studied evolutionary lineages (whether defined
qualitatively of quantitatively) (18).

Table.5.2. Correlation of planktic foraminifera and larger benthic


biostratigraphic zonation on North West Java

Pioneering work on Indonesian Cycloclypeus, Lepidocyclina and


Miogypsina was done at the Mining Department in Bandung by Tan Sin
Hok (1932, 1936, 1939). The better known lineages were reviewed in
relatively recent papers on the Miogypsinoides- Miogypsina group
(Drooger 1963, Raju 1974), Lepidocyclina (Van der Vlerk and Postuma
1967, Ho Kiam Fui 1976, Van Vessem 1978), Cycloclypeus
127
(MacGillavry 1962, Adams and Frame 1979), and .4ustrotrillina
(Adams 1968). For ranges and references to descriptions of the Borelis
Flosculinella Alveolinella series see Adams (1970). It may be noted that
most of the major changes in larger foram assemblages (letter zone
boundaries) are very close to or coincident with major sequence
boundaries on the Exxon cycle chart (latest published version is by Haq
et al. 1987). Major extinctions may be related to eustatic sea level falls,
while diversification of faunas can be related to periods of prolonged
sea level rise or highstand (Adams 1983, Seiglie 1978) (18).

5.3. Small benthic / Rotaloid foraminifera biostratigraphyc


zonations

Between about 1930 and 1960 these were used extensively by oil
company paleontologists in Indonesia for zonations and correlations. In
Central Sumatra, for instance, Stanvac paleontologists subdivided the
Early Miocene in an upper Uvigerina 4 zone (deep marine), a middle
Rotalia 5 zone (mainly prodelta) and a lower Elphidium 8 zone (mainly
delta front-delta plain). Over short distances correlations based on these
were not unreasonable, but they were facies correlations with no age
significance, and where facies changed laterally the succession could
not be recognized. Such benthic foraminifera zonations are no longer
used. However, in the shallow marine realm benthic foraminifera are
usually the only common microfossils, and certain species probably do
have age significance. Billman and Witoelar (1974) and Billman et al.
(1980) proposed a zonation for the Late Miocene -Recent deltaic series
in East Kalimantan. Soeka et a1.(1980) proposed six benthic foram
zones in the mid-Miocene to Recent interval in the NE Java basin.
Mohler (1946) and Djamas and Luwarno (1982) suggested that a small
miliolid, Sigmoilina personata, is a good marker species for Eocene
beds in East Kalimantan (18).
Research on evolutionary patterns in smaller benthic foraminifera
is called for, as it might give marker species in those shallow water
facies that generally lack age diagnostic microfossils, but are associated
with reservoir rocks. One example of a possible lineage with
stratigraphic significance is the spinose, small Asterorotalia group.
Early forms with incipient spines are found in the early part of the
Middle Miocene in Central Sumatra (Rotalia sumatrensis of Le Roy
1944). These probably develop into Asterorotalia rnultispinosa with 6-

128
8 well-developed spines. Possibly from this stock, through a gradual
reduction in the number of spines, the first A. subtrispinosa appears
near the Middle-Late Miocene boundary (Soeka et al.1980). Further
development is towards a more pronounced triangular test outline (A.
trispinosa; ?latest Miocene- Recent). Other evolutionary series can
perhaps be established in the Pseudorotalia group (Billman et al. 1980),
and other genera (18).

5.4. Nannofossil biostratigraphic zonations

Since the stratigraphic significance of discoaster, coccolith and


related from, commonly referred to as the nannofossils, first became
apparent (Bramlette and Reidel, 1954 in Martini, 1971), much work has
been done to describe the many assemblages found in marine sediment
from the Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary all over the
world (10).

5.4.1. Mesozoic nannofossils biostratigraphic zonations

Stardner (1983) pioneering work on Jurassic and Cretaceous


nannofossil assemblages has been the basis of a Mesozoic nannofossils
zonation. Such earlier descriptive works as Kamptner (1931), Deflandre
(1939, 1952), Deflandre and Deflandre-Rigaud (1959), Bronnimann
(1955), Noel (1956, 1958), Martini (1961) and Stadner‟s own (1961,
1962) studies on Mesozoic assemblages led him to propose a
subdivision of the Jurassic and Cretaceous characterized by their
particular nannofossil associations (7).
Since Stradner‟s first synthesis numerous contribution have been
made to both the descriptive and stratigraphic aspects of Mesozoic
nannofossils. These include studies by Noel (1965), Stover (1966),
Gartner (1968), Bukry (1969), Prins (1969), Moshkovitz (1971),
Reinhardt (1967 and later studies), Black (1971, 1972), Perch-Nielsen
(1968, 1973), Noel (1970), Medd (1971), Worsley (1971), Amezieux
(1972), Rood and Barnard (1972), and many others (7).
By the late 1960s and early 1970s, enough atratigraphic
information on nannofossils had been accumulated that biostratigraphic
subdivisions of the Mesozoic could be attempted. Cepek and Hay
(1969) were the first propose a zonation for the Cenomaian to
129
Maastrichtian interval based on sections in Kansas and Alabama. This
was followed by other attempts to establish a zonation for the
Cretaceous, e.g. Bukry and Bramlette (1970; Campanian-
Maastrichtian), Manivit (1971; Aptian-Danian), Bukry (1973, late
Cretaceous), Roth (1973; Aptian- Maastrichtian), Roth and Thierstein
(1972; Barriasian- Maastrichtian), Thierstein (1971, 1973; early
Cretaceous), Hill (1976; early Cretaceous) and Verbeek (1976, late
Cretaceous) (7).

130
Table 5.3. Cretaceous nannoplankton zonations by Sissingh (1977)
(16)
.
DATUM INDICATORS
P E AGE CALCAREOUS NANNOPLANKTON ZONATION
Last Nephrolithus frequens

26 Nephrolithus frequens Zone


First Nephrolithus frequens
25 Arkhangelskiella cymbiformis Zone
MAASTRICHTIAN Last Reinhardites levis
24 Reinhardites levis Zone
Last Tranolithus phacelosus
23 Tranolithus phacelosus Zone
Last Reinhardite anthophorus
22 Tetralithus trifidus Zone
First Tetralithus trifidus
21 Tetralithus nitidus Zone
First Tetralithus nitidus
CAMPANIAN 20 Ceratolithoides aculeus Zone
First Ceratolithoides aculeus
19 Colculites ovalis Zone
Last Marthasterites furcatus
18 Aspidolithus parcus (s.l.) Zone
LATE

First Aspidolithus ex gr. Parcus


17 Colculites obscurus Zone
First Colculites obscurus
16 Lucianorhabdus cayeuxii Zone
First Lucianorhabdus cayeuxii
SATONIAN
15 Reinhardites anthophorus Zone
First Reinhardites anthophorus
CRETACEOUS

14 Micula staurophora (s.l.) Zone


First Micula ex gr. staurophora
CONIACIAN 13 Marthasterites furcatus Zone
First Marthasterites furcatus
12 Lucianorhabdus maleformis Zone
First Lucianorhabdus maleformis
TURONIAN
11 Tetralithus pyramidus Zone
First Tetralithus pyramidus
CENOMANIAN 10 Microrhabdulus decoratus Zone
First Microrhabdulus decoratus
9 Eiffellithus turriseiffeli Zone
First Eiffellithus turriseiffeli
ALBIAN 8 Prediscosphaera creatacea Zone
First Prediscosphaera creatacea
7 Chiastozygus litterarius Zone
APTIAN
First Chiastozygus litterarius
6 Micranthorithus hoschulzii Zone
BARREMIAN
Last Chiastozygus litterarius
EARLY

5 Lithraphidites bollii Zone


Last Speetonia colligata
HAUTERIVIAN
4 Cretarhabdus lorei Zone
First Cretarhabdus lorei
3 Calcicalathina oblongata Zone
VALANGINIAN
First Calcicalathina oblongata
2 Cretarhabdus crenulatus Zone
BERRIASIAN First Cretarhabdus crenulatus
1 Nannoconus steinmannii Zone
PORTLANDIAN First Nannoconus steinmannii
L
J

131
Barnard and Hay (1975) were first to propose a zonation for the
Jurassic, based on material from southern England and northern France.
They correlated their zonal boundaries to the chronostratigraphic stages
through the relationship of nannofossil events to ammonite zones. Soon
afterward, Thierstein (1976) gathered and evaluated the existing
information on Jurrasic and Cretaceous nannofossil biostratigraphic
horizons and compiled, for the late Jurassic-Cretaceous interval, a
correlation between biohorizons, European stages, and
magnetostratigraphy. Thierstein differentiated between well-distributed,
cosmopolitan taxa and provincial taxa, which were useful in the age
determination of Jurrasic-Cretaceous sequences. Subsequent to these
studies, other biostratigraphic studies have added more detail and have
substantiated the earlier result. These include: Sissingh (1977), Manivit
et al. (1977), Taylor (1978), Hamilton (1979), Medd (1979),
Moshkovitz (1979), and Deres and Acheriteguy (1980). However,
Barnard and Hay‟s and Thierstein‟s biostratigraphic schemes remain
the most commonly used for Mesozoic coccolith subdivisions. Perch-
Nielsen (1979) has presented an excellent review of the Cretaceous
nannoplankton biostratigraphy, paleoecology, and phyletic evolutionary
trends (7).
Several recent nannofossil and planktonic foraminifera studies on
Cretaceous pelagic sections, in conjuction with magnetostratigraphic
determinations, have furthered the state of the art of Cretaceous
plankton biochronology and have increased the reability as age
assigments on the basis of nannofossils (7).

5.4.2. Cenozoic nannofossils biostratigraphic zonations

The early development of Cenozoic nannofossil biostratigraphy


was due largely to the efforts of Bramlette and Hay, and his colleagues.
As mentioned earlier, Bramlette and his coauthor laid the foundation for
a Cenozoic zonation by describing and documenting the ranges of a
large number of Cenozoic taxa. The data accumulated by these and
numerous other studies has contributed significantly to achieving this
zonation. These include: Bronnimann and Stradner (1960), Martini and
Bramlette (1963), Bramlette and Martini (1964), Sullivan (1964, 1965),
Gartner (1969), Bukry and Bramlette (1970), Roth (1970), Bukry
(1971), Gartner (1971), Edward (1973), Roth (1973, 1974), Edwards
and Perch-Nielsen (1975), and numerous papers by Bukry and his
132
coauthors published in the Initial Reports of DSDP. The composite
zonations for the Cenozoic that are widely used today as based largerly
on the zones suggested by Hay and Mohler (1967) (Paleocene-early
Eocene), Hay et al. (1967) (Paleocene-Eocene and late Pliocene-
Recent), and Bramlette and Wilcoson (1967) (Oligocene-Miocene).
These efforts leds to the compilation of a standar Cenozoic zonation by
Martini (1971), that included much data from outcrop sections on land
and contained a strong hemipelagic bias. The composite zonal scheme
suggested by Okada and Bukry (1980) and later studies benefited from
the sunsequent deep-sea experience. The next versions of this zonation
(e.g. Bukry, 1981) are based largely on widely distributed oceanic taxa,
more suitable for aplications in the deep sea (7).
The diversity of coccolithophores in highest in the tropical-
subtropical latitudes and most marker species are environmentally
excluded from the higher latitudes. Consequently, the Cenozoic (as well
as the Mesozoic) zonal schemes are applicable only in the low, and to a
lesser extent in the middle latitudes. Occasionally, when the
environmental conditions were right (e.g. during climatic ameliorations
when warm water taxa spread into higher latitudes), the lower latitude
zonation become universally applicable, as long as the favorable
conditions prevailed. Edwards (1973) devised a Cenozoic zonation for
the southern high latitudes based on sections in New Zeland and DSDP
drill cores off New Zeland. This scheme was futher refined by Edwards
and Perch-Nielsen (1975) following subsequent drilling in that area.
Their southern latitude zonal subdivision shows that few
biostratigraphic events of lower latitudes are useful in this high latitude
area, and then only during periods of climatic amelioration (e.g. in late
Paleocene and early Eocene). Wise (1973) suggested an innovative
Neogene zonation for a high to mid latitude DSDP site in the north
Pasific, using a combination of low and high latitude nannofossil taxa
and a silicoflagellate datum (7).
Until recently reliable nannofossil biochronologic estimates for
the ages of datum events were available only for the late Neogene and
Pleistocene, based on study of piston core that previously had been
paleomagnetically dated. Gartner (1973) first presented such
biochronologic estimates for the late Neogene nannofossil events from
cores in the tropical Pasific ocean. Ryan et al (1974) presented a similar
comparison of Neogene magmatostratigraphy and planktonic
(nannofossil, planktonic foraminifers, and radiolarian) datum events.

133
Their magnetostratigraphy was based on cores from the equatorial
Pasific, whose biostratigraphic data was compared to similar data from
Neogene sections in the Mediterranean region; and, thus, by second
order correlations, dates were assigned to various Neogene stage
boundaries. Haq et al (1996 and 1980) have also estimated the ages of
several nannofossil events of the past 8 m.y. by first older correlations
with magnetic polarity events in Pasific and Atlantic cores. Mazzei et.
Al (1979) calibrated the late Neogene calcareous plankton events to
magnetostratigraphy in a DSDP site off northwest Africa; and their
estimates show a substantial agreement to those in earlier studies (7).
The development of the hydraulic piston corer, which brought
with it the possibility of recovering undisturbed sections older than
Neogene, has finally provided the opportunity to extend the calibration
of biochronologic datum events to magnetostratigraphy futher back in
time (7).
As mentioned, the popular Cenozoic planktonic nannofossil
(nannoplankton) biostratigraphic zones have been studied by Hay, et al.
(1967), Bramlette and Wilcoxon (1967), Martini (1971), Bukry (1973)
and Okada and Bukry (1980). Martini‟s standard nannofossil
biozonation using samples throughout the word is the most popular to
be used in Indonesia. The 25 nannoplankton zones in the Paleogene
(numbered NP 1 to NP 25) and the 21 nannoplankton zones in the
Neogene to Quaternary (numbered NN 1 to NN 21) are supposed for a
standard Tertiary and Quaternary calcareous nannoplankton zonation.
Whereas Okada and Bukry (1980) suggested 19 nannoplankton zones in
the Paleogene (numbered CP 1 to CP 19) and 15 nannoplankton zones
in Neogene which are divided into several subzones (10).

134
Table.5.4. Paleogene Nannoplankton Zonation by Martini
(1971) (11)

135
Table 5.5. Neogene Nannoplankton Zonation by Martini
(1971) (11).

136
Table 5.6. Cenozoic nannoplankton zonations by Okada and Bukry
(1980) and its correlation with Martini (1971) (12).

137
Table. 5.7. Correlation of Nannoplakton and Foraminifera
Biozonation, of Martini (1971), Okada and Bukry (1980) and Blow
(1969) (1)(12)(2)

138
Table 5.8. Modified coccolith zones and subzones and
corresponding code numbers (Okada and Bukry, 1980) (12)

139
Another frequently used zonal scheme is that of Okada and Bukry
(1980; CN and CP number zones). Varol(l983) proposed a modified
scheme for the Miocene - Recent in Southeast Asia
The Neogene is subdivided into eight intervals (A-H) of 1-5 Ma
duration, based on the most important events, as follows:
1. Interval A (last occurrence of Sphenolithus ciperoensis to first
occurrence of Sphenolitus belemnos NN1-2/CN1a-c)
2. Interval B (first occurrence of Sphenolitus belemnos to last
occurrence of Sphenolitus belemnos NN3/CN2)
3. Interval C (last occurrence of Sphenolitus belemnos to last
occurrence of Spenolithus heteromorphus NN4-5/CN3-4)
4. Interval D (last occurrence of Spenolithus heteromorphus to first
occurrence of Catinaster NN6-7/CN5a-b)
5. Interval E (first occurrence of Catinaster to base small
Reticulofenestra interval NN8-10a/CN6-8a)
6. Interval F (base small Reticulofenestra interval to last occurrence
of Discoaster quinqueramus NN10b-11/CN8b-9b)
7. Interval G (last occurrence of Discoaster quinqueramus to last
occurrence of Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicus NN12-15/CN10a-
11b)
8. Interval H (last occurrence of Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicus to
last occurrence of Discoaster brouweri NN16-18/CN12a-d) (12).

5.4.3. Neogene nannoplankton zones in Indonesia basins


(Case Study)
Nannofossil is widely used for determining age and high
resolution correlation; but it not much has been written on the
calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy of Indonesia. In the East Java,
Indonesia, a lot of high quality secondary surface and subsurface data
of Miocene marine sediment can be used to study of nannofossil
biostratigraphy. That is why the study covered Miocene nannofossil
biostratigraphyc zonation is to be done in East Java Area, Indonesia (10.)
The total of fifteen calcareous nannofossil marker species have
been selected and marked to the Miocene interval of East Java; among
all: Sphenolithus ciperoensis Bramlette and Wilcoxon, n. sp.,
Cyclicargoltihus abisectus (Muller), Discoaster druggi Bramlette and
Wilcoxon, Sphenolithus heteromorphus Deflandre, Sphenolithus
belemnos Bramlette and Wilcoxon, n. sp., Calcidiscus macintyrei
(Bukry and Bramlette), Helicosphaera ampliaperta Bramlette and

140
Wilcoxon, n. sp., Discoaster kugleri Martini and Bramlette, Discoaster
hamatus Martini and Bramlette, Discoaster neohamatus Bukry and
Bramlette, Discoaster bellus Bukry and Percival, Discoaster neorectus
Bukry, Discoaster quinqueramus Gartner, Amaurolithus primus (Bukry
and Percival), and Discoaster berggrenii (Bukry) (10.)
For the purpose of establishing levels of correlation between
subsurface and surface section in this region, interval zones are
determined. Interval zone are biostratigraphyc zone lying between two
horizon first appearance (LA) or last appearance (LA) of calcareous
nannofossil marker species. On the basis of these events, the eighteen
Miocene zones from total the nineteen zones were established. Those
are, starting from the oldest (10) :
a) Sphenolithus ciperoensis Range Zone
Definition: The appearance of relatively common Sphenolithus
ciperoensis defines this zone.
Age: Late Oligocene
Remarks: Okada (1973) in Perch-Nielsen (1985) defines the first
and last appearances of S.ciperoensis as boundaries spesies of
S.ciperoensis zone. This zone is defined as CP 19 zone (Okada
and Bukry, 1981).
b) Sphenolithus ciperoensis - Cyclicargolithus abisectus Interval
zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Sphenolithus
ciperoensis to the last appearance of Cyclicargolithus abisectus.
Age: Latest Oligocene.
Remarks: The first appearance of C.abisectus is used to define the
base of the Late Oligocene C.abisectus zone of Waghorn in
Perch-Nilesen (1985) and to approximate the base of NP 24
(Martini, 1971) or 25.2 my BP. The last appearance of
C.abisectus defines top of CN 1a (Okada and Bukry, 1980).
Occurrences above the basal Miocene have, however, been
reported.
c) Cyclicargoltihus abisectus - Discoaster druggi Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Cyclicargoltihus
abisectus to the first appearance of Discoaster druggi.
Age: Early Miocene
d) Discoaster druggi - Sphenolithus heteromorphus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Discoaster
druggi to the first appearance of Sphenolithus heteromorphus.

141
Age: Early Miocene
Remark: The Early Miocene sees that the first appearance of a
few new discoasters; one, D.druggii is used to define the base of
NN 2 (Martini, 1971) and CN 1c subzone or 21 my (Okada and
Bukry, 1980).
e) Sphenolithus heteromorphus - Sphenolithus belemnos Interval
zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Sphenolithus
heteromorphus to the last appearance of Sphenolithus belemnos.
Age: Early Miocene
Remarks: Okada (1973) in Perch-Nielsen (1985) defines the first
and last appearance of S.belemnos as boundaries spesies of
Sphenolithus belemnos zone. The last appearance of S. belemnos
is used to define top of NN 3 (Martini, 1971) and CN 2 or 17 my
(Okada and Bukry, 1980).
f) Sphenolithus belemnos - Calcidiscus macintyrei Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Sphenolithus
belemnos to first appearance of Calcidiscus macintyrei.
Age: Early Miocene
g) Calcidiscus macintyrei - Helicosphaera ampliaperta Interval
zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Calcidiscus
macintyrei to the last appearance of Helicosphaera ampliaperta
Age: Early Miocene
Remark: The last appearance of H.ampliaperta is used to define
top of NN 4 (Martini, 1971) and CN 3 or 15 my (Okada and
Bukry, 1980).
h) Helicosphaera ampliaperta - Sphenolithus heteromorphus
Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Helicosphaera
ampliaperta to the last appearance of Sphenolithus
heteromorphus
Age: Middle Miocene
Remark: The last appearance of S.heteromorphus is used to
define top of NN 5 (Martini, 1971) and CN 4 or 14 my (Okada
and Bukry, 1980).
i) Sphenolithus heteromorphus - Discoaster kugleri Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Sphenolithus
heteromorphus to the first appearance of Discoaster kugleri

142
Age: Middle Miocene
j) Discoaster kugleri Range zone
Definition: Interval from the first to the last appearance of
Discoaster kugleri
Age: Middle Miocene
Remarks: The first last appearance of D.kugleri is used to define
base of NN 7 zone (Martini, 1971). Okada and Bukry (1980)
defines total range of D.kugleri as CN 5b subzone or 13.4 to 13.2
my.
k) Discoaster kugleri - Discoaster hamatus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Discoaster
kugleri to the first appearance of Discoaster hamatus
Age: Middle Miocene
l) Discoaster hamatus - Discoaster neohamatus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Discoaster
hamatus to the first appearance of Discoaster neohamatus
Age: Latest Middle Miocene
Remark: The first appearance of D.hamatus is used to define base
of NN 9 zone or 10.2 my (Martini, 1971).
m) Discoaster neohamatus - Discoaster bellus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Discoaster
neohamatus to the first appearance of Discoaster bellus
Age: Late Miocene
n) Discoaster bellus - Discoaster hamatus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Discoaster bellus
to the last appearance of Discoaster hamatus
Age: Late Miocene
Remarks: Okada (1973) in Perch-Nielsen (1985) defines the first
appearance of D.bellus to the last appearance of D.hamatus
interval as Discoaster bellus subzone. The first appearance of
D.bellus defines the base of CN 8 zone or 11 my (Okada and
Bukry, 1980); whereas the last appearance of D.hamatus defines
top of NN 9 zone (Martini, 1971).
o) Discoaster hamatus - Discoaster neorectus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Discoaster
hamatus to the last appearance of Discoaster neorectus
Age: Late Miocene
Remark: The last appearance of D.neorectus defines the top of
CN 8 zone or 7 my (Okada and Bukry, 1980).

143
p) Discoaster neorectus - Discoaster quinqueramus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Discoaster
neorectus to the first of Discoaster quinqueramus
Age: Late Miocene
Remark: The first appearance of D.quinqueramus marks the base
of CN 9 zone or 7 my (Okada and Bukry, 1980).
q) Discoaster quinqueramus - Amaurolithus primus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Discoaster
quinqueramus to the first appearance of Amaurolithus primus
Age: Late Miocene
r) Amaurolithus primus - Discoaster berggrenii Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Amaurolithus
primus to the last appearance of Discoaster berggrenii
Age: Late Miocene
Remark: The first appearance of A.primus is used to define the
base of CN 9b subzone or 6.6 my (Okada and Bukry, 1980)
s) Discoaster berggrenii - Discoaster quinqueramus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Discoaster
berggrenii to the last appearance of Discoaster quinqueramus
Age: Late Miocene
Remark: The last appearance D.quinqueramus is used to define
top of NN 11 zone (Martini, 1971) or 5.2 my BP.

Of the seven zones recognized in Miocene nannofossil


biostratigraphy of East Java, and it‟s correlation with previous standard
nannofossil zonation have been used by Martini (1971) and five zones
by Okada and Bukry (1980). The biostratigraphic zone indicate that
throughout Miocene interval, calcareous nannofossil provides a high
accurate biostratigraphy and it is a good tool for correlation (10.).

144
Table 5.9. Nannofossil Events, Biostratigraphic Zones in East Java
and Its Correlation with Martini's (1971) and Okada and Bukry
(1980) (10)

5.5. Pollen-Spora biostratigraphic zonations


The zonation of the Oligo-Miocene spore-pollen is mainly based
on evolutionary changes in Florschuetzia, the pollen of the Sonneratia
mangrove (Germeraad et al. 1968, Morley 1977). The zones are very
broad (close to 10 m.y. average), and, since transitional forms may
occur near zonal boundaries, they can not always be determined
unequivocally. Also, in environments away from mangrove belts
Florschuetzia pollen are rare. Little is known about Eocene spores-
pollen in Southeast Asia; for the Pliocene-Quaternary interval local
zonations have been proposed (Morley 1977). Some local consultants
claim to have a more refined zonation, but documentation has been
withheld from independent testing (18.)

145
DI AGN OS T I C S PE C I E S

A G E POLLEN ZONE ZONAL


OF CHARACTERISTIC OF ZONE
JAVA ISLAND MARKER

B LOW MARTI NI
ZONE ZONE
NN 21
N 23 NN 20 Abundant M. annu latus which associates with D. australiensis,
PLEISTOCENE Monoporites annulatus
N 22 N N 19 in the absence of S. papuanus.
N 21 NN 17
NN 18 S. papuanus The presence of D . australiensis together with S. papuanus.
NN 16 Dacrycarpidites australiensis
LATE
N 20 NN 15 D.australiensis
PLIOCE NE
NN 14
EARLY N 19 NN 13 The o ccurrence of S. papuanus without D . australiensis and
Stenochlaenitites papuanus F. trilobata.
N 18 NN 12
N 17 NN 11
LATE F. trilobata
N 16 NN 10
N 15 NN 9
N 14 NN 8 F. meridionalis, F. levipoli and F. trilobata are found together
NN 7 Florschuetzia meridionalis within this zone.
N 13
N 12 NN 6
N 11
N 10
NN5
N9 F. meridionalis
N 8 NN 4 The appeara nce of F. levipoli in association w ith F. trilobata.
N 7 NN 3 Florschuetzia levipoli F. meridionalis is absent from this zone.
EARLY N 6 NN 2 F. levipoli
N5 The presence of F. trilobata w ithout F. levipoli and other Paleo-
N4
NN 1 Florschuetzia trilobata gene taxa.
P 22 NP 25
LATE P 21
NP 24 M. naharkotensis
P 20
Meyeripollis naharkotensis The occurence o f M. n aharkotensis.
P 19 NP 23
EARLY
P 18 NP 22 M. naharkotensis
NP 21
P 17 NP 20
EOCENE
LATE P 16
P 15
NP 19
NP 18
Proxapertites operculatus The existence of P. operculatus.
MIDDLE P 14 NP 17
NP 16

(15 )
Figure 5.1 Palynological zone on Java .

146
Table.5.10. Biostratigraphyc Correlation in Indonesia (18)

147
Continued:

148
Table. 5.11. Neogene Biochronostratigraphy

References :
(1)
Blow, W.H. 1969. Late Middle Eocene to Recent Planktonic
Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy, International Conference
Planktonic Microfosil 1 st., Geneva (1967)
(2)
-. 1979. The Cenozoic Globigerinida, Leiden, E.J Brill, Proc.
Leiden, E.J. Brill, V.1, p. 199 – 422.
(3)
Bolli, H. M., and Saunders, J. B. 1986. Oligocene to Holocene
Low Latitude Planktic Foraminifera, in Plankton Stratigraphy,
edited by Bolli, H.M., Saunders, J.B., and Perch-Nielsen, K.,
Cambridge University Press, p. 155 – 262.
(4)
Braiser, M.D. 1985. Microfossils, Fourth Edition, George, Allen
and Unwin (Publisher) Ltd
(5)
Caron, Michele. 1986. Cretaceous Planktic Foraminifera, in
Plankton Stratigraphy, edited by Bolli, H.M., Saunders, J.B.,
and Perch-Nielsen, K., Cambridge University Press, p. 17-86
(6)
Erdtman, G. 1943. An Introduction to Pollen Analysis, Chronica
Botania Company, p 1-54
(7)
Haq, Bilal, U. 1984. Nannofossils Biostratigraphy, benchmark
149
papers in Geology/78, Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company,
Stoundsburg Pennsylvania, 386 p.
(8)
Isnaniawardhani, V, Adhiperdana, B.G, Nurdradjat. 2013. Late
Miocene Planktic Foraminifera Biostratigraphy of Central Bogor
Through, Indonesia, Pustaka Ilmiah Universitas Padjadjaran,
http://pustaka.unpad.ac.id/archives/ 126510
(9)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya, Rusman, Rinawan and Prianggoro,
Bambang. 2012. The fossil assemblage features of limestone and
clastic sedimentary rock in Lulut Area, Cileungsi District, Bogor,
West Java, Bulleton of Scientific Contribution Volume 10,
Nomor 2, Agustus 2012
(10)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya, Suparka, Emmy, and Adisaputra,
Mimin K. 2013. Miocene Calcareous Nannofossil Biostratigraphy
of East Java, Indonesia, Procceding of the 9th International
Congress on Pasific Neogene Stratigraphy, Tsukuba, Japan
(11)
Martini, E. 1971. Standard Tertiary and Quaternary Calcareous
Nannoplankton Zonation, Proceedings of the II Planktonic
Conference, Roma, 1970, A. Farinacci, ed., Ediziioni
Tecnoscienza, Rome, p. 739-785
(12)
Okada, H and Bukry, D. 1980. Supplementary Modification and
Introduction of Code Numbers to the Low Latitude Coccolith
Biostratigraphic Zonation (Bukry, 1973; 1975), Marine
Micropaleontologi volume 5, pp. 321-325
(13)
Perch-Nielsen. 1986. Cenozoic Calcareous Nannofossils, in Bolli
Palnkton Stratigraphy, H.M., Saunders, J.B., and Perch Nielsen,
K. (Eds.) Plankton Stratigraphy, Cambridge University Press, p.
427-554
(14)
Postuma, J.A. 1971. Manual of Planktonic Foraminifera, Elsevier
Publishing Company, Amsterdam, London, New York, 398 p.
(15)
Rahardjo, AT, Polhaupessy. AA, Wiyono Sugeng,
Nugrahaningsih, Lelono, Eko. B. 1994. Zonasi Polen Tersier
Pulau Jawa, Makalah Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia, Pertemuan
Ilmiah Tahunan ke 23.
(16)
Sissingh, W. 1977. Biostratigraphy of Cretaceous Nannoplankton,
Geologie en Mijnbouw, volume. 56. The Royal Netherlands
Geological and Mining Society, p. 37-65
(17)
Toumarkine, Monique, and Luterbacher, Hanspeter. 1986.
Paleocene and Eocene planktic foraminifera, in Plankton
Stratigraphy Bolli, H.M., Saunders, J.B., and Perch Nielsen, K.

150
(Eds.), Cambridge University Press, p. 87 - 154
(18)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proc. Indonesian Petroleum
Association, Seventeenth Annual Convention.
(19)
Young, J.R. 1996. Neogene, in Bown, Paul, R, Calcareous
Nannofossils Biostratigraphy, Kluwer Academic Publisher, p. 225
– 315.

151
TOPIC 6
CORRELATION
AND STRATIGRAPHIC MARKER

6.1. Introduction

In the simplest sense, stratigrapic correlation is the demonstration


of equivalency of stratigraphic units. The concept of correlation goes
back to the very root of stratigraphy. The fundamental principles of
correlation have been presented in numerous early textbooks on
geology; especially interesting review of these general principles are
given in Dunbar and Rodgers (1957), Weller (1960) and Krumbein and
Sloss (1963). The continued strong interest in correlation is
demonstrated by more recent publication of several books and article
dealing with correlation, particullary statistical methods of correlation
(e.g. Agterberg, 1990, Cubitt and Reyment, 1982; Mann, 1981;
Merriam, 1981) (1).
The fundamental concepts of stratigraphic correlation were
already firmy established by the 1950s and 1960s. These basic
principles are still important tools today, however the emergence of
new concepts and more advanced analytical tool have changed our
perception of correlation to some degree, as well as adding new
methods for correlation. The development of the field of
magnetostratigraphy since the late 1950s, for example, has provided an
extremely important new tool for global time-stratigrphic correlation on
the basis of magnetic polarity events. Also, rapid advances in computer
technology and availability and the application of computer-assisted
statisticall method to stratigraphic problems have added a new
quantitative dimension to the field of stratigraphic correlation (1).

6.2. Definition of correlation

In spite of the fact that the concept of correlation goes back to the
152
early history of stratigraphy, disagreement has persisted over the exact
meaning of the term, Historically, two points of view have prevailed.
One view rigidly restricts the meaning of correlation to demonstration
of time equivalency, that is, to demonstration that two bodies of rock
were deposited during the same period of time (Dunbar and Rodgers,
1957; Rodgers, 1959). From this point view, establishing the
equivalence of two lithostratigraphic units on the basis of lithologic
similarity does not constitute correlation (1).
A boarder interpretation of correlation allows that equivalency
may be expresses in lithologic, paleontologic and chronologic terms
(Krumbein and Sloss, 1963). In other words, two bodies of rock can be
correlated as belongin to the same lithostratigraphic and
biostratigraphic unit even though these units may be of different ages. It
is clear, from a pragmatic point of view, that most geologists today
accept the boarder view of correlation. Petroleoum geologists, for
example, routinely correlate subsurface formations on the basis of
lithology of the formations, the specific signature recorded within
formations by instrumental well logs, or the reflection characteristics on
seismic record (1).

6.3. Types of correlation

The 1983 North American Stratigraphic Code (Appendix C)


recognizes three principal kinds of correlation:
1. Lithocorrelation, which links units of similar lithology and
stratigraphic position
2. Biocorrelation, which expresses similarity of fossil content and
biostratigraphic position
3. Chronocorrelation, which expresses correspondence in age and
chronostratigraphic position (1).
Chronocorrelation can be established by any method that allows
matching of strata by age equivalence. Correlation of units
defined by lithology may also yielded chronostratigraphic
correlation on a local scale, but when traced regionally many
lithostratigraphic units transgress time boundaries. Stratigraphic
units deposited during major transgressions and regressions are
notably time-transgressive.The important point stressed here that
the boundaries defined by criteria used to establish time
correlation of stratigraphic unit may not be the same as those

153
defined by criteria used to establish lithologic correlation.
Because of this fact, different methods of correlation
(lithocorrelation, biocorrelation, chronocorrelation) may yield
different results when applied to the same stratigraphic succession
(1)
.
Another point that requires some clarification is the difference
between matching of stratigraphic units and correlation of these units.
Matching has been defined simply as correspondence of serial data
without regard to stratigraphic units (Schwarzacher, 1975; Shaw, 1982).
For example, two rock units identified in stratigraphic sections at
different localities as having essentially identical lithology (a.g. two
black shales) can be matched on the basis of lithology, however, these
units may have neither time equivalence nor lithostratigraphic
equivalence. Physical tracing of the units between the localities may
show that one unit lies stratigraphically above the other. Matching by
lithologic characteristics in this particular case does not constitute
demonstration of equivalence. Shaw (1982) states that the process of
correlation is the demonstration of geometric relationship between
rocks, fossils, or succession of geologic data for interpretation and
inclusion in facies models, paleontologic reconstruction, or structural
models. The object of correlation is to establish equivalency of
stratigraphic units between geographically separated parts of a geologic
unit. Implicit in this definition is the concept that correlation is made
between stratigraphic units, that is, lithostratigraphic units,
biostratigraphic units, or chronostratigraphic units (1).
Correlation can be regarded as either direct (formal) or indirect
(informal) (Shaw, 1982). Direct correlation can be esrablish physically
and unequivocally. Physical tracing of continuous stratigraphic units is
the only unequivocal method of showing correspondence of a lithic unit
in one locality to that in another. Indirect correlation can be established
by numerous methods, such as visual comparison of instrumental well
logs, polarity reversal records, or fossil assemblages, however, such
comparison have different degrees of reliability and can never be totally
unequivocal (1).
6.4. Lithocorrelation

1. Continuous lateral tracing of a lithostratigraphic unit.


Direct, continuous tracing of a lithostratigraphic unit from one
locality to another is the only correlation method that can

154
establish the equivalence of such a unit without doubt. This
correlation method can be applied only where strata are
continuously or nearly continuously exposed.(1)
2. Lithologic similarity and stratigraphic position.
a) Lithologic similarity
Geologist working in areas where direct lateral tracing of
bed is not possible must depend for correlation of
lithostratigraphic units upon methods that match strata from
one area to another on the basis of lithologic similarity and
stratigraphic position, Because matching of strata does not
necessarily indicate correlation, correlation by lithologic
similarity has varying degrees of reliability. The success of
such correlation depends upon the distinctiveness of the
lithologic attributes used for correlation, the nature of the
stratigraphic succession and the presence or absence of
lithologic changes from one area to another. Facies changes
that take place in lithostratigraphic units between two areas
under study obviously complicated the problem of lithologic
correlation. (1)
Lithologic similarity can be established on the basis of a
variety of rock properties. These properties include gross
lithology (e.g. sandstone, shale or limestone), color, heavy
mineral assemblages or other distinctive mineral
assemblages, primarily sedimentary structures such as
bedding and cross-lamination, and even thickness and
weathering characteristics. (1)
b) Stratigraphic position in a succession
Another way in which position in a stratigraphic succession
is important has to do with establishing correlation of strata
by relation to some highly distinctive and easily correlated
unit or units. Such distinctive beds serve as control units for
correlation of other strata above and bellow. (1)
3. Correlation by instrumental well logs
Well logs are simply curves sketched on paper charts that are
produced from data obtained from measurements in well bores.
These traces record variation in such rock properties as
electrical resistivity, transmissibility of sound waves, or
adsorption and emission of nuclear radiation in the rocks
surrounding a borehole. These variations are a reflection of

155
changes in features, such as gross lithology, mineralogy, fluid
content, and porosity in the subsurface formations. Thus
correlation by use of well log is not based totally on lithology.
Nonetheles, most of the rock properties measured by well logs
are closely related to lithology. (1).

LITHOCORRELATION

WELL-1 WELL-2

mudstone

mudstone

sandstone

limestone

limestone

breccia

breccia
shale

Figure 6.1. Principle of lithocorrelation

EQ. TOP AIR BENAKAT

EQ. TOP GUMAI

EQ. TOP BATURAJA

EQ. TOP TALANGAKAR

BASEMENT EQ. TOP LAHAT (?)

Figure 6.2. Lithocorrelation (Case study 1)

156
CARBONATE DOMINATED,
SHALES INTERCALATION
SHALLOW
MARINE

USED FOR
SEISMIC TIE
CORE

Lithocorrelation

Figure 6.3. Lithocorrelation (Case study 2)

6.5. Biocorrelation

Biostratigraphic units are observable, objective stratigraphic units


identified on the basis of their fossil content. As such, they can be
traced and matched from one locality to another just as
lithostratigraphic units are traced. Biostratigraphic units may or may not
have time significance. For example, assemblage biozone and
abundance biozones may cross time line (be diachronous) when traced
laterally. On the other hand, taxon-range biozones, and interval
biozones, particulary those defined by first appearances of taxa, yield
correlation lines that coincide in general with time lines.
Biostratigraphic units may be correlated, irrespective of their time
significance, using much the same principles employed in correlation of
lithostratigraphic units – matching by identity and position in the
stratigraphic sequence, for example. In this section, we will first
examine correlation by assemblage biozones and abundance biozones,
which can be correlated as biostratigraphic unit even though they may
not have time-stratigraphic significance (1).

157
BIOCORRELATION

WELL-1 WELL-2
Sandstone
Conglomerate Fossil
Fossis assemblage
assmblage A Aump. fosil A
Mudstone
Fossil
Sandstone assemblage B
Fossil
assemblage B
Shale
Fossil
Shale Fossil assemblage C
assemblage C

Limestone
Shale
Fossil
Fossil
assemblage D
assemblage D

Figure 6.4. Principle of biocorrelation


Biocorrelation methods based on interval zones and other zones
that yield time-stratigraphic correlations (primarily at biocorrelation on
the basis of marine invertebrate organism): (1)
1. Correlation by assemblage biozones
Assemblage biozones are based on distinctive grouping of three
or more taxa without regard to their range limits. They are defined
by different successions of fauna or floras, and their succed each
other in a stratigraphic section without gaps or overlaps.
Assemblage zone have particular significance as an indicator of
environment, which may vary greatly regionally. Therefore, they
tend to be of greatest value in local correlations.
2. Correlation by abundance biozones
Abundance biozones are defined by the quantitatively distinctive
maxima of relative abundance of one or more species, genus, or
other taxa rather than by the range of the taxon. They represent a
time or times when a particular taxon was at the peak of its
development with respect to numbers of individuals.
3. Chronocorrelation by fossils
Chronostratigraphic correlation is the matching up of stratigraphic
units on the basis of time equivalence. Establishing the time
equivalence of strata is the back-bone of global stratigraphy and is
158
considered by most stratigraphers to be the most important type of
correlation. Method for establishing time-stratigraphic correlation
fall into two board general categories: biological and
physical/chemical.
Time stratigraphic correlation by biological methods is based
mainly on use of concurrent range zones and other interval zones.
Biological correlation methods also include statistical treatment
of range zone data and correlation by biogeographical abundance
zones, which are biological events related to climate fluctuations.
4. Correlation by taxon-range and interval biozones
a) Taxon-range biozones
Taxon-range biozones may be very useful for time
correlation if the taxa upon which they are based have very
short stratigraphic ranges. Correlation by taxon-range zone
is often reffered to as correlation by index fossils. Index
fossil are considered to be those taxa that have very short
stratigraphic ranges, were geographically widespread, were
abundant enough to show up in the stratigraphic record, and
are easily identifiable.
b) Interval biozones
When individual taxon-range biozones are very long, and
correlation by taxon biozone is thus not suitable, much finer
scale correlation is possible by using other types of interval
biozones. Interval biozones defined by the first
(stratigaphical lowest) appearance of two taxa, for example,
are particularly useful in time stratigraphic correlation
because they are based on evolutionary changes, along
phyletic lineages, that tend to occur very rapidly. Thus, the
interval between the first documented appearances of two
taxa may represent a very short span of time, and the age of
the strata in this interval may be nearly synchronous
throughout their extent. Interval biozones defined on the last
(stratigraphically highest) apperances of taxa are commonly
considered to have less time significance than those based
on first appearances because extinctions of taxa commonly
do not occur with the same suddenness that new species
appear through phyletic evolution.
c) Graphic method for correlating by taxon-range biozone
Although interval biozones can be used to define units of

159
strata deposited during relatively short periods of time, they
do not necessarily yielded precise time-stratigraphic
correlations. Organism may migrate laterally and appear in
other areas at somewhat later times than their true first
appearance or they may migrate out of a local area before
their final extinction elsewhere. These variables of behavior
make a boundaries between interval zones inherently
„fuzzy”. The exact boundary between biozones can never be
known because such boundaries are determinated
empirically. Additional collecting in a new data always
holds the possibility of extending the known range of
previously defined species or taxa, because they may have
appeared earlier or persisted longer in the new area than in
the originally defined areas. One way to minimize the
problem of fuzzy zonal boundaries is to treat range data
statistically, utilizing the first and last appearances of all the
species present in a stratigraphic section rather than the
ranges of just one or two species. Shawn (1964) was the first
to propose a graphical method for establishing time
equivalence of strata in two stratigraphic sections by plotting
first and last appearances of all the species in one section
against the frst and last appearances of the same species in
another section. This method is now widely used by
stratigraphers for detailed time-stratigraphic correlation
between stratigraphic sections, particularly local sections.
5. Correlation by biogeographical abundance biozones
This approach is correlation based on the maximum abundance of
a taxon that result from geographical shifts of an environmentally
sensitive fossil assemblage (Haq and Worsley, 1962). Owing to
latitudinally related temperature differences in the ocean, some
species or other taxa are restricted to biogeographic provinces that
are defined by latitude. Thus, low latitude taxa are ecologically
excluded from high latitudes, and vice viersa; however, changes
in climate can allow shifts of these taxa into a different
biogeographic province. During major glacial stages, for example,
high-latitude taxa can expand into lower-latitudes, and during
warning trends between major glacial stages low-latitude taxa can
expand into higher latitudes. From a geochronological point of
view, the spreading out of certain planktonic species in response

160
to major climatic fluctuations is essentially isochronous.
Climate-related shifts in planktonic taxa at specific times thus provides
biogeographical abundance events that can be correlated from one area
to another.
A related approach is time-stratigraphic correlation based on the
coiling ratios of planktonic foraminifera, as described by Eicher (1976).
The multi-chambered shells of some foraminifera are known to coil in
one direction when the species lives in areas of warm water and in
opposite direction when it lives in areas of cold water. The foraminifer
Globorotalia truncatulinoides, for example, has dominantly right-
handed coils in warm water and left-handled coils in cold water (1).

Figure 6.5. Stratigraphic section showing occurrence of


Lepidocyclina and Miogypsina in Upper Miocene sediments,
Ketindingan Field (1).

6.6. Chronocorrelation

Chronostratigraphic units are extremely important in stratigraphy


because they form the basis for provincial to global correlation of strata
on the basis of age equivalence. Chronostratigraphic correlation is
correlation that expresses correspondence in age and
chronostratigraphic position of stratigraphic units. To many geologist,
correlation on the basis of age equivalence is by far the most important
161
type of correlation, and, in fact, it is only type of correlation possible on
a truly global basis. (1)
1. Event correlation and event stratigraphy
Event correlation constitutes part of what has come to be known
as event stratigraphy. Event stratigraphy focuses on the specific
events that generate a stratigraphic units or succession rather than
on the physical or biological characteristics of the unit. For
example, a eustatic rise in sea level can effect sedimentation
patterns wordwide. As a result of this event, sedimentary facies
are generated in a variety of environments in various part of the
world. These facies may not be equivalent in term of their
physical characteristics, however, they are equivalent in the sense
that they were produced as a result of the same event. Thus, they
are chonological equivalents.
Events can be considered to have different scales depending upon
their duration, intensity and geologic effect
a) Correlation by short-term depositional events.
Correlation made on the basis of such short-term geologic
event markers is called event correlation. Some events
produce key-beds, or marker beds, that can be traced in
outcrop or subsurface sections for long distances. These
marker beds are useful for time-stratigraphic correlation, as
well as for lithostratigraphic correlation.
b) Event correlation based on transgressive-regressive events
A different approach to event correlation is represented by
local correlation based on position within a transgressive-
regressive succession or cycle (Ager, 1981). According to
Ager, event correlation in this case is based on the
correlation of corresponding peaks of symmetric
sedimentary cycles that are presumed to be synchronous.
The events represented in this type of correlation are the
result of transgressions and regressions that may represent
either worldwide, simultaneous eustatic changes in sea level
or more local changes owing to uplift, subsidence, or
fluctuation in sediment supply.
2. Correlation by stable isotope events (Carbon isotopes, sulfur
isotopes, and strontium isotopes)
Variations in the relative abundance of certain stable,
nonradioactive isotopes in marine sediments and fossils can be
162
used as a tool for chronostratigraphic correlation of marine
sediments. Geochemical evidence shows that the isotopic
composition of oxygen, carbon, sulfur and strontium in the ocean
has undergone large fluctuations, or excursions in the geologic
past-fluctuation that have been recorded in marine sediments.
Because the mixing time in the oceans is about 1000 years or less,
marine isotopic excursion are considered to be essentially
isochronous throughout the world. Variations in isotopic
composition of sediments or fossils allow geochemist to construct
isotopic composition curves that can be used as stratigraphic
markers for correlation purposes (1).

Figure 6.6. Geologic time-table calibrated in absolute age


(North American Geology)

163
CHRONOCORRELATION
Well-1 Well-2
Limestone
Late Miocene Limestone
Late Miocene
Sandstone
Shale
Shale
Middle Miocene Sandstone

Breccia Sandstone Middle Miocene

Siltstone
Early Miocene Tuffaceous
sandsstone
Breccia Early Miocene

Figure 6.7. Principle of chronocorrelation\

Chronocorrelation with flatening on Top Early Miocene (Te5)


Figure 6.8. Chronocorrelation with flattening on Top Early
Miocene (Te5) (Case Study)

164
6.7. Key bed or marker bed

Figure 6.9. The correlation can lead to constructing of facies


changes during the time (Case Study)

If it is the only such bed in the stratigraphic succession in the


region, and thus cannot be confused with any other bed, it can serve as
a key bed or marker bed, to which other strata are related. Strata
immediately above or below this control unit can be correlated with a
reasonable degree of confident with strata that are in a similar
stratigraphic position with respect to the control unit in other areas (1).

165
Top Miocene Tf3
Top Miocene Tf3

Top Tf1 Middle


Miocene
Top Tf1 Middle Miocene

Top Early Miocene Te5


Top Early Miocene Te5

Top Oligocene Te 4

Top Oligocene Te4

Lithocorrelation may be not equivalent to


chronocorrelation

Figure 6.10. Lithocorrelation may be not equivalent to


chronocorrelation (Case Study)

References
(1)
Boggs, Sam, JR, 2006, Principles of Sedimentology and
Stratigraphy, Fourth Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
07458.

166
TOPIC 7
PALEOENVIRONMENT AND
BIOFACIES

The distribution of microfauna and flora in modern environments


is reasonably well known, so microfossils are a useful tool for
interpretation of depositional environment of sedimentary rocks. (6)
In marine sediments, foraminifera are the main tools for facies
work. The main trends are increase in number and diversity from
brackish to outer sublittoral/upper bathyal environments and increase in
the percentage of planktonic foraminifera with depth. Controls on
distribution are primarily water salinity, temperature, substrate, light,
nutrients and oxygen content. Some of these are interrelated, and
related to water depth (6).
7.1. Delta System

Figure 7.1. Profile of Delta System

Figure 7.2. summarizes the distribution of foraminifera and


ostracods in the Mahakam delta. It should be stressed that, like
167
sediment distribution, fossil distribution patterns vary with delta type.
The Mahakam delta is a large river and tide-dominated delta system,
building out into deep water. Post-mortem transport of microfauna by
tidal currents is common in the estuaries and on the delta front. In river-
or wave- dominated deltas thiswould probably be less significant (6).

Figure 7.2. Distribution of Foraminifera (F) and Ostracodes (O) in


(6)
the western part of the Mahakam Delta .

168
Table 7.1. Deltaic environment classification based on vegetation
(Morley, 1977), Allen and Chambers (1998)

7.2. Microfossils assemblages for depositional


environment interpretation

Interpretation of paleobathymetry derives from environmental


ranges of forms and assemblages, and combines with recognition of
significant patterns such as condensed sections and sequence
boundaries to give a specific and predictive interpretation of
depositional cycles.
The general trends in modern tropical foraminifera, nannofossils
and palynology distribution will be summaried bellow.

7.2.1. Supratidal fresh water


1. Foraminifera:
No foraminifera with fossilizable tests are known from this
environment (6); Freshwater ostracods may occur.
2. Palynomorph:
Palynological analysis is essential to obtain a detailed
interpretation (1).
Palynomorph assemblages which characterise supratidal
freshwater settings are dominated by, often exclusively,
freshwater indices that may comprise miospores (pollen and
spores) and/or microplankton (algae). The miospores can be
169
arboreal (tree) or non-arboreal (shrub/herb) and depending on the
ratio, indicate what proportion of the vegetation relates to swamp
(forest vegetation) and marsh (shrub/herb vegetation).
The microplankton identified within supratidal freshwater
assemblages usually consist of freshwater algae and include
Pediastrum and Botryococcus which are often associated with
lakes or smaller bodies of water such as abandoned channels, and
Concentricystes circulus which is usually associated with channel
deposition.
A majority of freshwater arboreal taxa principally comprise
peat swamp/alluvial swamp vegetation that primarily relates to
forest vegetation within the alluvial plain and upper delta. Some
of the most abundantly occurring types are Dicolpopollis spp. and
Calophyllum type. Undifferentiated tricolporate and tricolpate
pollen most probably relate to peat swamp/alluvial swamp.
Freshwater coastal swamp is characterised by an abundance
of Casuarina type, often found thriving within the beach forest of
the nutrient-poor sandy coastal plain and/or lower delta plain,
beyond the reach of high water. Calophyllum type. and some of
the peat swamp/alluvial swamp associations may also occur
commonly within this setting.
Seldom identified as a major component of freshwater
assemblages are hinterland taxa, usually originating from more
distal and mountain areas. Many of the taxa relate to a sub-
tropical or temperate vegetation and are most frequently
represented by gymnosperms.
The majority of the freshwater non-arboreal taxa relate to
pteridophyte spores and indicate the presence of ferns. Occurring
as epiphytes or as ground flora, it is likely that the locally
abundant occurrences represent an „open‟ vegetation within the
alluvial plain or upper delta plain. The development of this
vegetation may relate to sedimentological and climatic factors.
The most frequently encountered taxa are Laevigatosporites spp.,
Verrucatosporites spp. and Verrucatosporites usmensis
(Stenochlaena palustris - modern botanical name).
Palynological assemblages from a supratidal freshwater
setting may be affected slightly by brackish water/marine
influences from further downstream. Of significance could be the
presence of brackish water creeks within the freshwater coastal

170
swamp, which may be proximal to the beach and perhaps locally
inundated at high water.
7.2.2. Intertidal, freshwater
1. Foraminifera:
Generally barren of foraminifera. Freshwater ostracods may be
recorded.
2. Palynomorph:
An abundance of freshwater palynomorphs, generally miospores,
including common-abundant occurences of the arboreal species
Pandaniidites spp. Barringtonia, Marginipollis concinnu, and
fluvial fringe vegetations characterize tidal freshwater zone (the
tidal part of river systems not affected by brackish water
influence)(7).

7.2.3. Marginal marine (intertidal zone and areas of mixing


of fresh and marine waters), Upper estuarine

1. Foraminifera:
Microfauna is generally absent or poorly developed in this
depositional setting. If present, the assemblage is characterised
by low abundance and low diversity and is typified by the
arenaceous forms Haplophragmoides spp., Trochammina spp.
and Miliammina spp.
2. Palynomorph:
Palynomorph assemblages that characterise the intertidal, upper
estuarine include brackish water backmangrove elements such as
the Nipa palm Spinizonocolpites echinatus, Florschuetzia
trilobata and Discoidites borneensis (Brownlowia type - modern
botanical garden), along with possibly rare brackish water/marine
dinocysts and/or microforaminiferal test linings.
Mangrove and backmangrove vegetation is usually a fringe
type vegetation within the lower delta plain along river/estuary
systems and low energy coastlines where there is brackish water
tidal influence. The mangrove vegetation is generally more
tolerant to increased salinity than the backmangrove vegetation.
The latter consequently develops behind the mangrove or further
upstream where salinities are lower.

171
The intertidal, upper estuarine setting is often represented
by a relatively continuous belt of Nipa as the fringe vegetation.
Palynomorph assemblages from this environment may be
strongly affected by freshwater influence from further upstream
and possibly by more brackish water/marine influence from
further downstream.

7.2.4. Marginal marine (intertidal zone and areas of mixing


of fresh and marine waters), Lower estuarine,
transitional environment, backish water

1. Foraminifera:
Within a lower estuarine setting microfaunal abundance and
diversity generally increases, although barren sediments are
frequently recorded from this setting. If present, the assemblage
is, relative to the upper estuarine, of higher abundance and
diversity, with arenaceous forms such as Haplophragmoides spp.,
Trochammina spp., Miliammina spp. and Ammobaculites spp.,
together with small specimens of unkeeled Elphidium spp. and
Ammonia spp. (calcareous benthic taxa) present.
2. Palynomorph:
Palynological studies are of major importance in assessing this
environment (1).
Palynomorph associations from the intertidal, lower
estuarine are usually characterised by an abundance of the
mangrove forms Zonocostites ramonae (Rhizophora spp. -
modern botanical name) and Florschuetzia levipoli (Sonneratia
caseolaris), along with an increased diversity of brackish
water/marine dinocysts and/or microforaminiferal test linings. As
mentioned in the discussion on the upper estuarine.
Mangrove vegetation forms a fringe vegetation along the
most seaward part of river systems/estuaries and along low
energy coastlines in front of the backmangrove vegetation.
Palynomorph assemblages from this setting may be strongly
affected by freshwater influence from further upstream and to a
lesser extent from more marine influence offshore (7).

172
7.2.5. Marginal marine (intertidal zone), littoral
Intertidal, littoral microfaunal assemblages will lack the brackish
water elements observed in the estuarine setting and palynologically,
assemblages are probably poor/barren due to the winnowing effect in
what is probably an arenaceous beach deposit.
1. In sandy beaches, the microfauna inhabiting this environment is
little diagnostic. This species diversity is low, and planktic, larger
foraminigera and attached calcareous benthic forms are absent.
As most high energy sandy beached face open sea, salinities are
generally normal. Characteristic species are: Quinqueloculina sp.
Milliolinella sp., Ammonia beccarii, and Ephidium spp. Fossil
sandy beaches can be recognized by poorly preserved abraded
specimens. However, due to continuous transport of the tests after
death many small or thin-shelled specimens may be destroyed,
and foraminifera are sometimes completely absent from an
exposed beach sand. A futher complication in determining an
ancient sandy beach is, that many alochonous forms may have
been washed in.
2. In marshes and mangrove swamps.
Tidal marshes can be subdivided into three groups according to
salinity:
a. Hyposaline marshes
b. Normal marine marshes
c. Hypersaline marshes
(a and b are difficult to distinguish) (1).
Foraminifera diversity is highest in hyposaline marshes, although
the general diversity is low. The hyposaline marshes are
characterized by the predominance of arenaceous species
(Miliammina sp., Ammotiurn sp. Trochhammina inflata) and
rotaloids (Elphidium spp.) and absence of miliolids (1).
Normal marine marshes are inhabited by dominantly arenaceous
species with minor miliolids (Quinqueloculina) and rotalids
(Elphidium spp., Ammonia beccarii) (1).
In hypersaline marshes the percentage of arenaceous species,
miliolids and rotalids is about equal. Typical cosmopolitan marsh
species are: Ammofium salsum, Areno parrella mexicana,
Miliammina fusca, Trochammina macrescens and T. polystoma
(1)
.

173
Interpreting an ancient marsh environment may be difficult. Due
to reducing conditions calcareous tests are easily destroyed after
death. After complete solution of calcareous species, it is
impossible to distinguish between the various marsh
environments. Only the low. diversity and an assemblage
consisting of small arenaceous species such as Trochammina sp.,
Haplophragmoides sp., Ammobaculifes sp. points to a marsh
origin. If Miliammina sp. is present in this assemblage, a
hyposaline lagoon could also be indicated (1).
The lithology of a marsh deposit consists of dark grey highly
organic clay and silt, containing abundant roots and other in
determining an ancient plant debris. This can often help marsh
deposit. Pyrite is common, due to the reducing conditions (1).
Faunal distribution in a mangrove swamp is similar to that of
marshes. Typical taxa in a Southeast Asian mangrove are as
follows: Haplophragmoides salsun, Haplophragmoides wilberfi,
Miliammina pariaensis, Arenoparella mexicana and
Trochammina laevigata (1).
3. Tidal flats
Tidal flats develop along gently dipping seacoasts, with marked
tidal rhythms, where enough sediment is available and strong
wave action is not present. This may be the case in estuaries,
lagoons, bays, or behind barrier islands or other sand bars (1).
Characteristic foraminifers inhabiting this environment are:
Ammonia beccarii, Elphidiun spp.and Quinqueloculina sp. (1).
Rotalids predominate in tidal flat assemblages, miliolids are rare
to absent, and arenaceous species not common. (1).
4. Estuaries
An estuary is the wide mouth of a river or arm of.the sea where
the tide meets the river currents, or flows and ebbs (1).
Estuaries are hyposaline in character, and can be subdivided into
an upper part, subject to the greatest freshwater influence and a
lower part connected with the sea. This differences in salinity is
reflectedin the faunas of both parts:
upper estuary: Miliammina sp, Ammobaculites sp.
lower estuary: Miliammina sp., Ammobaculites sp., Ammonia
beccarii and Elphidium spp. (1).
5. Lagoon

174
A lagoon is a shallow or sheet of water, connected with the sea or
a river. Coastal lagoons are water bodies, running parallel to the
coast, and connected to the sea with an outlet. They are separated
from the sea by sand bars or barrier islands (1).
Based on the amount of seawater entering through the inlet, and
the amount of freshwater contributed by river, the following
subdivision of lagoons can be made:
a. hyposaline : freshwater seawater
b. normal marine lagoons
c. hypersaline : no freshwater comes into the lagoons (1).
A characteristic feature of modern lagoons is their low
foraminiferal species-diversity. The relatively highest diversity is
found in normal marine lagoons. Despite the fact that literature on
lagoonal assemblages is scarce, the following genera to some
extent may characterise the three types:
a. Hyposaline: Genus Ammotium, Millammina fusca,
Ammonia beccarii, Elphidium, and Protelphidium.
b. Normal marine: Genus Quinqueloculina, Triloculina,
Miliolinella, Peneroptids, Glabratella, Ammonia beccarii,
Elphidium, and Protelphidium.
c. Hypersaline: Genus Quinqueloculina, Triloculina,
Miliolinella, Peneroptids, Glabratella, Ammonia beccarii
and Elphidium (1).
6. Deltas
With respect to foraminiferal assemblages deltas require special
comments since in these environments certain species behave
abnormally,especially within the prodelta region. Three major
environmental systems can be distinguished within a delta as
follows:
The delta plain consists of an intertidal or supratidal covered with
Nipah and mangrove vegetation. Palynological studies are most
useful in assessing delta top environments.
The delta front consists of an intertidal to shallow subtidal
platform fringing the delta plain. The inner zone of the delta front
consists of extensive tidal flats.
The prodelta consists of the smooth, steep slope seaward of the
edge of the delta front platform, marked by an abrupt slope break
at the 5 meter isobath. The outer limit of the prodelta appears to
coincide with the 60-70 m, isobaths (1).

175
It is important to mention the "delta effect" (e.g. Pflum and
Frerichs, 1976), that is,a variable upper depth limit of certain
species. They call these species heterobathyal species, as opposed
to isobathyal species (which have a more or less consistant upper
depth limit). It is possible to distinguish delta elevated and delta
depressed species. Delta elevated species are species with a
shallower upper depth limit in the delta area. (For instance
Sigmoilopsis schlwnbergeri and Martinotiella occidentalis). Delta
depressed species have a lower upper depth limit in a delta area.
Examples are Pullenia quinqueloba, Melonls barleeanus,
Hoglundina elegans and Bulimina aculeata. However care must
be taken in applying these data to ancient environments (1).
Salinity (or salinity fluctuations) is the dominant control on
distribution in this zone (Table 7-2). Remarkably, very similar
assemblages are found worldwide. The lowest salinity
assemblages consist of small arenaceous forams only
(Trochammina, Haplophragmoides, Miliammina) and are found
in environments like intertidal mangrove swamps and mud flats,
upper estuary, lagoons or bays. In higher, but variable salinity
waters (bay, lower estuary, mud flat, delta front) assemblages of
mixed small arenaceous (as above plus Ammobaculites or
Ammotium) and small calcareous forams (Elphidium, unkeeled
Ammonia) are found (6).

176
Table 7.2. Dominant foraminifera in shallow marine facies as a
function of salinity and substrate (6).

The distribution of foraminifera is influenced by many different factors.


Although many authors consider water depth the most significant one,
water depth specifically is not main variables, the controlling factors
being the various physical and chemical conditions associated with
depth. Typical factors are temperature and temperature variability, light
availability, sedimentation rate, bottom characters, energy condition
and pressure (1).

Studies of recent foraminifera ecology have provided numerous distint


criteria by which many depositional environments can be characterized
and which can be applied to fossil assemblages from sedimentary rocks.
Some of the main variables can be summarized as follows:
a) The total number of species and of individual increases away
from the shoreline, and with increasing depth of water, to
maximum values on the outer shelf and in the upper bathyal zone.
b) Porcelaneous forms show their present diversity in shallow,
nearshore environments.
c) Arenaceous foraminifera with simple interior wall structure
become dominant in shallow waters or in intertidal areas. The
percentage occurrence of these arenaceous forms reaches a
maximum near the effluence of rivers.

177
d) Calcareous foraminiferal test become smaller and thinner near
sources of fresh water. In carbonate rich environments, tests may
reach a larger size and be very robust.
e) The percentage occurrence of the most common species in a
foraminiferal population relates the variability the environment.
As marginal marine conditions are approached, environmental
parameters become more pronounced resulting the tendency
towards single species dominance in the most unfavourable
environments.
f) Planktic forms occur most abundantly within the outer shelf and
deeper water. Under ideal sedimentation conditions, especially in
clastic deposit, planktic foraminifera can show more or less
regular increase in abundance with depth.
g) Arenaceous taxa with labyrinthic wall structures occur most
abundantly in bathyal or deeper water. In sediments deposited
bellow the calcium carbonate comprnsition depth (CCD) these
forms may become dominant since the calcareous shells of other
foraminifera are dissolved (1).

7.2.6. Shallow marine (inner neritic; low tide to 30m)

A widely used tool for distinguishing - marine environments is


the planktic benthic ratio. In general it is believed that increasing depth
will imply an increase in the percentage of planktic species. The system
was developed initially by Grimsdale and van Morkhoven (1955) who
found that it lacked the precision that they had hoped for. They
suggested the following relationship:
Table 7.3. Relationship between % Pelagic Benthic Ratio, Depht
and Environment Grimshale and Van Markoven (1955) (1)

Environment Depth % Pelagic Benthic


Ratio
Inner Shelf 0 - 20 m 0 - 20 %
Middle Shelf 20 - 100 m 20 - 50 %
Outer Shelf 100 - 200 m 20 - 50 %
Upper Slope 200 - 1000 m 30 - 80 %
Lower Slope 1000 - 4000 m 70 - 100 %

178
However, it is extremely dangerous to rely on the planktic
percentage alone. In a case of 90% planktics for instance, it is important
to determine how many planktic species are present, if there are only a
few, the environment may be quite shallow. It is also important to note
size sorting (1).
Inner neritic (= inner shelf, shallow inner sublittoral) has its lower
boundary at the base of the turbulent zone. Within this depth range
many subenvironments can be recognised, depending on wave energy,
substratum etc., and hence many different populations can be found.
1. Foraminifera:
Characteristic for inner shelf environments is the low species
diversity, with one or two species dominating the faunas. Planktic
foraminifers may occur in frequencies of 0-20%. Larger
foraminifera such as Operculina and Amphistegina may be locally
abundant, other forms may be abundant only in carbonate
sediments (1).
Within inner neritic settings the microfauna is generally
moderately to well developed, although depending on conditions
at the substrate-water contact, poorly developed assemblages or
barren sediments may occur (1).
The assemblages are generally composed of calcareous benthic
forms including, under favourable conditions, larger foraminifera.
The genera typifying the inner neritic setting include Ammonia,
Pararotalia, Asterorotalia, Nonion, Elphidium, Cibicides,
Quinqueloculina and the larger forms Operculina, Heterostegina,
Calcarina, Marginopora and Baculogypsina. Only rarely are
planktonic forms recorded (1).
Nearshore environments with normal marine salinity have low
diversity assemblages, with 2 or 3 species making up more than
90% of the fauna. Species present depend mainly on the type of
substrate (or the associated water turbidity; Table 7.2). On muddy
substrates we find predominantly Pseudorotalia, Ammonia and
Nonion assemblages, on silty-sandy substrates Operculina-
Elphidium, on rocky, high-energy substrates Baculogypsina and
species with an encrusting or attached mode of life, and on
carbonate substrates (reef flat, shallow lagoon) Calcarina and
large miliolids (Marginopora and Peneroplis) (6).
In Miocene and older shallow marine carbonates or mixed
calcareous-clastic systems larger foram assemblages are useful

179
for facies interpretation (Figure 7.3). Hallock and Glenn (1986)
summarized data on the distribution of Recent larger foraminifera
assemblages (which are poorer in species than Early Miocene or
Eocene assemblages). Restricted platform facies assemblages are
dominated by large peneroplids and soritids (Marginopora). On
platform edges Baculogypsina, Calcarina and robust
Aniphistegina are common. Shallow foreslopes may have
common Amphistegina fessonii and alveolinids, deep foreslope
and open shelf areas within the euphotic zone are characterized by
flat, discoidal species of Amphistegina, Heterostegina and
Cycloclypeus. Similar facies distribution models can be made for
older periods, although many taxa common in the older Tertiary
are now extinct. In the Late Oligocene - Early Miocene, for
instance, the shallowest assemblages are dominated by
miogypsinids. Going deeper, dominant forms are Lepidocyclina
and Spiroclypeus, and near the base of the photic zone
Cycloclypeus dominates the assemblages (Chaproniere 1975 and
Figure 7.3). In sheltered back-reef or lagoonal settings complex
miliolids like Austrotrillina and alveolinids (Borelis,
Flosculinelfa) dominate. In our experience ”back-reef” facies are
rare in Miocene carbonatesof Indonesia. In the Eocene Alveolina-
Orbitolites assemblages signify restricted, lagoonal conditions.
Thick Nummulites are found near high-energy platform margins
or shallow marine shoals. In deeper foreslope environments flat
Nummulites, Spiroclypeus and Discocyclina are the dominant taxa
(6)
.

180
Figure 7.3. Models of Cenozoic larger foraminifera distribution in
carbonate fasies (6).

181
The following taxa are typical of inner shelf environments. It
must be stressed that this is not a complete list and that the taxa
indicated are not restricted to this environment in South Asia:
Planorbulinella sp., Chrysalidinella limbatum, Massilina sp.,
Asterorotatia spp., Cibicides tobatulus, Cymbaloporetta
squamosal, Pseudorotatia spp., Baculogypsina sphaerulata,
Cellanthus craticulatus, Amphistegina lessonii, Loxostom
limbatum, Ammonia spp. and Elphidium spp.
2. Nannofossil:
Sediments from the inner neritic zone often yield nannofossils of
low abundance and low diversity, with robust forms such as the
Sphenolithus and Cyclicargolithus groups dominating the
assemblage.
3. Palynomorph:
Apart from marine microplankton such as dinocysts and
microforaminiferal test linings, palynomorph assemblages are
entirely transported from brackish water and freshwater settings
onshore. Consequently, palynomorph assemblages usually
comprise a high diversity of forms orginating from various
coastal, estuarine and freshwater settings, associated with a
relatively diverse assemblage of marine microplankton. The
kerogen fraction may also include commonly occurring humic
vitrinite derived from a strong terrestrial input.

7.2.7. Middle neritic, middle shelf, inner sublittoral

1. Foraminifera:
Planktonic foraminifera are an important constituent of deeper
marine microfaunas. The percentage of planktonics in a foram
assemblage increases with water depth, from about 20% in middle
sublittoral (30-100m), 40-80‟70 in outer sublittoral (100-200m) to
90% or more in bathyal (deeper than 200m) environments.
However, there is a rather large variability in these numbers in
different areas, depending on nutrient distribution, circulation
patterns, etc. (6).
Middle neritic setting is typified by well-developed microfaunal
assemblages of moderate to high diversity. The assemblages
consist of both planktonic and calcareous benthic forms although
the former are generally of reduced abundance. Benthic taxa
182
typifying the middle neritic are amongst others Uvigerina,
Bolivina, Lenticulina and Bulimina, in addition to the inner neritic
assemblage.
The middle shelf can be subdivided in two parts: shallow middle
shelf (20-50m), the lower boundary of this zone is the base of the
photic zone and the storm wave base; and deep middle shelf (50-
100m), the lower boundary of this zone is the base of the seasonal
temperature changes (1).
In shallow middle shelf, the diversity of species increases here.
Larger foraminifera1 species (Operculina spp. and Amphistegina
spp. particularly A. quoyi are common to abundant locally, and
the same calcareous benthic assemblage of the inner shelf is
present, but their tests are generally more robust. Planktonic
foraminifers can make up 20-30% of the total assemblages, but
their diversity is low, and restricted to forms such as
Globigerinoides spp. and Globigerina bulloides (1).
In deep middle shelf, rich assemblages are generally present in
this environment. 'The typical inhabitants of the inner and shallow
middle shelf are still present, but they are rare (Operculina spp.,
Amphistegina spp., Elphidum spp., Pseudorotalia spp.).
Planktonic foraminifers can make up to 40-50% of the total
assemblages (1).
Typical middle shelf taxa in Southeast Asia are as follows:
Operculina spp., Baggina inflata, Amphistegina spp. (A.
bicirculata and A. papillosa), Bigenerina nodosaria, Bolivina
spp., Praeglobobulimina pupoides, Florilus spp., Siphonina
pulchra, Anomalinella, Cancris auriculus, Cassidulina laevigata,
Nodosaria spp., Cassidulina oblonga, Uvigerina spp., Heterolepa
praecinctus, Loxostomum spp., Dentalina spp. and Lenticulina
spp., with 20-40% planktonic foraminifers + 10 s pecies (1).
2. Nannofossil:
Nannofossil associations from middle neritic settings are
generally characterised by moderate abundance and diversity.
Genera which are often common and dominate the assemblage
include Discoaster, Thoracosphaera and Sphenolithus. Genera
such as Helicosphaera and Calcidiscus may also be rare to
common in occurrence.
3. Palynomorph:

183
Palynomorph assemblages from middle neritic environments
often show an increase in the proportion of marine microplankton,
particularly dinocysts such as the Spiniferites ramosus group,
which when occurring commonly to abundantly, indicate open
marine conditions. A relative decline in the proportion of
terrestrially derived miospores (often to qualitative counts) is
usually related to the distal location of the site of deposition from
the land source. Unless there is strong terrestrial input into deep
waters, miospore assemblages are generally poor and taxa noted
may often be preferentially transported. Certain specimens like
spores and gymnosperms are particularly robust and/or buoyant
grains and tend to be concentrated in offshore regions where there
is minimal terrestrial influence. Where terrestrial influence is
low, the amount of amorphous organic material tends to increase
relating to a greater pelagic influx.

7.2.8. Outer neritic, outer shelf, outer sublittoral

1. Foraminifera:
Outer neritic foraminiferal assemblages are usually abundant and
diverse, with often a predominance of planktonic forms. The
benthics include both calcareous and arenaceous forms, with
prevalence of the former. Larger foraminifera are rare and in
deeper outer neritic settings absent. Typical outer neritic
microfaunas comprise anomalinids, buliminids, e.g. Uvigerina,
Bulimina, Bolivina/Brizalina and a variety of other forms
including nodosariids. The rotaliids which characterise the inner
to middle neritic environments are strongly reduced.
Diversity of benthic foram assemblages increases with depth to
maximum values in the outer sublittoral-upper bathyal realm (up
to one hundred species or more) and decreases again at greater
depths. Species composition also changes with depth. Common
forms in the middle neritic zone are Cibicides praecinctus,
Lenticulina and small Bolivina. and in the outer sublittoral zone
Uvigerina, Bolivina, Lenticulina, Bulimina, Cassidulina,
Siphonina, etc. (6).
The lower boundary of this zone is the shelf edge. The species
diversity in this environment is high. Planktonic foraminifera
make up to 40-80% of the total assemblages and their diversity is
184
high (moreless 20 species in recent samples). Larger foraiainifera
are absent. Most of the calcareous benthic species of the deep
middle shelf are present (1).
Typical taxa of the outer shelf are as follows: Gyroidina acuta,
Pullenia quinquezoba, Gyroidina soldanii, Uvigerina
soendaensis, Hoglundina elegans, Bulimina striata, Cassidulina
spp., Bulimina marginata, Fursenkoina spp. and Sphaeroidina
bulloides (1).
2. Nannofossil:
Nannofossils are abundant and of moderate to high diversity.
Groups such as Discoaster, Helicosphaera, small Dictyococcites/
Reticulofenestra spp., and Sphenolithus spp. are abundant and
dominate the assemblages.
3. Palynomorph:
Assemblages from outer neritic water depths may show a further
increase in the proportion of marine microplankton. However,
this is largely dependent upon factors such as distance from land
and terrestrial influence rather than actual waterdepth. In general,
the assemblages are similar to those documented for the middle
neritic, with preferentially transported miospores (spores and
gymnosperms) characterising the terrestrially-derived component,
and the open marine dinocyst S. ramosus group often proving the
most significant element within the in situ marine component.
Associated kerogen may be rich in amorphous organic material
although this is also largely dependent upon the degree of
terrestrial influence.

7.2.9. Upper bathyal

1. Foraminifera:
Upper bathyal foraminiferal microfaunas are characterised by
well-developed planktonic and benthic assemblages of high
diversity. Planktonics usually outnumber the benthics. Larger
foraminifera are absent unless displaced from neritic
environments. Among the calcareous benthics, the Buliminida
(e.g. Uvigerina, Bulimina, Bolivina, Brizalina) are often
particularly frequent due to their tolerance to oxygen deficiency.
Other characteristic calcareous benthics are, among others,
Globocassidulina, Gyroidina, Melonis, Oridorsalis and various
185
anomalinids. Arenaceous foraminifera may occasionally be
frequent. In upper bathyal environments, downslope transport of
shallower water biota is a common feature; this may make it
difficult to differentiate between middle to outer neritic and upper
bathyal palaeoenvironments.
In the upper bathyal zone (200-1000 m) many of the above genera
are still found, but Sphaeroidina, Gyroidina, Pullenia,
Globocassidulina and robust arenaceous species (Cyclammina)
are also common. In the lower bathyal zone (1000 – 4000 m)
Planulina wuellerstorfi, Oridorsalis umbonatus, Laticarinina,
Melonis pompiliodes, Sigmoilopsis and Karreriella are the most
typical taxa. In the deepest oceanic environments (abyssal), below
the Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD), calcareous
microfossils are dissolved and large arenaceous foraminifera are
the only microfossils present (”flysch-faunas‟ ‟ with Bathysiphon,
Ammodiscus, etc.). Samples just above the CCD tend to have
many fragmented, partly dissolved calcareous microfossils (6).
Other criteria that may be used for depth interpretation are
changes in size of various genera and changes in ornamentation
with depth in Uvigerina (Pflum and Frerichs 1976). The main
controls on benthic foram distribution is probably not depth itself,
but depth-associated changes in water mass characteristics,
primarily temperature and salinity. Since these vary from area to
area and may change with climate fluctuations, real ”isobathyal
species” (species with the same upper depth limit worldwide;
Bandy and Chierichi 1966) are rare or non-existent. Other
significant factors controlling distribution are substrate (grain
size, organic matter content, sedimentation rate) and oxygen
content of the sea water. Low diversity deep water faunas
dominated by either Bolivina, Globobulimina, Chilostomella
and/or Uvigerina tend to be associated with sediments with
relatively high organic carbon content and coincide with areas of
low oxygen bottom waters (Poag 1981, Miller and Lohmann
1982). Off California Bolivina from areas with low oxygen waters
are larger and flatter than those from more oxygenated areas
(Douglas 1979). In the late 1930‟s Stanvac paleontologists
MacGillavry and Thalmann noted the difference between
Miocene ”Java faunas” (mainly marly sediments rich in genera
like Nodosaria, Lenticulina, Gyroidina, Melonis, Planulina and

186
Pullenia) and the ”Sumatra faunas” from the dark gray Telisa
(Gumai) clays, in which the above genera are absent or rare, but
contain rich Bolivina, Uvigerina and Bulimina. They are all deep
water faunas, but the Sumatra assemblages either reflect
deposition in a relatively low oxygen environment, in restricted
back-arc basins behind the Proto-Barisan island chain, while the
Java faunas reflect well-oxygenated open ocean environments, or
they reflect higher deltaic mud influx (many of the Java species
are comparable to ”delta-depressed” species with limited
distribution off deltas, or a combination of both (6).
On most shelves the inclination of the seafloor increases at about
180-200m depth, and this corresponds with the continental slope.
In the deeper waters below 200m conditions are very stable as
compared to shallower environments. No major changes in
temperature and salinity occur. Because of these stable conditions
many of the species living in these environments will be
cosmopolitan. However, with increasing depth, the solubility of
calcium carbonate will increase. The critical depth is called the
calcium carbonate compensation depth, which lies in modern
oceans between 4000-5500 m. Below this depth calcareous tests
will be dissolved. In general, we will find with increasing depth a
decrease of calcareous benthic species, and an increase in
arenaceous species. An interesting factor is that the size of many
deep water benthic forms shows increase with depth. Many taxa
here have very specific depth limits and are termed isobathyal
species. These are particularly helpful in determining
environments (1).
In upper slope (upper bathyal) 200m-1000m water depths, species
diversity and abundance is usually very high in this environment.
The planktonic percentage increases to 50-95%. Robust
arenaceous species such as Martinotiella comminis, Karreriella
sp., Tritaxilina sp., Dorothia and Haplophragmoides sp. occur
frequently. Typical upper slope taxa are as follow: Martinotiella
communis, Sphaeroidina bulloides, Karreriella sp., Tritaxitina
sp., Pullenia bulloides, Uvigerina peregrina, Chilostomella
oolina, Gavelinopsis translucens, and Globocassidulina
subglobosa, with 50-95% planktonics (1).
lsobathyal (-cosmopolitan) species with their highest depth limit
within zone are as follows: Bolivina albatrossi, Bulimina striate

187
mexicana, Chilostomella oozina, Eponides reguza, Gyroidina
altiformis cushmani, Discorbis transluucens, and Uvigerina
peregrina: highest occurrence at 200 m (1).

Bulimina acuzeala, Bulimina rostrata alazanensis, Osangularia


rugosa, Uvigerina peregrina dirupta, and Uvigerina peregrina
mediterranea: highest occurrence at 300 m (1).
Cibicides banteonensis, Gyroidina orbicularis,
Reticulophragmium venezuelanum, and Cyclammina cancellata:
highest occurrence at 400-500 m (1).
Cibicides kullenbergi, Cibicides rugosus, Eponides polilus,
Oriidorsalis tener umbonatus, Osangularia culter, and
Pleurostomella bolivinoides: highest occurrence at 700 - 800 m
(1)
.
In lower slope, lower bathval (1000-4000 m), planktonic
foraminifers are generally very abundant in this environment
(90%). However, as the lower limit of this environment is close to
the calcium carbonate compensation level, solution prone species
such as Orbutina sp. and Globigerinoides spp. may be absent. A
conspicuous decrease of calcareous benthic forms is noted.
Robust arenaceous species such as Cyclammina cancelata and
Tritaxia sp. may predominate the faunas (1).
Typical lower slope taxa are as follows: Mellonis pompiliolides,
Cyclammina cancelata, Laticarinina pauperata, Cibicides
wuellerstorfi, Oridorsalis umbonatus, and Globocassidulina
subglobosa, with 90% planktonics (1).
Isobathyal (cosmopolitan) species with their highest'depth limit
within zone are as follows:
Anomalina globulosa and Siphotextularia rozshauseni: highest
occurrence at 1000-1 300 m.
Uvigerina ampulacea: upper depth limit 1600 m.
Uvigerina senticosa: upper depth limit 2000 m.
Melonis pompilioides: upper depth limit 2200 m (1).
2. Nannofossil:
Nannofossil assemblages from upper bathyal settings are usually
abundant and diverse but may have suffered dissolution in the
water column and/or on the sea floor due to increased acidity of
the sea water and in the topmost sediment layers concomitant
with oxygen deficiency. Therefore, occasionally the assemblages

188
from this depositional setting are dominated by robust and
dissolution resistant forms, such as Coccolithus pelagicus
/eopelagicus, Cyclicargolithus floridanus, Discoaster,
Reticulofenestra/Dictyococcites spp. (large) and Sphenolithus
groups.
3. Palynomorph:
Palynomorph assemblages from upper bathyal environments may
have high frequencies of certain highly buoyant miospores (e.g.
bisaccates), often have an unbalanced mixed composition, or are
impoverished in miospores. Marine microplankton is usually the
most common group of palynomorphs.

7.2.10. Abyssal environments (4000 m and deeper)

Assemblages from this depth are generally rare and little-diverse.


The calcium carbonate compensation level (4000m-5500m) causes the
solution of calcareous tests below this depth. Consequently, the faunas
below 4000-5500m, will consist of large, simple arenaceous species
such as Ammodiscus sp., Rhabdamina sp. and Rathysiphon sp. (1).
The calcareous benthic fauna from the bathyal environments, and
thick walled, solution resistant planktonics (Sphaeroidinellopsis sp.,
Globorotalia spp.) are still present (1).

7.3. Quantitative analysis

1. Diversity (Fisher plot)


Species richness (diversity) of foram assemblages is known to
very considerably depending on salinity, temperature, substrate,
etc. By plotting the number of species against the number of
individual foraminifera on a logarithmic scale, it will get a
measure of diversity called the α value for the assemblages (5).
a) In general, values of α < 5 indicate brackish or hypersaline
marginal marine environments (though it may also indicate
normal marine conditions with a high dominance of a single
species).
b) Where α > 7 (up to 25 or more), normal marine shelf to
slope or hypersaline shelf to slope or hypersaline shelf are
indicated.
189
Figure 7.4. Species diversity ( α diagram) showing fields defined by
α value for benthic foraminifera assemblages from known
environment (5)

190
2. Wall structure (Miliolid-Rotalia-Textularina/Aglutinated Ternary
Diagram).
Although there is some overlap of environments, this type of
analysis is particularly useful for discriminating shallow-water
environments (5).
a) The porcelaneous component exceeds 20% only in normal
marine and hypersaline lagoon and marshes, and is
normally <20% in shelf areas.
b) Agglutinated forms dominate in brackish and abyssal zone
(below CCD) (5).

Figure 7.5. Shell type ratio triangular diagram showing fields


defined by benthic foraminifera assemblages from known
environment (5)

191
3. Test form (similarity, dominance)
Test form in benthic foraminifera is a compromise between a
complex array selective pressures, but it is true that there is often
a good correlation between form of the test and the environment
in which the foraminifera lives.
a) Hypersaline and brackish environment exhibit a smaller
range of morphological variety (dominated by planispiral,
trochospiral, milliolid and annular test). Uniserial, biserial
and fusiform tests are generally absent in these
environments.
b) Uniserial test generally only occur in low energy zones
associated with shelf, slope, and bathyal environment.
c) Milioline tests are mainly found on the shelf, and rarely
found in slope and deep sea environments.
d) Agglutinated foraminifera can be classified into four
morphogroups and these have a distinctive distribution in
modern environments
 Morphogroup A (unilocular, tubular or branching) are
characteristic of the deep sea.
 Morphogroup B1 (globular) and B2 (coiled-flattened)
represent only a small percentage in most
assemblages but they are more common in deep
marine environment.
 Morphogroup B3 (multilocular,
planispiral/trochospiral, lenticular are particularly
common in shelf and marginal marine environments.
 Morphogroup C1 (elongate) is absent in marsh and
lagoon environments, but can dominate shelf and
upper bathyal (to 1000 m).
 Morphogroup C2 (elongate quinqueloculine) and D
(trochospiral conical) are characteristic of marshes
and lagoons (1).

192
Figure 7.6. E. huxleyi and others, Gephyrocapsa oceanica and
Florisphera profunda diagrams for depositional environment
interpretation (Okada,1992) (2).

7.4. Interpretation of depositional environment on


Indonesian basins (Case Studies)

Fossils assemblages features (the appearance of larger benthic and


small planktic foraminifera, besides molluscs, brachiopods,
coelenterata, calcareous red and green algae), supported by
morphology characteristics identified that the limestone was formed in
Tertiary age within back-reef zones (at the northern part / Bagogog-
Cilalay), reef-crest (at central part / Pasir Bali, Kutalingkung,
Sibancana, Kuari D) and fore-reef setting (southern part / Cileungsi,
Ciseah) (4).
According to taxonomic description by van Marle (1991), in the
fine sediment some benthic foraminifera was identified, among all:
Ammonia beccarii (Linnaeus), Amphistegina lessonii d‟Orbigny,
Bolivina spp., Elphidium crispum (Linnaeus), Eponides spp., Gyroidina
orbicularis d‟Orbigny, Gyroidina neosoldani, Lenticulina spp.,
Nodosaria spp., Nonionella spp., Operculina ammonoides (Gronovius),
193
Planulinoides spp., Pseudonodosaria aequalis (Reuss),
Quinqueloculina spp., Textularia sagitulla Defrance, dan Uvigerina
peregrina Cushman. The foraminifera assemblages were indicated that
the sediment rocks were deposited in neritic setting (4).
The various kinds of trace fossil assemblages in clastic
sedimentary rock (claystone, siltstone and sandstone) in Lulut area can
be grouped in Skolithos and Cruziana. The appearance of this trace
fossils had particular significance to paleoenvironmentsl study.
1) Skolithos are characterized especially by vertical, cylindrical or
U-shaped burrows. Diversity of these trace fossils is low and few
horizontal structure are present. This trace-fossils was established
for trace that occur in soft ground sand marine surface in beach
with high water energy, but it may grade seaward into shallow
shelf environment (Boggs, 2006).
2) Cruziana are characterized by a mixed association of vertical,
inclined and horizontal structures. Boggs (2006) observed that
this typical soft ground sand, silt and clay marine in lagoon and
shelf with medium to low water energy trace fossils are
commonly occur within subtidal zone bellow wave base but
above strom wave base.
The bioturbations is charactized the sediment was built within shallow
marine setting (4).
The significant appearances shallow marine invertebrate fossils
(molluscs, brachiopods) and trace fossils (skolithos, cruziana)
characterized the back-reef. Coelenterata associated with foraminifera,
molluscs (gastropods, pelecypods) and algae grew the coral reef-crest.
The planktic foraminifera in limestone with claystone interlaminations
and or intercalations characterized the fore-reef within neritic
bathymetric zone. The environmental condition changes were recorded
by fossil associations (4).
The lower section of Jatiluhur Formation is built dominantly by
clastic sedimentary rocks of Middle Miocene age claystone, siltstone
and sandstone with some of thin limestone intercalations. The upper
section consists mainly of bioclastic limestone with siltstone, claystone
and sandstone intercalation. On the basis of the appearance of planktic
and benthic foraminifera, molluscs and brachipods, besides trace
fossils, the clastic sedimentary rock was formed within neritic zone (3).
Nannofossil assemblages are useful to interpretation of
bathymetry in Madura waters.

194
Table 7.4. Nannoplankton taxa as bathimetric marker in Madura
Waters (2).
Litoral Neritik Batial

Gephyrocapsa oceanica
Gephyrocapsa spp. > 80% dominan
Gephyrocapsa oceanica > Coccolith > 10%
50% Ditandai oleh kehadiran
Coccolith < 2% Discoaster spp., Pontosphaera
spp., Helicosphaera carteri dan
Calcidiscus leptoporus

Emilliania huxleyi dan


Nannoplankton sangat jarang Florisphaera spp. Umum,
(<1 % total sedimen) berasosiasi dengan Florisphaera
Ditandai oleh kehadiran Braarudosphaera spp., profunda dominan
Gephyrocapsa oceanica Calcidiscus spp., Helicosphaera
spp., dan Scapolithus spp.

References:
(1)
Anwar, Khoiril M. 1999, Panduan Praktikum Foraminifera,
Laboratorium Mikropaleontologi Institut Teknologi Bandung,
tidak dipublikasikan
(2)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya. 2006. Biostratigrafi dan Paleoekologi
Cekungan Jawa Timur Utara, Disertasi, Institut Teknologi
Bandung, tidak dipublikasikan
(3)
Isnaniawardhani, V, Adhiperdana, B.G, Nurdradjat. 2013. Late
Miocene Planktic Foraminifera Biostratigraphy of Central Bogor
Through, Indonesia, Pustaka Ilmiah Universitas Padjadjaran,
http://pustaka.unpad.ac.id/archives/126510
(4)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya, Rusman, Rinawan and Prianggoro,
Bambang, 2012, The fossil assemblage features of limestone and
clastic sedimentary rock in Lulut Area, Cileungsi District, Bogor,
West Java, Bulleton of Scientific Contribution Volume 10,
Nomor 2, Agustus 2012
(5)
Murray, John. W., 2006, Ecology and Applications of Benthic
Foraminifera, Cambridge University Press
(6)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proc. Indonesian Petroleum
Association, Seventeenth Annual Convention.

195
TOPIC 8
BIOSTRATIGRAPHYC PROBLEMS
In biostratigraphyc study, the errors and inaccuracies can be
caused from the type of samples used, sample spacing, ”geological
mixing” of fossils, laboratory or field contamination, biased picking of
samples by technicians, misidentification of species or insufficient time
spent on looking for marker species. The general error or inaccurate can
be idetified as summaried follows (1).

8.1. Samples containing species introduced from


elsewhere.

1. The conclusions are based on one specimen from one sample. It


may be useful to check whether this occurrence is real or not
2. contaminated samples (cuttings always contain a percentage of
rock material from uphole /borehole cavings and recirculated
fragments). This is probably the most frequent error in oil-well
facies and age analysis. In order to minimize errors a complete
suite of cuttings from the top of the hole should be examined.
3. Poor cleaning of laboratory equipment can introduce material
from samples processed earlier

8.2. Conclusions not justified by observations

Reworked microfossils - Microfossil assemblages eroded from


older formations and redeposited, can lead to erroneous age and facies
interpretations. However, they can often be recognized by their worn,
abraded tests, darker colour, absence of fragile species, size sorting, and
older age.

196
8.3. Observed assemblages being atypical or incomplete

1. Displaced microfossils. Microfossils (such as spores and pollen,


foraminifera) were designed for transport and may be common in
deposits far away from their place of origin or by gravity
proccess. Unusual preservation and size-sorting should alert to
possible post-mortem transport when making paleoenvironmental
interpretations.
2. Fades change. The highest or lowest occurrence of a species in a
well section was often equated with its extinction or first
evolutionary appearance level. This is reasonable when there are
no indications of change in environment, but when tops or
bottoms coincide with facies changes the age may be anywhere
within the range of that species.
3. Water depth biogeography are controlled differences.
4. Restricted basins. Planktonic microfauna and flora have their
greatest abundance and diversity in open oceans, controlled by
temperature, salinity, nutrients and light. In marginal basins these
parameters may differ, leading to anomalous assemblages.

8.4. Incomplete recording of microfossil content

1. Partial or complete dissolution of calcareous and siliceous


organisms may occur in deep ocean waters. Dissolution may also
take place in deltaic sediments (mainly prodelta or bay clays),
triggered by the decomposition of organic matter, and in rocks
that were exposed to subaerial weathering (fresh-water leaching).
2. Selective picking. Sometimes, there are a tendency to select big,
pretty specimens and ignore the small, inconspicuous (but
possibly important) and broken ones.
3. Errors
4. Small sample, not not contain enough material to yield rare
(especially when microfossils are not abundant in a rock)
5. Species misidentification. When a species is misidentified
stratigraphic conclusions based on its presence must be wrong. In
all fossil groups morpholoyic differences between species may be
very subtle and. only be obvious to a trained eye.
197
6. Samples may be mislabelled in the collection or laboratory
processing phase, rush jobs, drafting or typing errors
There are multiple sources of possible error, but almost all can be
avoided by careful work in the collecting, processing, analysis and
reporting phases.

Figure 8.1. Typical distribution of microfossils in cutting and


resulting imprecise interpretation (non-marine, baren intervals
obsrcured by cavings from overlying marine beds (Contaminated
sample)(1)

References:
(1)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proc. Indonesian Petroleum
Association, Seventeenth Annual Convention.

198
TOPIC 9
DEVELOPMENTS IN
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC STUDY

9.1. Age Dating, Environment Interpretation and


Correlations.

Basic biostratigraphy is concerned with the recognition of fossils


and the relative position of their occurrences in space and time (known
as Relative age dating). Various fossil groups can be found in different
sedimentary environments. The two main environments are land
(terrestrial) and sea (marine).(3)
In terrestrial sediments, spores and pollen are the fossil group to
use. Vertebrates or other larger fossils can only be used if the sediments
samples are sufficiently large or in outcrop. The limitation on the use of
spore/pollen is the amount of oxidation experienced by the sediments
after deposition. Oxygen will remove organic material (spores/pollen)
from the sediments. Spores can be used in Devonian (approx. 400 myrs)
to recent sediments, pollen in Upper Cretaceous (approx. 80 myrs) to
recent sediments.(3)
In marine sediments, calcareous nannofossils are the most useful
group for Jurassic (approx. 210 myrs) to recent sediments, since their
preparation is cheap and the stratigraphic resolution which can be
reached with them is high. Occasionally sediments can be leached of
calcareous particles, however, which also removes calcareous
nannofossils (for instance in deep sea sediments). Their use as
environmental indicators is limited, although some species are known
to be associated with warm or cold water masses. (3)
Palynomorphs (dinoflagellates, acritarchs and tasmanites) can be
used in Permian (approx. 260 myrs) to recent sediments and in most
sediments types (though they tend to be rare in chalky limestone). Since
their preparation includes the dissolution of the surrounding sediments,
their use is more expensive than nannofossils. The possible
stratigraphic resolution can be high. Recently, the use of organic grain
199
size and shape as environmental indicators has been developed and is
apparently useful, especially in sub-recent sediments.(3)
Foraminifera can be used in all marine sediments which have not
be leached of calcareous material, i.e. from shallow marine to middle
bathyal. Their stratigraphic resolution can be high and their association
with certain depositional environments makes them good environmental
(water depth) indicators. Foraminifera can be found in sediments of
Carboniferous (approx. 360 myrs)to recent age. Their preparation cost
is lower than that of palynomorphs, unless thin- sections have to be
used. (3)
In silica enriched sediments, siliceous microfossils such as
diatoms and radiolarians can be of use. The stratigraphic resolution can
be high, especially in the Tertiary (approx. 65 myrs), but schemes are
still under development for other time frames. Their preparation cost is
similar to that of foraminifera. (3)
It is good practice to always analyse at least two of these fossil
groups per sample to provide a cross check. This reduces the chance of
unexpected sedimentary circumstances leading to erroneous age and
environmental estimates. (3)
The age estimates can be numeric if the fossils encountered in a
sample can be related to the global zonation schemes which exist to
day. (3)
The goal of biostratigraphy is to use fossil occurrences within the
rock record to establish correlations between time-equivalent rock strata
as determined by the presence of a particular fossil species. Although
the concept is generally straightforward, i.e. the presence of a specific
fossil species in two geographic localities indicates the rocks containing
the fossil specimens were deposited at about the same time, in practice
biostratigraphic studies tend to be complex. The complexities of
biostratigraphy result from aspects of the biology of the organisms
including their environmental range, their evolutionary rates, as well as
their tendency for preservation and probability of observation by the
biostratigrapher.
Ultimately, the most rapidly evolving or short-lived, yet wide-
ranging fossil taxa make the best biostratigraphic markers for
correlation. If a given taxa is both wide-ranging and evolutionarily
short-lived, and if it is robust enough to be preserved in the fossil
record, then the taxa is often referred to as an index fossil. An index
fossil identified in the rock record would constrain the age of the rock

200
within which it is contained to a very specific interval of time when the
organism lived. (2)
Fossil taxa used in biochronologic investigations rarely satisfy all
aspects of the ideal index fossil. That is, they often violate one or more
of the following rules: 1), must have a widespread distribution (fossils
tend to be limited to a small region or are found only in a particular
depositional environment as opposed to globally); 2), must show rapid
evolution (fossils change rapidly in preservable morphology so that
distinctive identifiable species are easily recognized); 3), must be
present in substantial numbers (so that fossils can be observed by the
biostratigrapher); and 4), fossils should be robust mineralogically (so
that depositional and diagenetic processes do not remove the fossils
from the rock record). (2)
Most often the best biostratigraphic markers or index fossils are
taxa that live in the open water column either as free-floating plankton
or as actively swimming nekton. Such organisms tend to be rapidly
evolving, widely distributed and widely deposited. In contrast, benthic
organisms which live on or very close to the seabottom, tend to be less
widespread, fewer in numbers, and are typically found only in
particular environments. Nonetheless, nektonic, planktonic, and benthic
forms can be used to establish relative biostratigraphic age zonations. (2)

9.2. Biostratigraphy on Integrated Stratigraphic Studies

The most important development in the stratigraphic field is the


integration of biostratigraphic dating with observable seismic and
geomagnetic cycles, now usually known as sequence stratigraphy. This
means that stratigraphers can now provide numeric age estimates for
seismic sequences where traditionally only relative ages could be given.
This direct link between your seismic data and numeric ages can be a
powerful aid in regional correlation. (3)
Biostratigraphic data is also integrated with other disciplines, e.g.
sedimentology. Besides being the basic tool in regional correlation of
sedimentological units, it allows the position of a sediment unit in a
seismic cycle to be pinpointed and also allows more accurate estimates
regarding the missing section. The sedimentological sequences can be
placed in a regional and global framework. (1)
Other stratigraphic tools, e.g. chemostratigraphy (stable isotope
techniques: Oxygen, Strontium) Graphic Correlation or Cyclicity
201
Analysis (duration estimates from electric logs), are now being
integrated with biostratigraphic data. These can provide an additional
cross-check besides giving useful paleoenvironmental information. (1)
A significant new development that relies heavily on
micropaleontological data is sequence stratigraphy. By combining
biofacies trends, lithologies, well log patterns and age information,
micropaleontologists are in a position to pick depositional sequences in
well sections. If done correctly, this improves understanding of
geological history, interpretation of fossil-poor zones, allows prediction
of lateral facies changes, and, since most seismic reflectors are
sequence boundaries or ”condensed intervals”, facilitates integration
with seismic data. Analysis of microfossils is standard procedure in
most wildcat wells in Indonesia. Since detailed biofacies analysis
highfrequency cyclicity (”parasequences”), microfauna or flora
analyses should also be considered in field development wells for
reservoir mapping and prediction studies. (1)
Two relatively new geological application techniques involving
results of micropaleontological analysis that are important geohistory
analysis and sequence (bio-) stratigraphy. (1)
Geohistory analysis - The use of quantified micropaleontologic
interpretations to construct subsidence curves, was named ”geohistory
analysis” by Van Hinte (1978). If for a sufficient number of horizons in
a well or surface section age (in millions of years) and paleobathymetry
are known, a plot of time versus interval thickness plus paleo-water
depth will produce curves that illustrate the subsidence history of these
levels. These allow conclusions on the structural history of the basin,
and, when combined with paleotemperature data, estimates of timing of
hydrocarbon generation (e.g. the Lopatin method; Waples 1980). (1)
”Kinks” in the curves may represent structural events, but may also
be due to errors in age or paleobathymetry interpretation, flaws in the
numerical time scale used, or eustatic sea level changes. The curves
may thus also be used to check for anomalous biostratigraphic
interpretations. Sophisticated curves include detailed paleowaterdepth
information, and corrections for eustatic sea level changes and
compaction through time. Computer software to generate geohistory
curves is now available from various sources. .(1)
Sequence (bio-)stratigraphy - Recent advances in seismic
stratigraphy (Vail et al. 1977) and sedimentology suggest there is no
such thing as continuous deposition. The sedimentary record consists of

202
stacks of depositional sequences (genetically related, predictable
successions of lithofacies; commonly shanowing-upward sequences;
deposited in relatively short time periods), separated by sequence
boundaries, representing periods of erosion or non-deposition. Factors
controlling this cyclic deposition are variations in eustatic sea level,
relative rates of basin subsidence, and sediment supply. (1)
In wells or outcrops cyclicity is particularly obvious in deltaic
systems, thin ones being caused by distributary switching, thicker ones
by sea level changes. An example describing the major Eocene to
Recent cycles in Sarawak is Ho Kiam Fui (1978), A sequence is
composed of a predictable 3-dimensional arrangement of facies. Haq,
Hardenbol and Vail (1987) published an idealized 2-dimensional model
of a (clastic) depositional sequence. It is defined as the succession of
sediments deposited during a complete eustatic sea level cycle, from a
sea level fall to subsequent rise and ending with the next fall (Figure
9.1) .(1)

Figure 9.1. Comparison of relative abundancy, range, datum levels


and succession (modification from Kellen, 1981) (1)

It can be subdivided into four ”systems tracts” (packages of


sediments deposited during a particular part of the sea level curve):
Lowstand fan (rapid sea level fall), Lowstand wedge (sea level
203
lowstand), Transgressive (sea level rise) and Highstand (relatively
stable high sea level): A fifth unit, the Shelf margin wedge, forms
during a slow drop in eustatic sea level. (1)
A ”condensed section‟‟ separates the lowstand and transgressive
systems tracts from the overlying prograding (downlapping) highstand
systems tract. It corresponds to the period of maximum transgression
(maximum landward extension of marine facies), during which most
coarse clastics were trapped on the basin margin. In wells in basinal
settings it can be recognized as a thin zone of very slow deposition,
enriched in authigenic marine material (marine fossils, glauconite,
phosphate). As it represents the deepest marine facies in the sequence,
the best planktic assemblages for age dating are found around this
interval. (1)
The Haq et al. (1987) paper also contains updated versions of the
Exxon Mesozoic and Cenozoic cycle charts (”Vail-curves”), which
show the ages of sequence boundaries, thought to reflect globally
isochronous eustatic sea level changes. Although there is good evidence
that many of these sequence boundaries are indeed due to eustatic sea
level drops and can be recognized worldwide, opposing opinions
suggested that many boundaries on the chart may be the result of local
tectonics or fluctuations in sediment supply, and are not isochronous
world-wide events. Regardless of who is right on the time issue,
sequences are the main genetic components of basinfill, and sequence
boundaries the principal correlation surfaces. Cyclicity in rock
successions can be observed at many scales. In the Central and South
Sumatra basins thin transgressive- regressive ”parasequences” can be
recognized (in deltaic series generally 2-8m thick), which are organized
in larger ”seismic-scale” sequences of 50-2Oom thickness and of 1-3
million years duration. These sequences, in turn, are stacked in the
large, basin-scale transgressive-regressive pattern with a fluvial-
lacustrinedeltaic ”wedge base”, a marine ”wedge middle” and a deltaic-
fluvial ”wedge top”, together comprising 25-30 million years. (1)
Micropaleontologists can identify sequences in well sections, by
combining biofacies trends with sample lithologies and well logs. If
sufficiently thick, sequences may be picked from seismic stratigraphic
analysis. Age dating is done on the appropriate facies in each sequence
(deepest water for plankton), or, if diagnostic markers are absent, by
using a global or local cycle chart. Although there are no microfossils
that are unique to certain systems tracts there are some indirect criteria

204
that help identify position within a sequence:
a) common reworked shallow marine fauna in deep marine beds are
suggestive of updip erosion and turbidite transport, and thus point
to lowstand fan deposits; - abundant large arenacous forams
(”flysch faunas”) are thought to reflect relatively rapid mud
deposition in a deep marine facies, which most likely occurs in
the lowstand fan or distal lowstand wedge deposits;
b) in the transgressive systems tract most clastics are trapped in
aggradational alluvial and coastal plain deposits. Shorelines
receive relatively little sediment, so these tend to be dominated by
marine processes (waves, tides). Water turbidity is relatively low,
and ”clear water” marine microfaunas like Cellanthus,
Operculina, Amphistegina, larger foraminifera and sea-grass
species like planoconvex Cibicides and Discorbis are most
frequent here. Also glauconite-rich and calcareous beds, including
reefal buildups, are most frequent in transgressive deposits.
c) the highstand systems tract is characterized by relatively rapidly
prograding shorelines. Influence of rivers and deltas is relatively
high, and ”turbid water” marine foraminifera tend to dominate
tend to dominate here (Ammonia, Pseudorotalia in the shallow,
Uvigerina and Bolivina in the deeper parts). Figure 9.2 shows the
idealized distribution of foraminifera in a vertical section through
a Middle Miocene sequence (13.8 to 15.5 million years). (1)
The approximate position of this section in the model is indicated
on Figure 9.1 About 80% of the sequence is composed of the Highstand
systems tract, an overall shallowing-upward package with minor breaks
(parasequences). Evidence for shallowingupward is: coarsening-upward
log pattern, decreasing percentage of planktonic foraminifera, and
benthic foraminifera assemblages changing from upper bathyal species
at base to brackish water species near the top. The Condensed Interval
is around the zone of deepest facies and contains abundant glauconite.
The thin shallow marine and fluvial packages between the condensed
interval and the 15.5 Ma sequence boundary are interpreted as the
Transgressive and Lowstand Wedge systems tracts. The beds below the
15.5 boundary are from the shallowing-upward Highstand systems tract
of an older sequence, which is truncated by erosion at 15.5 Ma. Only
the deep marine parts of the sequence can be dated with planktonic
foraminifera. Species diagnostic of zones N8, N9 and N10 are present.
Using the Exxon cycle chart numerical ages of the sequence boundaries

205
can then be obtained. It should be noted that some aspects of the
example Table 9.1 may not be typical of most real world sections: - all
samples are cores or sidewall cores. Paleontologists usually work with
cuttings, containing cavings that obscure the fossil-poor zones around
the sequence boundaries; - not many sequences show the broad range of
facies from upper bathyal to non-marine. This may be found only in
high subsidence-high sedimentation rate areas.In general narrower
ranges of facies are found. Where bathyal to non-marine facies
transitions do occur theyusually comprise several sequences; - the
relative thickness of the Lowstand, Transgressive and Highstand
systems tract in a well section depends on the position in the basin. In
settings farther basinward than the Table 9.1 example lowstand deposits
would become relatively thick, transgressive beds would be absent, and
highstand deposits would become thin, incomplete shallowing-upward
packages. Further landward the sequence boundary becomes a more
pronounced erosional surface, lowstand deposits are absent (except for
valley-fill sands), and the transgressive beds become relatively thick
(Figure 9.2); - smaller scale sequences (parasequences) may be more
pronounced than in the Table 9.1.
Summarizing, sequence (bio-)stratigraphy attempts to subdivide
sections into genetically related packages, improving correlations and
interpretation of fossil-poor zones, and allowing prediction of lateral
facies changes. In addition to the traditional breakdown of a well
section into zones and environments, ”sequence biostratigraphy”
reports also indicate the position of sequence boundaries, their age in
millions of years, and describe the nature of the sequences. Since most
seismic marker horizons are sequence boundaries or condensed
intervals (”downlap surfaces”), this method facilitates integration of
fossil and rock data with seismic studies, and, in genera1,leads to a
more meaningful stratigraphic framework. Detailed and accurate age
and facies information from micropaleontology is indispensable for
establishing a reliable sequence framework.

206
Figure 9.2. Idealized depositional sequence model (simplified from
Haq, Hardenbol and Vail, 1987.(1)

207
Table 9.1. Typical distribution of foraminifera in a Middle Miocene
depostional sequence (hypothetical well section; for approximate
position in model see Fig 9.2 (1)

References:
(1)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proceedings Indonesian Petroleoum
Association Seventeenth Annual Convention, Indonesia
(2)
http://www.mcz.harvard.edu/Departments/InvertPaleo/Trenton/In
tro/GeologyPage/Sedimentary%20Geology/biostrat.htm)
(3)
http://strats.home.xs4.all.nl/biostrat.htm

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