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Constants
In this chapter, we have considered the concept of energy are accounted for by the energy balance. The energy balance
from an engineering perspective and have introduced energy for a process of a closed system is Eq. 2.35 and an accom-
balances for applying the conservation of energy principle to panying time rate form is Eq. 2.37. Equation 2.40 is a special
closed systems. A basic idea is that energy can be stored form of the energy balance for a system undergoing a ther-
within systems in three macroscopic forms: internal energy, modynamic cycle.
kinetic energy, and gravitational potential energy. Energy The following checklist provides a study guide for this
also can be transferred to and from systems. chapter. When your study of the text and end-of-chapter
Energy can be transferred to and from closed systems by exercises has been completed, you should be able to
two means only: work and heat transfer. Work and heat
c write out the meanings of the terms listed in the margins
transfer are identified at the system boundary and are not
throughout the chapter and understand each of the
properties. In mechanics, work is energy transfer associated
related concepts. The subset of key concepts listed below
with macroscopic forces and displacements. The thermody-
is particularly important in subsequent chapters.
namic definition of work introduced in this chapter extends
the notion of work from mechanics to include other types of c evaluate these energy quantities
work. Energy transfer by heat to or from a system is due to –kinetic and potential energy changes using Eqs. 2.5 and
a temperature difference between the system and its sur- 2.10, respectively.
roundings and occurs in the direction of decreasing tem-
–work and power using Eqs. 2.12 and 2.13, respectively.
perature. Heat transfer modes include conduction, radiation,
and convection. These sign conventions are used for work –expansion or compression work using Eq. 2.17
and heat transfer: c apply closed system energy balances in each of several
c KEY EQUATIONS
Thermodynamic Cycles
Wcycle Qin Qout (2.41) p. 73 Energy balance for a power cycle. As in Fig. 2.17a, all
quantities are regarded as positive.
Wcycle
h (2.42) p. 74 Thermal efficiency of a power cycle.
Qin
Wcycle Qout Qin (2.44) p. 74 Energy balance for a refrigeration or heat pump cycle. As in
Fig. 2.17b, all quantities are regarded as positive.
Qin
b (2.45) p. 75 Coefficient of performance of a refrigeration cycle.
Wcycle
Qout
g (2.47) p. 75 Coefficient of performance of a heat pump cycle.
Wcycle
1. Why are aerodynamic drag coefficients of Formula One conversion of electromagnetic radiation into motion. Should
race cars typically much greater than for ordinary the incident light be considered work or heat transfer?
automobiles?
10. For polytropic expansion or compression, what causes the
2. What are several things you as an individual can do to value of n to vary from process to process?
reduce energy use in your home? While meeting your
11. In the differential form of the closed system energy balance,
transportation needs?
dE 5 ␦Q 2 ␦W, why is d and not ␦ used for the differential
3. How does the kilowatt-hour meter in your house measure on the left?
electric energy usage?
12. When two amusement park bumper cars collide head-on
4. Why is it incorrect to say that a system contains heat? and come to a stop, how do you account for the kinetic
energy the pair had just before the collision?
5. What examples of heat transfer by conduction, radiation, and
convection do you encounter when using a charcoal grill? 13. What form does the energy balance take for an isolated
system?
6. After running 5 miles on a treadmill at her campus rec
center, Ashley observes that the treadmill belt is warm to 14. What forms of energy and energy transfer are present in
the touch. Why is the belt warm? the life cycle of a thunderstorm?
7. When microwaves are beamed onto a tumor during cancer 15. How would you define an efficiency for the motor of
therapy to increase the tumor’s temperature, this interaction Example 2.6?
is considered work and not heat transfer. Why?
16. Steve has a pedometer that reads kilocalories burned. How
8. For good acceleration, what is more important for an many miles does he need to walk to burn off the candy bar
automobile engine, horsepower or torque? he ate while watching a movie?
9. Experimental molecular motors are reported to exhibit 17. How many tons of CO2 are produced annually by a
movement upon the absorption of light, thereby achieving a conventional automobile?
Key Equations 149
c sketch T–, p–, and p–T diagrams and locate principal c use the generalized compressibility chart to relate p––T
states on such diagrams. data of gases.
c apply the closed system energy balance with property data. c apply the ideal gas model for thermodynamic analysis,
c evaluate the properties of two-phase liquid–vapor mix- including determining when use of the ideal gas model is
tures using Eqs. 3.1, 3.2, 3.6, and 3.7. warranted, and appropriately using ideal gas table data
or constant specific heat data to determine Du and Dh.
c estimate the properties of liquids using Eqs. 3.11–3.14.
c apply polytropic process relations.
c apply the incompressible substance model.
c KEY EQUATIONS
mvapor
x⫽ (3.1) p. 102 Quality, x, of a two-phase, liquid–vapor mixture.
mliquid ⫹ mvapor
y ⫽ 11 ⫺ x2yf ⫹ xyg ⫽ yf ⫹ x1yg ⫺ yf2 (3.2) p. 108
u ⫽ 11 ⫺ x2uf ⫹ xug ⫽ uf ⫹ x1ug ⫺ uf2 (3.6) p. 112 Specific volume, internal energy and enthalpy of a
h ⫽ 11 ⫺ x2hf ⫹ xhg ⫽ hf ⫹ x1hg ⫺ hf2 (3.7) p. 112 two-phase liquid–vapor mixture.
py ⫽ RT (3.32) p. 133
u ⫽ u1T2 (3.36) p. 133 Ideal gas model.
h ⫽ h1T2 ⫽ u1T2 ⫹ RT (3.37) p. 133
T2
u1T22 ⫺ u1T12 ⫽ 冮
T1
cy1T2 dT (3.40) p. 136 Change in specific internal energy.
T2
h1T22 ⫺ h1T12 ⫽ 冮
T1
cp1T2 dT (3.43) p. 136 Change in specific enthalpy.