Unit 3: Sewerage

Types of Sewage Systems

Sewage systems may seem pretty straightforward and uncomplicated but there are various
aspects that are needed to make it functional and effective. Wastes from different houses have
nowhere to go but stagnant in a place because the whole house to stink and be littered
everywhere. A Sewage system carries the responsibility to get rid of household waste. Sewers,
however, are more complicated than what most think. There is a specific sewer type for each
kind of waste that needs transportation. Here are the 6 types of sewage system:

1. Sanitary Sewer

Sanitary sewers are composed mainly of pipes that are buried below the ground to transport
sewage and waste water from households, industrial establishments and residential buildings to
treatment plants. The wastewater comes from bathrooms, kitchen sinks and toilet bowls. The
sanitary sewer line is responsible for carrying the water to sanitary treatment plants for them to
get filtered, treated and finally, discharged to different bodies of water. This process is necessary
to prevent environmental and health issues when the water is dumped back to the environment.

2. Storm Sewer

Storm sewers are made to carry storm water or rainwater. This system should not be used as a
sanitary sewer since the pipes used for this is usually not resistant to corrosive and harmful
substances that can be found in wastewater such as chemical solutions. These pipes are directly
connected to seas, rivers, and lakes which are why there should not be any form of harmful
contaminants in the water since those can cause pollution and kill the marine ecology. Chemical
solutions are harmful to the environment.

3. Combined Sewer

A combined sewer line is the fusion of the storm water sewer and the sanitary sewer. This system
will carry both wastes in one pipe into a treatment pipe. However, since the pipe is carrying two
forms of sewage trash, it is prone to overflows and leaks. When this happens, environmental and
health problems will likely arise. This problem can cause the death of countless marine life, the
destruction of habitats and killing of trees due to a polluted environment. All those are brought
about by the chemical content present in the waste water.

4. Lateral Sewer

The lateral sewer line is often used in private and residential properties to connect the buildings,
waste system to the main sewer lines. This will carry the household’s wastes into the sewage
system of the community. This will also connect the other houses to the sewage system that is
responsible for transporting the community’s wastes to treatment plants before they are released
into the environment.

5. Sub main Sewer

A sub main sewer can be privately owned. This is responsible for carrying the wastes from two
or more buildings as long as they are situated on the same property and carry the waste to the
main sewer line. It is the property owner’s responsibility to install, maintain and repair the sub
main sewer in cases of emergency and damage.

6. Main Sewer

This type of sewer is the main vessel in a sewage system. It is a big pipe that collects all the
sewage from different lateral and sub main sewage systems into one giant pipe. It holds the
wastewater and sewage of many households at one time and transports everything to a treatment
plant for cleaning and sanitation. Main sewer lines are these centralized waste pipes.

Types of Sewerage Systems

The sewerage system can be of following three types:
Combined system
Separate System
Partially separate system

Combined system: In combined system along with domestic sewage, the run-off resulting from storms is carried
through the same conduit of sewerage system. In countries like India where actual rainy days are very few, this
system will face the problem of maintaining self cleansing velocity in the sewers during dry season, as the sewage
discharge may be far lower as compared to the design discharge after including storm water.
Advantages of combined system
*In an area where rainfall is spread throughout a year, there is no need of flushing of sewers, as
self cleansing velocity will be developed due to more quantity because of addition of storm
water.

*Only one set of pipe will be required for house plumbing.

*In congested areas it is easy to lay only one pipe rather than two pipes as required in other
systems.

Disadvantages of combined system

*Not suitable for the area with small period of rainfall in a year, because dry weather flow will
be small due to which self cleansing velocity may not develop in sewers, resulting in silting.

*Large flow is required to be treated at sewage treatment plant before disposal, hence resulting in
higher capital and operating cost of the treatment plant.

*When pumping is required this system is uneconomical.

*During rains overflowing of sewers will spoil public hygiene

Separate System: In separate system, separate conduits are used; one carrying sewage and other carrying storm
water run- off. The storm water collected can be directly discharged into the water body since the run- off is not as
foul as sewage and no treatment is generally provided. Whereas, the sewage collected from the city is treated
adequately before it is discharged into the water body or used for irrigation to meet desired standards. Separate
system is advantageous and economical for big towns.

Advantages of separate system

*As sewage flows in separate pipe, hence the quantity to be treated at sewage treatment plant is
small, resulting in economy of treatment.

*This system may be less costly as only sanitary sewage is transported in closed conduit and
storm water can be collected and conveyed through open drains.

*When pumping is required during disposal, this system is economical due to less flow.

Disadvantages of separate system

*Self cleansing velocity may not developed at certain locations in sewers and hence flushing of
sewers may be required.

*This system requires laying two sets of pipe, which may be difficult in congested area.

*This system will require maintenance of two sets of pipelines and hence maintenance cost is
more
Partially separate system: In this system part of the storm water especially collected from roofs and paved
courtyards of the buildings is admitted in the same drain along with sewage from residences and institutions, etc.
The storm water from the other places is collected separately using separate storm water conduits.

Advantages of partially separate system

*Economical and reasonable size sewers are required.

*Work of house plumbing is reduced as rain water from roofs, sullage from bathrooms and
kitchen, etc. are combined with discharge from water closets.

*Flushing of sewers may not be required as small portion of storm water is allowed to enter in
sanitary sewage.

Disadvantages of partially separate system

*Increased cost of pumping as compared to separate system at treatment plants and intermediate
pumping station wherever required.

* In dry weather self-cleansing velocity may not develop in the sewers.

Components of sewerage system

After flushing your toilet, the sewage would undergo certain processes and will be conveyed by
various kinds and components of a wastewater assemblage system. These constituents would
carry sewages from households, buildings and industries. This is not the path undergone by
storm water though, because storm waters are rainwater and snow melts which are typically
discharged into a flood plain and then finally, into a nearby body of water.
Every day, we tend to use our toilets and drainage system. But, have you ever wondered where
these wastewaters are heading? Are they gone for good?
Here are the possible paths and wastewater collection system components the usually convey
wastewater.
1. Lift or Pump Stations
Lift or pump station is very necessary especially to gravity sewer system. This is because when
pipes are laid in an inadequate or unserviceable declivity, the sewage won’t be efficiently
conveyed thus, the necessity for lift station would arise. Their primary function is to elevate the
sewages into a specific height to continue their velocity.
2. Manholes
Manholes are intentionally created and designed to create a quick and convenient access towards
the sewers and piping systems. They are created due to the constant need to test, investigate,
monitor and maintain the sewers. These are commonly located in areas where pipe intersects or
the change in direction, elevation and size occurs.
3. Ventilation
Ventilation is specifically created to provide the drainage system with decent air purification
especially those that are located in urban areas. This is to prevent the formation of explosive gas
within the sewers and drainage system.
4. Sewers
Typically, these are the pipes that carry and convey the wastewater coming from your
households, buildings and industries. After draining or flushing your toilet, sewers describe the
path undergone by the wastewater for them to leave your home. Yet there are many pipes that
compose your sewer assembly. They may vary in size and material but all of them are supposed
to carry wastewater and convey them to their final destination. They must be connected to each
other to ensure that the wastewater is conveyed efficiently without leakage and unnecessary
sewage escapade. Here are the sewers and the pipe constituents that composes your wastewater
assemblage.
 Building sewers

They are commonly called property service connections as they are the primary pipe
connected from households and industries. These pipes are privately owned and it is the
owner’s responsibility to maintain and repair them in case of sewer troubles. These
sewers may either be connected to the municipal pipe system or to the main wastewater
treatment plants.
 Lateral/Branch sewers

These are the main constituents of a municipal sewer system’s upper ends. They may be
located and are usually found in some easements and ends in their upstream and the
branch sewer collects or conveys wastewater from numerous lateral sewers.
 Main sewers

The main sewers are where lateral and branch sewers are connected. This has a larger
diameter compared to that of the building, lateral and branch sewers. This collects the
wastewater carried by the aforementioned piping system coming from a certain residence
or a densely populated area. They may either convey this wastewater into a larger sewer
or directly convey them into a lift station or treatment plants.
 Trunk sewers

Trunk sewers are a collection of main sewers. They collect and transport wastewater from
various residences and household collections. They must be of large diameter as they
convey wastewater basically with a bigger volume.
 Interceptor sewers

These pipes are the ones with the largest diameter as they collect and convey wastewater
from a collection of trunk sewers. This is the final pipe path undergone by wastewater
and they would then be finally conveyed into a lift station or a treatment plant.
Layout of sewerage system

The first step is to design the layout. It is not possible to follow a fixed procedure. In
general, an attempt should be made to follow the natural drainage pattern. It is
advisable to work from the overall plan to the details. First, the border lines of the area
to be sewered (catchment area), the watersheds and the main valleys have to be
marked on a map. Afterwards the sewer lines have to be arranged tentatively to fit the
most economical flow pattern and the main sewer line in the area has to be
determined. It has to be kept in mind that the shortest way always has to be chosen.
Figures 6 give some examples of flow patterns.

Some general rules to follow during the design of the layout are:

(a) No sewer should pass underneath a building

(b) Avoid crossings with railroads, canals, rivers etc.

(c) Manholes have to be plotted at all junctions and changes of slope or direction. The
maximum manhole distance should be 35 to 50 meters. Between manholes a sewer
has to be straight. From these manholes, the sewer can be inspected to locate
obstructions and cleansing device with buckets and steel cable can be passed through
them. This is not possible in the case of curved sewers. These have to be used
sometimes in winding and narrow streets.

(d) Big accessible sewers may be curved and have manholes at 100 to 200 meter
intervals.

(e) The locations of the sewer depends on the type of sewer and the width of the
street.

Now, on the layout, the sites for the pumping stations, the storm water overflows and
the treatment plants can be indicated.
Fig. 1. Typical lay-out scheme of a waste water collection system

Fig. 2. Combined system

Fig. 3. Separate system
Fig. 4. Pseudo separate or partially separate system

Hydraulic design of sewers and storm water drain sections

Requirements of Design and Planning of Sewerage System

The sewerage scheme is designed to remove entire sewage effectively and efficiently from the
houses to the point of treatment and disposal. Following aspects should be considered while
designing the system.
*The sewers provided should be adequate in size to avoid overflow and possible health hazards.
*For evaluating proper diameter of the sewer, correct estimation of sewage discharge is
necessary.
*The flow velocity inside the sewer should neither be so large as to require heavy excavation
and high lift pumping, nor should be so small causing deposition of the solid in the sewers.
*The sewers should be laid at least 2 to 3 m deep to carry sewage from basement. The sewage
in sewer should flow under gravity with 0.5 to 0.8 full at designed discharge, i.e. at the
maximum estimated discharge.
*The sewage is conveyed to the point usually located in low-lying area, where the treatment
plant is located.
*Treatment plant should be designed taking into consideration the quality of raw sewage
expected and to meet the discharge standards.
Design of Storm Water Drains for Separate System

Important points for design

Storm water is collected from streets into the link drains, which in turn discharge into main
drains of open type. The main drain finally discharges the water into open water body. As far as
possible gravity discharge is preferred, but when it is not possible, pumping can be employed.
While designing, the alignment of link drains, major drains and sources of disposal are properly
planned on contour maps. The maximum discharge expected in the drains is worked out. The
longitudinal sections of the drains are prepared keeping in view the full supply level (FSL) so
that at no place it should go above the natural surface level along the length. After deciding the
FSL line, the bed line is fixed (i.e. depth of drain) based on following consideration.
a. The bed level should not go below the bed level of source into which storm water is
discharged.
b. The depth in open drain should preferably be kept less than man height.
c. The depth is sometimes also decided based on available width.
d. The drain section should be economical and velocities generated should be non-silting and
non-scouring in nature.

Laying of Sewer Pipes

Sewers are generally laid starting from their outfall ends towards their starting points.
1. With this advantage of utilization of the tail sewers even during the initial periods of its
construction is possible.
2. It is common practice, to first locate the points where manholes are required to beconstructed
as per drawing, i.e., L-section of sewer, and then laying the sewer pipe straight between the two
manholes.
3. The central line of the sewer is marked on the ground and an offset line is also marked parallel
to the central line at suitable distance, about half the trench width plus 0.6 m. This line can be
drawn by fixing the pegs at 15 m intervals and can be used for finding out center line of the
sewer simply by offsetting.
4. The trench of suitable width is excavated between the two manholes and the sewer is laid
between them. Further excavation is then carried out for laying the pipes between the next
consecutive manholes. Thus, the process is continued till the entire sewers are laid out.
5. The width of the trench at the bottom is generally kept 15 cm more than the diameter of the
sewer pipe, with minimum 60 cm width to facilitate joining of pipes.
6. If the sewer pipes are not to be embedded in concrete, such as for firm grounds, then the
bottom half portion of the trench is excavated to confirm the shape of the pipe itself. In ordinary
or softer grounds, sewers are laid embedded in concrete.
7. The trench is excavated up to a level of the bottom embedding concrete or up to the invert
level of the sewer pipe plus pipe thickness if no embedding concrete is provided. The designed
invert levels and desired slope as per the longitudinal section of the sewer should be precisely
transferred to the trench bottom.
8. After bedding concrete is laid in required alignment and levels. The sewer pipes are then
lowered down into the trench either manually or with the help of machines for bigger pipe
diameters.
9. The sewer pipe lengths are usually laid from the lowest point with their sockets facing up the
gradient, on desired bedding. Thus, the spigot end of new pipe can be easily inserted on the
socket end of the already laid pipe.

Hydraulic Testing of Sewers

Test for Leakage or Water Test

The sewers are tested after giving sufficient time for the joints to set for no leakage. For this
sewer pipe sections are tested between the manholes to manhole under a test pressure of about
1.5 m water head. To carry this, the downstream end of the sewer is plugged and water is filled in
the manhole at upper end. The depth of water in manhole is maintained at about 1.5 m. The
sewer line is inspected and the joints which leak are repaired.

Test for Straightness of alignment

This can be tested by placing a mirror at one end of the sewer line and a lamp at the other end. If
the pipe line is straight, full circle of light will be observed.
 Unit-4: Sewage Treatment

Preliminary treatment

The objective of preliminary treatment is the removal of coarse solids and other large materials
often found in raw wastewater. Removal of these materials is necessary to enhance the operation
and maintenance of subsequent treatment units. Preliminary treatment operations typically
include coarse screening, grit removal and, in some cases, comminution of large objects. In grit
chambers, the velocity of the water through the chamber is maintained sufficiently high, or air is
used, so as to prevent the settling of most organic solids. Grit removal is not included as a
preliminary treatment step in most small wastewater treatment plants. Comminutors are
sometimes adopted to supplement coarse screening and serve to reduce the size of large particles
so that they will be removed in the form of a sludge in subsequent treatment processes. Flow
measurement devices, often standing-wave flumes, are always included at the preliminary
treatment stage.

Primary treatment

The objective of primary treatment is the removal of settleable organic and inorganic solids by
sedimentation, and the removal of materials that will float (scum) by skimming. Approximately
25 to 50% of the incoming biochemical oxygen demand (BOD 5), 50 to 70% of the total
suspended solids (SS), and 65% of the oil and grease are removed during primary treatment.
Some organic nitrogen, organic phosphorus, and heavy metals associated with solids are also
removed during primary sedimentation but colloidal and dissolved constituents are not affected.
The effluent from primary sedimentation units is referred to as primary effluent.

Primary sedimentation tanks or clarifiers may be round or rectangular basins, typically 3 to 5 m

deep, with hydraulic retention time between 2 and 3 hours. Settled solids (primary sludge) are
normally removed from the bottom of tanks by sludge rakes that scrape the sludge to a central
well from which it is pumped to sludge processing units. Scum is swept across the tank surface
by water jets or mechanical means from which it is also pumped to sludge processing units.
In large sewage treatment plants (> 7600 m3/d in the US), primary sludge is most commonly
processed biologically by anaerobic digestion. In the digestion process, anaerobic and facultative
bacteria metabolize the organic material in sludge, thereby reducing the volume requiring
ultimate disposal, making the sludge stable (nonputrescible) and improving its dewatering
characteristics. Digestion is carried out in covered tanks (anaerobic digesters), typically 7 to 14
m deep. The residence time in a digester may vary from a minimum of about 10 days for high-
rate digesters (well-mixed and heated) to 60 days or more in standard-rate digesters. Gas
containing about 60 to 65% methane is produced during digestion and can be recovered as an
energy source. In small sewage treatment plants, sludge is processed in a variety of ways
including: aerobic digestion, storage in sludge lagoons, direct application to sludge drying beds,
in-process storage (as in stabilization ponds), and land application.

Secondary treatment

The objective of secondary treatment is the further treatment of the effluent from primary
treatment to remove the residual organics and suspended solids. In most cases, secondary
treatment follows primary treatment and involves the removal of biodegradable dissolved and
colloidal organic matter using aerobic biological treatment processes. Aerobic biological
treatment (see Box) is performed in the presence of oxygen by aerobic microorganisms
(principally bacteria) that metabolize the organic matter in the wastewater, thereby producing
more microorganisms and inorganic end-products (principally CO2, NH3, and H2O). Several
aerobic biological processes are used for secondary treatment differing primarily in the manner
in which oxygen is supplied to the microorganisms and in the rate at which organisms metabolize
the organic matter.

High-rate biological processes are characterized by relatively small reactor volumes and high
concentrations of microorganisms compared with low rate processes. Consequently, the growth
rate of new organisms is much greater in high-rate systems because of the well controlled
environment. The microorganisms must be separated from the treated wastewater by
sedimentation to produce clarified secondary effluent. The sedimentation tanks used in
secondary treatment, often referred to as secondary clarifiers, operate in the same basic manner
as the primary clarifiers described previously. The biological solids removed during secondary
sedimentation, called secondary or biological sludge, are normally combined with primary
sludge for sludge processing.

Common high-rate processes include the activated sludge processes, trickling filters or biofilters,
oxidation ditches, and rotating biological contactors (RBC). A combination of two of these
processes in series (e.g., biofilter followed by activated sludge) is sometimes used to treat

i. Activated Sludge

In the activated sludge process, the dispersed-growth reactor is an aeration tank or basin
containing a suspension of the wastewater and microorganisms, the mixed liquor. The contents of
the aeration tank are mixed vigorously by aeration devices which also supply oxygen to the
biological suspension . Aeration devices commonly used include submerged diffusers that
release compressed air and mechanical surface aerators that introduce air by agitating the liquid
surface. Hydraulic retention time in the aeration tanks usually ranges from 3 to 8 hours but can
be higher with high BOD 5wastewaters. Following the aeration step, the microorganisms are
separated from the liquid by sedimentation and the clarified liquid is secondary effluent. A
portion of the biological sludge is recycled to the aeration basin to maintain a high mixed-liquor
suspended solids (MLSS) level. The remainder is removed from the process and sent to sludge
processing to maintain a relatively constant concentration of microorganisms in the system.
Several variations of the basic activated sludge process, such as extended aeration and oxidation
ditches, are in common use, but the principles are similar.

ii. Trickling Filters

A trickling filter or biofilter consists of a basin or tower filled with support media such as stones,
plastic shapes, or wooden slats. Wastewater is applied intermittently, or sometimes continuously,
over the media. Microorganisms become attached to the media and form a biological layer or
fixed film. Organic matter in the wastewater diffuses into the film, where it is metabolized.
Oxygen is normally supplied to the film by the natural flow of air either up or down through the
media, depending on the relative temperatures of the wastewater and ambient air. Forced air can
also be supplied by blowers but this is rarely necessary. The thickness of the biofilm increases as
new organisms grow. Periodically, portions of the film 'slough off the media. The sloughed
material is separated from the liquid in a secondary clarifier and discharged to sludge processing.
Clarified liquid from the secondary clarifier is the secondary effluent and a portion is often
recycled to the biofilter to improve hydraulic distribution of the wastewater over the filter.

iii. Rotating Biological Contactors

Rotating biological contactors (RBCs) are fixed-film reactors similar to biofilters in that
organisms are attached to support media. In the case of the RBC, the support media are slowly
rotating discs that are partially submerged in flowing wastewater in the reactor. Oxygen is
supplied to the attached biofilm from the air when the film is out of the water and from the liquid
when submerged, since oxygen is transferred to the wastewater by surface turbulence created by
the discs' rotation. Sloughed pieces of biofilm are removed in the same manner described for
biofilters.

High-rate biological treatment processes, in combination with primary sedimentation, typically

remove 85 % of the BOD 5 and SS originally present in the raw wastewater and some of the
heavy metals. Activated sludge generally produces an effluent of slightly higher quality, in terms
of these constituents, than biofilters or RBCs. When coupled with a disinfection step, these
processes can provide substantial but not complete removal of bacteria and virus. However, they
remove very little phosphorus, nitrogen, non-biodegradable organics, or dissolved minerals.

Tertiary and/or advanced treatment

Tertiary and/or advanced wastewater treatment is employed when specific wastewater

constituents which cannot be removed by secondary treatment must be removed. Individual
treatment processes are necessary to remove nitrogen, phosphorus, additional suspended solids,
refractory organics, heavy metals and dissolved solids. Because advanced treatment usually
 follows high-rate secondary treatment, it is sometimes referred to as tertiary treatment. However,
advanced treatment processes are sometimes combined with primary or secondary treatment
(e.g., chemical addition to primary clarifiers or aeration basins to remove phosphorus) or used in
place of secondary treatment (e.g., overland flow treatment of primary effluent).

Effluent from primary clarifiers flows to the biological reactor, which is physically divided into
five zones by baffles and weirs. In sequence these zones are: (i) anaerobic fermentation zone
(characterized by very low dissolved oxygen levels and the absence of nitrates); (ii) anoxic zone
(low dissolved oxygen levels but nitrates present); (iii) aerobic zone (aerated); (iv) secondary
anoxic zone; and (v) final aeration zone. The function of the first zone is to condition the group
of bacteria responsible for phosphorus removal by stressing them under low oxidation-reduction
conditions, which results in a release of phosphorus equilibrium in the cells of the bacteria. On
subsequent exposure to an adequate supply of oxygen and phosphorus in the aerated zones, these
cells rapidly accumulate phosphorus considerably in excess of their no Most of the nitrogen in
the influent is in the ammonia form, and this passes through the first two zones virtually
unaltered. In the third aerobic zone, the sludge age is such that almost complete nitrification
takes place, and the ammonia nitrogen is converted to nitrites and then to nitrates. The nitrate-
rich mixed liquor is then recycled from the aerobic zone back to the first anoxic zone. Here
denitrification occurs, where the recycled nitrates, in the absence of dissolved oxygen, are
reduced by facultative bacteria to nitrogen gas, using the influent organic carbon compounds as
hydrogen donors. The nitrogen gas merely escapes to atmosphere. In the second anoxic zone,
those nitrates which were not recycled are reduced by the endogenous respiration of bacteria. In
the final re-aeration zone, dissolved oxygen levels are again raised to prevent further
denitrification, which would impair settling in the secondary clarifiers to which the mixed liquor
then flows.rmal metabolic requirements. Phosphorus is removed from the system with the waste
activated sludge.

Screening
Wastewater Screening is the first unit operation in all wastewater treatment plants. Screen is the
device used to retain solids found in the influent wastewater to the treatment plant. The main
purpose of screening is to remove solid materials that could:
 Cause damage to other process equipment.
 Cause reduction in efficiency of the whole system
 Contaminate waterways
The materials that are removed using screens are called screenings.

Classification of Wastewater Screens

Screens are generally classified into three based on the size of their openings in the screening
element and mechanism of removal.

 Coarse screens
 Fine screens
 Microscreens
Coarse screens
Coarse screens have a clear openings ranging from 6 to 150 mm (0.25 t0 6 in). Coarse screen
consist of parallel bars, rods or wires, wire mesh or a perforated plates with openings generally of
circular or rectangular shapes. So it is also call as “bar rack” and used to remove coarse solids
such as rags and large objects that may clog or cause damage to other appurtenances. Based on
the Wastewater Screening method used to clean them, coarse screens are classified into two:
 Hand cleaned screens
 Mechanically cleaned screens

Hand cleaned coarse screens

Hand cleaned coarse screens are used in small wastewater pumping stations. They are often used
as standby screens in bypass channel for service during high-flow periods or when mechanically
cleaned screens are under repair or when power failure occurs. When used the length of bar rack
should be limited to 3 m, which enables convenient hand raking. The screen channels should be
designed in such a way that to prevent excessive accumulation of grit and other heavy metals.
The channel should have a straight approach which should be perpendicular to the bar screen to
promote uniform distribution of the solids throughout the flow and on the screen.

Mechanically cleaned screen

It is designed mainly to reduce the operating and maintenance problems and to
increase the efficiency of screening. Mechanically cleaned bar Wastewater
Screens are classified into four principal types:
1. Chain driven screens: this type of screens used a automatic chain to clean the
screen. It is classified into front and back chain driven screens on the basis of how
the screen is raked from the upstream or in downstream and whether the rakes
return to the bottom of the bar screen from the front or back
2. Reciprocating rake (Climber screen): In this type of screen the rake moves to
the base of the screen, engages the bars and pulls the screenings in to the top of the
screen where they removed. This screen uses only one rake instead of multiple
rakes that are used in other type of screens. Due to this they have limited capacity in
handling heavy screening loads.
3. Catenary screen: They have the rake which is held against the rack by the
weight of chain. They are front cleaned, front return chain driven screen. If heavy
objects become jammed in between the bars, the rakes will pass over them instead
of further jamming in it.
4. Continuous belt screen: It is a continuous, self cleaning screen that can
remove fine and coarse solids. A large number of rakes are attached to the drive
chains. The number of screening elements generally depends on the depth of the
screen channel.

Fine screens
In Wastewater Screening, Fine screens have clear openings less than 6 mm. They consisted of
perforated plates, wire cloth, wedge wire elements that have smaller openings. They are also
used to remove the fine solids present in the primary effluent. Fine screens are classified as:
 Static (fixed) wedge wire screen
 Rotary drum screen
 Step type screen

Static wedge wire screens

They have a clear opening of 0.2 to 1.2 mm and designed for a rate of flow of 400 to 1200
L/m2 min of screen area. Large floor area should require for installation of these screens and
these should be cleaned once or twice daily.
Drum screens
In this type the screening or straining medium is mounted on a cylinder that rotates in the flow
channel. The wastewater flows into either end of drum and flows out through the screen outlet
with the solids are being collected on this interior or into the top of the unit.
Step screens
It consists of two step shaped sets of thin vertical plates, one fixed and other one is movable.
The fixed and movable step plates alternate across the width of channel and together
form a single screen face. The movable plate rotates in a vertical motion. Through this
the solids collected on the screen face is lifted up to the next fixed step landing and
transported to the top of the screen to discharge into outlet.

Microscreens Wastewater Screening

They are rotating drum screens which have a variable low speed (upto 4 r/min), which is
continuously backwashed operating in gravity flow conditions. The filtering fabrics used should
have a openings ranges from 10 to 35µm and fitted on the periphery of the drum. The influent
enters through drum lined with fabric. The solids retained are collected through backwashing and
transported for disposal.
Requirements and Specifications for Design of Bar Screen

1.The velocity of flow ahead of and through a screen varies materially and affects its operation.
Lower the velocity through the screen, the greater is the amount of screening that would be
removed. However, at lower velocity greater amount of solids would be deposited at the bottom
of the screen channel.
2. Approach velocity of wastewater in the screening channel shall not fall below a self cleansing
velocity of 0.42 m/sec or rise to a magnitude at which screenings will be dislodged from the bars.
3. The suggested approach velocity is 0.6 to 0.75 m/sec for the grit bearing wastewaters.
Accordingly the bed slope of the channel should be adjusted to develop this velocity.
4. The suggested maximum velocity through the screen is 0.3 m/sec at average flow for hand
cleaned bar screens and 0.75 m/sec at the normal maximum flow for mechanically cleaned bar
screen (Rao and Dutta, 2007). Velocity of 0.6 to 1.2 m/sec through the screen opening for the
peak flow gives satisfactory result.

5. Head losses due to installation of screens must be controlled so that back water will not cause
the entrant sewer to operate under pressure.

6. The slope of the hand cleaned screen should be in between 30 to 60o with horizontal. The
mechanically cleaned bar screens are generally erected almost vertical; however the angle with
the horizontal can be in the range 45 to 85o

7. The submerged area of the surface of the screen, including bars and opening should be about
200% of the cross sectional area of the incoming sewer for separate system, and 300% for the
combined system.
8. The clear spacing between the bars may be in the range of 15 mm to 75 mm in case of
mechanically cleaned bar screen. However, for the manually cleaned bar screen the clear spacing
used is in the range 25 mm to 50 mm. Bar Screens with opening between 75 to 150 mm are used
ahead of raw sewage pumping. For industrial wastewater treatment the spacing between the bars
could be between 6 mm and 20 mm.

9. The width of bars facing the flow may vary from 5 mm to 15 mm, and the depth may vary
from 25 mm to 75 mm. Generally bars with size less than 5 mm x 25 mm are not used. These
bars are welded together with plate from downstream side to avoid deformation.

Disposal of Screenings

• Screenings is the waste materials collected from screens. Screenings should be properly
disposed. Various methods of screening disposal were used such as:
- burning,
- burying,
- digestion
- and shredding and returning it to wastewater collection or treatment system.

• Inland burying is efficient in small treatment plants, while burning is best for medium and large
treatment plants. Other methods cause problems and may need subsequent treatment. Digestion
is used for large systems and in combination with the treatment of the organic portion of
municipal solid waste

Grit Chambers
Grit chambers are basin to remove the inorganic particles to prevent damage to the pumps, and to
prevent their accumulation in sludge digestors.

Function of Grit Chambers

- to remove suspended inorganic particles such as sandy and gritty matter from the wastewater.

- to protect moving mechanical equipment from abrasion and abnormal wear;

- avoid deposition in pipelines, channel and conduits;

- to reduce frequency of digester cleaning

Types of Grit Chambers

Grit chambers are of two types: mechanically cleaned and manually cleaned. In mechanically
cleaned grit chamber, scraper blades collect the grit settled on the floor of the grit chamber. The
grit so collected is elevated to the ground level by several mechanisms such as bucket elevators,
jet pump and air lift. The grit washing mechanisms are also of several designs most of which are
agitation devices using either water or air to produce washing action. Manually cleaned grit
chambers should be cleaned atleast once a week. The simplest method of cleaning is by means of
shovel.

Aerated Grit Chamber

Equipment Overview:

An Aerated Grit Chamber removes grit from wastewater streams.

How it Works:
Airflow is generated by a blower and is introduced into the Aerated Grit Chamber via a tube
which is located near the bottom of the chamber, thereby creating a circular or toroidal flow
pattern in the wastewater. The continuous rising flow deflects off an energy-recovery baffle at the
liquid surface. This flow pattern causes the grit to settle to the bottom of the chamber while
keeping lighter organic material in suspension to be processed further downstream. Once the grit
has settled, either a recessed-impeller grit pump or, more commonly, an air-lift pump is used to
remove the grit slurry and send it on for dewatering.

Features
- Extremely simple mechanical design
- No moving parts below the water surface
- Can use blower air for air-lift pumping as well

Benefits
- Maintenance is significantly reduced
- Consistent grit removal efficiency over a wide flow range
- Possible septic conditions of the plant influent may be alleviated through pre-preparation in the
grit chamber
- Performance of downstream units may be improved by using pre-aeration to reduce septic
conditions in incoming wastewater
- Aerated grit chambers are versatile, allowing for chemical addition, mixing, pre-aeration and
flocculation

Sedimentation Tank

A sedimentation tank is structure in which wastewater is filled and stored for some time to
remove the suspended particles present in the water. These particles may settle at the bottom of
the tank and are removed by using scrapers. If the suspended particles have low specific gravity
than water, they settle at the top of the tank.

Types of Sedimentation Tanks

Depending upon various factors sedimentation tanks are classified as follows.

1. Based on methods of operation

a. Fill and draw type tank
b. Continuous flow type tank

2. Based on shape
a. Circular tank
b. Rectangular tank
c. Hopper bottom tank

3. Based on location
a. Primary tank
b. Secondary tank
Types of Sedimentation Tanks based on Methods of Operation

Fill and Draw Type Sedimentation Tank

In case of fill and draw type sedimentation tank, water from inlet is stored for some time. The
time may be 24 hours. In that time, the suspended particles are settled at the bottom of the tank.
After 24 hours, the water is discharged through outlet.

Then settled particle are removed. This removal action requires 6-12 hours. So, one complete
action of sedimentation requires 30-40 hours in case of fill and draw type sedimentation tank.

Continuous Flow Type Sedimentation Tank

In this case, water is not allowed to rest. Flow always takes place but with a very small velocity.
During this flow, suspended particles are settle at the bottom of the tank. The flow may be either
in horizontal direction or vertical direction.

Horizontal flow type sedimentation tank

These tanks generally in rectangular shape. They have more length twice its width. Because they
need to flow more distance to settle all suspended particles. The maximum permissible
velocity in this case is 0.3m/sec.
Vertical flow type sedimentation tank
The vertical flow type sedimentations tanks are generally in circular shape and flow takes place
in vertical direction. Hopper bottom is provided at the bottom of the tank to dispose the
collected sludge.
Types of Sedimentation Tanks based on Shape
Circular Tank
Circular sedimentation tanks are preferred for continuous vertical flow type sedimentation tanks.
In this case influent is sent through central pipe of the tank and radial flow takes place.
Mechanical sludge scrappers are provided to collect the sludge and collected sludge is carried
through sludge pipe provided at the bottom. But circular tanks are uneconomical as
compared to rectangular tanks but they have high clarification efficiency.
Rectangular Tank
Rectangular sedimentation tanks are mostly preferred sedimentation tanks and are used widely.
The flow takes place in horizontal direction that is length wise in rectangular tanks.
Sometimes baffle walls are provided for rectangular tank to prevent short circuiting.
Maintenance costs are low in case of rectangular sedimentation tanks. They are also suitable for
large capacity plants.
Hopper Bottom Tank
In case of hopper bottom tank, a deflector box is located at the top which deflects the influent
coming from central pipe to downwards. Sludge is collected at the bottom and it is disposed
through sludge pump.

Types of Sedimentation Tanks based on Location

Primary Sedimentation Tank
Primary sedimentation tank is a normal sedimentation tank in which water is stored at rest for
some time and sludge collected at bottom and oily matter collected at top are removed. After
primary sedimentation process the wastewater is discharged into aerobic filter where activated
sludge process take place.
Secondary Sedimentation Tank
After activated sludge process the wastewater enters secondary sedimentation tank in which
suspended particles contains microbes are removed and are reflected towards aerobic filter to
maintain high microbe concentration in aerobic filter.

Intermittent Sand filters

Sand filtration is one of the oldest wastewater treatment technologies known. If properly
designed, constructed, operated and maintained, a sand filter produces a very high quality
effluent. Sand filters are beds of granular material, or sand, drained from underneath so that
pretreated wastewater can be treated, collected and distributed to the land application system.
They are normally used to polish effluent from septic tanks or other treatment processes before it is
distributed on the land. All on-site systems are “no-discharge,” meaning the wastewater must stay in the system and
not leave the property. The wastewater cannot enter surface water, streams, ditches or any water
resources. After the filtrate is collected by the sand filter’s under drains, it is then disposed of by
a soil absorption system.

The typical sand filter is a lined watertight box, generally concrete- or plastic-lined, and filled
with a specific sand material. Types of sand filters include:
✓ Intermittent sand filter, in which wastewater is applied periodically to a 24- to 36-inch-deep
bed of sand that is underdrained to collect and discharge the effluent. The bed is underlain by
graded gravel and collecting tile. Wastewater is applied intermittently to the bed’s surface
through distribution pipes.
✓ Recirculating intermittent sand filter, which filters wastewater by mixing filtrate with
incoming septic tank effluent and recirculating it several times through the filter media before
discharging it to a final land application system. This filter’s components are similar to the
intermittent sand filter components. Sand filters can be free access (open to the surface) or buried
in the ground (buried filters). Free access sand filters are generally above ground and usually
have a lid that eases access to the sand system. Landscape design helps the system blend into its
surroundings. A buried sand filter is completely covered and easily blends into the landscape.

Treatment
A sand filter purifies the water in three ways:
✓ Filtration, in which particles are physically strained from the incoming wastewater;
✓ Chemical sorption, in which contaminants stick to the surface of the sand and to the
biological growth on the sand surface; and
✓ Assimilation, in which aerobic microbes eat the nutrients in the wastewater. The success of
treating wastewater depends on these microbes. Air must be available for these microbes to live.
Sand filters are often partially or completely buried in the ground, but may be built above ground
where there is a high water table or bedrock. Especially in areas with much rain and long periods
of subfreezing temperatures, the sand filter should have some form of cover

Wastewater applied to the sand filter should be pretreated, such as in a septic tank. The effluent
from the septic tank is then distributed uniformly on the sand surface. To distribute the
wastewater, a dosing siphon can be used with splash plates. Another approach is to pump the
effluent under low-pressure, controlled doses through a network of small-diameter pipes. The
pipes are placed in a bed filled with gravel on top of the sand. The effluent leaves the pipes,
trickles down through the gravel and is treated as it filters through the sand. A gravel under-drain
collects and moves the treated wastewater to either a second pump chamber for discharge to a
pressurized distribution system or to a gravity flow soil absorption field. The second pump
chamber may be located in the sand filter.

Several factors affect the filter’s performance, including two important environmental
conditions: aeration and temperature.
Oxygen needs to be available within the pores so that microbes can break down the solids in the
wastewater. If the filter has poor air movement, such as when it is covered with heavy clay, the
system can clog.
Temperature directly affects the rate of microbial growth, chemical reactions, adsorption
mechanisms and other factors that contribute to the stabilization of wastewater. Lower
temperatures usually slow the rate of material breakdown.

Trickling Filters

Trickling filters (TFs) are used to remove organic matter from wastewater. The TF is an aerobic
treatment system that utilizes microorganisms attached to a medium to remove organic matter
from wastewater. This type of system is common to a number of technologies such as rotating
biological contactors and packed bed reactors (biotowers). These systems are known as attached-
growth processes. In contrast, systems in which microorganisms are sustained in a liquid are
known as suspended-growth processes.
Process Description

 The wastewater in trickling filter is distributed over the top area of a vessel containing
non-submerged packing material.
 Air circulation in the void space, by either natural draft or blowers, provides oxygen for
the microorganisms growing as an attached biofilm.
 During operation, the organic material present in the wastewater is metabolised by the
biomass attached to the medium. The biological slime grows in thickness as the organic
matter abstracted from the flowing wastewater is synthesized into new cellular material.
 The thickness of the aerobic layer is limited by the depth of penetration of oxygen into
the microbial layer.
 The micro-organisms near the medium face enter the endogenous phase as the substrate is
metabolised before it can reach the micro-organisms near the medium face as a result of
increased thickness of the slime layer and loose their ability to cling to the media surface.
The liquid then washes the slime off the medium and a new slime layer starts to grow.
This phenomenon of losing the slime layer is called sloughing.
 The sloughed off film and treated wastewater are collected by an underdrainage which
also allows circulation of air through filter. The collected liquid is passed to a settling
tank used for solid- liquid separation.

Advantages
 Simple, reliable, biological process.
 Suitable in areas where large tracts of land are not available for land intensive treatment
systems.
 May qualify for equivalent secondary discharge standards.
 Effective in treating high concentrations of organics depending on the type of medium
used.
 Appropriate for small- to medium-sized communities.
 Rapidly reduce soluble BOD5 in applied wastewater.
 Efficient nitrification units.
 Durable process elements.
 Low power requirements.
 Moderate level of skill and technical expertise needed to manage and operate the system.

Disadvantages

 Additional treatment may be needed to meet more stringent discharge standards.

 Possible accumulation of excess biomass that cannot retain an aerobic condition and can
impair TF performance (maximum biomass thickness is controlled by hydraulic dosage
rate, type of media, type of organic matter, temperature and nature of the biological
growth).
 Requires regular operator attention.
 Incidence of clogging is relatively high.
 Requires low loadings depending on the medium.
 Flexibility and control are limited in comparison with activated-sludge processes.
 Vector and odor problems.
 Snail problems.