UNIT 2

Distinguish between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells in terms of their structure and
ultrastructure.
– Eukaryotic cells contain membrane bound structures while prokaryotic cells do not.
– Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus while prokaryotic cells do not and only have a DNA ring.
– Eukaryotic cells have a mitochondrion, ER, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, microtubules and centrioles but
prokaryotic cells do not.
– Prokaryotic cells have food stores while eukaryotic cells do not.
– Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have ribosomes but ribosomes of prokaryotic cells are much
smaller.
– Prokaryotic cells sometimes have plasmids, capsule (polysaccharide coat), pili and flagellum while
eukaryotic cells do not.

Describe the ultrastructure of an animal (eukaryotic) cell (nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, rough
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes, and Golgi apparatus)
and recognise these organelles from EM images.
– The nucleus is the largest organelle in eukaryotic cells.
– The nucleus controls activities of the cells.
– There are 1 nucleus per cell except in muscle cells.
– Nucleus contains chromosomes which are only visible at the beginning of cell division, otherwise exist
as chromatin.
– Nucleus has a double membrane called the nuclear envelope enclosing the nucleoplasm.
– The nucleus has numerous nuclear pores (channel proteins) to communicate between nucleoplasm and
cytoplasm (transport of substances).
– The nucleus contains one or more nucleolus which are the sites of ribosome synthesis.

– The mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles and are relatively large.

– They are numerous in cells especially in metabolically active cells (muscle cells) which has high energy
demand (more respiration).
– They are the sites of aerobic respiration and therefore produce energy in the form of ATP.
– Mitochondria contains their own DNA and ribosomes.
– It has a double membrane/ envelope.
– The inner membrane is folded into cristae which contains enzymes for respiration hence increasing
surface area to carry more enzymes.
– Mitochondria contains an aqueous solution called a matrix containing metabolites and enzymes,

– Ribosomes are built of 2 subunits and are made of protein and RNA.
– Ribosomes are made in the nucleolus and are exported to cytoplasm through nuclear pores.
– They are the sites of protein synthesis.
– Ribosomes do not have a membrane.
– They exist as free ribosomes in the cytoplasm or matrix or as bound ribosomes binded to the membrane
of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

– The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of folded single membranes of the outer membrane of the
nucleus forming interconnected sacs.
– They remain attached to the nucleus.
– They are abundant in metabolically active cells.
– The rough endoplasmic reticulum have ribosomes attached to the outer surface of its membrane.
– The RER is the site of protein synthesis which are packaged into vesicles (usually discharged from cell).
 – The smooth endoplasmic reticulum has no ribosomes and is the site of synthesis of substances needed by
the cell (not for export) e.g phospholipids, fatty acids.
– The SER is important in the manufacture of lipids.
– Some substances synthesised in SER are packaged into vesicles.
– Vesicles are formed from swellings at the margins that are pinched off.
– A vesicle is a small membrane bound structure used to store and transport substances around the cell.
– In muscle fibres, the SER is the site of storage and release of calcium ions.
– Vesicles from RER and SER are transported to the Golgi.

– The golgi apparatus consists of a stack-like collection of flattened membranous sacs.

– One side is formed by the fusion of vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum.
– At the opposite side of the stack, vesicles are formed from swellings at the margins that become pinched
off..

– Lysosomes are small vesicles formed at Golgi or RER and contain hydrolytic enzymes.
– They have a single membrane
– They break down imported food vacuoles or broken down organelles by phagocytosis.
– Digested substances are released into cytoplasm to be recycled by the cell.
– Hydrolytic enzymes are isolated in the lysosome beacaue they work at a low pH which would destroy
the cell.

– Microtubules are hollow cylinders made of tubulin protein.

– They support the cell shape, keep organelles in place, and controls movement inside the cell (e.g. spindle
fibres, cilia, flagella).
– Centrioles consist of 9 triplets of microtubules.
– Centrosome is found beside the nucleus and comprise of 2 centrioles at right angles.

Explain the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) and the Golgi apparatus in protein
transport within cells and including its role in formation of extracellular enzymes.
– The RER is the site of protein synthesis (ribosomes at surface translate mRNA from nucleus) which are
packaged into vesicles (usually discharged from cell).
– Vesicles are formed from swellings at the margins that are pinched off.
– Vesicles from RER are transported to the Golgi.
– The golgi is the site of synthesis is specific biochemicals like enzymes (processes proteins or lipids from
ER).
– At the trans face of the golgi, proteins like enzymes are packaged into vesicles.
– Vesicles either transport the proteins within the cell or secrete proteins by exocytosis where membrane
of vesicle fuses with cell membrane.

Describe how the cells of multicellular organisms can be organised into issues, tissues into
organs and organs into systems.

– A group of cells of similar structure that work together to perform a common function.
– A group of tissues working together to perform a specific function forms an organ.
– A group of organs that coordinate to perform related function

Explain the role of mitosis and the cell cycle for growth and asexual reproduction.
 – Mitosis is the process of cell division where one parent cell divides and forms 2 identical daughter cells
(with identical sets of chromosomes).
– New cells contribute to growth and replaces damaged cells.
– In mitosis, chromosomes of the parent cell multiplies to produce identical copies and separate to form 2
diploid number of chromosomes for each daughter cell. Sexual reproduction is when 2 haploid cells join
to form one diploid cell.

– The interphase of the cell cycle is the preparation for mitosis.

– In the G1 (first phase of growth) cytoplasm absorbs nutrients for growth and replicated organelles.
– In the S phase, Chromosomes replicate into 2 identical chromosomes (chromatids held at centromere)
– IN the G2, more growth of the cell occurs and the amount of cytoplasm increases.

Describe the stages of mitosis and how to prepare and stain a root tip squash in order to observe
them practically.
- In prophase, chromosomes shorten and thicken (condense) by supercoiling and become visible (once
seen prophase is over).
- Nucleolus disappears and nuclear membrane breaks down.
- In metaphase, centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell.
- Microtubules from cytoplasm forms a spindle radiating from centrioles to centromeres of each pair of
chromatids (plant cells have spindle but no centrioles)
- Chomatids arrange at the equator of the spindle. (once chromosomes disappear metaphase is over).
- In anaphase, spindle fibres shorten to divide centromeres.
- Chromatids are pulled apart by their centromeres to opposite poles
- In telophase, a nuclear membrane reforms around both group of chromosomes at opposite ends of the
cell and nucleolus reappears.
- Chromosomes decondense by uncoiling becoming chromatin again.
- The cell divides by cytokinesis.
- In animal cells, in-tucking of the plasma membrane at the equator of the spindle pinches the cytoplasm
in half.
- In plants,Golgi forms vesicles of new cell wall material which collect along the line of the equator of
the spindle (cell plate) and fuse with existing cell walls.

How to prepare root tip squash:

– Cut the tip ( end 5mm) of a plant root and place on an evaporating dish.
– Add Orcein ethanoate dye with a dropper.
– Add a few drops of HCl to soften tissue.
– Gently heat over a hot plate to intensify the stain.
– Place the root tip sample on a microscope slide.
– Cover with a cover slip and squash with thumb pressure.
– Observe mitosis of root cells under a microscope.

Explain the role of meiosis in the production of gametes and genetic variation through
recombination of alleles and genes including independent assortment and crossing over (details
of the stages of meiosis are not required).
– Meiosis consists of 2 nuclear divisions but only 1 replication of chromosomes.
– Meiosis produces 4 haploid cells (gametes are haploid ).
– Genetic variation occurs because of independent assortment of maternal and paternal homologous
chromosomes (which chromosome goes to which pole is random because orientation at spindle is random).
– Independent assortment gives rise to different combinations of chromosomes.
 – Genetic variation of gametes also occurs because of 'crossing-over'
– Crossing-over involves swapping sections of homologous chromatids which are aligned at the
spindle.

Explain how mammalian gametes are specialised for their functions.

– Gametes have haploid number of chromosomes so they fuse during fertilisation to form a diploid zygote.
– Sperm has a flagellum which allows it to move by swimming to the egg (secondary oocyte).
– Sperm head contains acrosome which contains a hydrolytic enzyme to digest the jelly layer surrounding
the secondary oocyte.
– Sperm contains mitochondria in the mid-piece to perform respiration to produce energy for movement of
flagella.
– Secondary oocyte contains corticle granules which release its contents by exocytosis as soon as a male
nucleus enters to prevent other sperm crossing plasma membrane.

Describe the process of fertilisation in mammals and flowering plants (starting with the
acrosome reaction in mammals and pollen tube growth in plants and ending with the fusion of
the nuclei) and explain the importance of fertilisation in sexual reproduction.
– Sperm passes through follicle cells
– Acrosome reaction occurs by capacitation releasing hydrolytic enzymes.
– Enzyme digests through the jelly layer surrounding the secondary oocyte forming a path to the plasma
membrane.
– The head of the sperm fuses with the oocyte membrane and nucleus enters the oocyte. (Corticle granules
release contents)
– Nucleus of secondary oocyte is stimulated to complete meiosis II.
– The haploid nuclei from femal and male gametes fuse forming a diploid zygote.

– Pollen grain lands on stigma and germinates.

– The pollen grain produces a pollen tube which grows down between the cells of the style and into the
ovule through the micropyle.
– Pollen tube delivers 2 male nuclei.
– One nucleus fusses with egg nucleus forming a diploid zygote.
– Other nucleus fuses with the nucleus of the endosperm forming the food store for developing embryo.

Explain what is meant by the terms stem cell, pluripotency and totipotency and discuss the way
society uses scientific knowledge to make decisions about the use of stem cells in medical
therapies (e.g. regulatory authorities relating to human embryo research, ability of stem cells to
develop into specialised tissues, potential sources of stem cells, who could benefit from the
therapies, procedures to obtain stem cells and their risks).
– A stem cell is a cell that can undergo repeated cell division while maintaining an undifferentiated state.
– Pluripotency is the potential to differentiate into many but not all cell types.
– Totipotency is the potential to differentiate into all cell types.
– Multipotency is the potential to differentiate into a restricted range of cell types.

Explain how cells become specialised through differential gene expression, producing active
mRNA leading to synthesis of proteins, which in turn control cell processes or determine cell
structure in animals and plants (details of transcription factors are not required at IAS).
 – Stem cells are stimulated to differentiate by a chemical.
– Some genes are switched on (expressed).
– Transcription of expressed genes occur in nucleus to produce mRNA.
– MRNA is translated to produce protein.
– Protein permanently modifies the cell ( determines cell structure and function).

Explain how a phenotype is the result of an interaction between genotype and the environment
(e.g. animal hair colour, human height, monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and cancers), but the
data on the relative contributions of genes and environment is often difficult to interpret.

Explain how some phenotypes are affected by alleles at many loci (polygenic inheritance) as
well as the environment (e.g. height) and how this can give rise to phenotypes that show
continuous variation.
– Polygenic inheritance is the inheritance of phenotypes that are determined by the collective effect of
several genes.
– When alleles of several genes at many loci determines phenotype.
– The combined effect of all the alleles of the polygene produces variety among offspring.
– Each allele makes a limited impact on the phenotype.

Compare the ultrastructure of plant cells (cell wall, chloroplasts, amyloplasts, vacuole,
tonoplast, plasmodesmata, pits and middle lamella) with that of animal cells.
– Plant cells have a cell wall while animal cells do not.
– Plant cells have a large permanent vacuole with tonoplast membrane.
– Animal cells contain centrosomes while plant cells do not.
– Plant cells contain chloroplasts and amyloplasts.
– Plant cells have plasmodesmata which are junctions (opening) between adjacent plant cells ( cytoplasm
of cells join).
– Plant cells have middle lamella between them (joins 2 cell walls).
– Plant cells have pits which are thin patch of cell wall wher plasmodesmata can form or has already
formed.

Compare the structure and function of the polysaccharides starch and cellulose including the
role of hydrogen bonds between β-glucose molecules in the formation of cellulose microfibrils.
– Starch is a polymer of a-glucose which cellulose is a polymer of B-glucose.
– Starch is a branched polysaccharide which cellulose is a straight chain.
– Starch has a-1,6-glycosidic bonds between branched chains.
– Cellulose has B-1,4- glycosidic bonds between glucose monomers while starch has a-1,4-glycosidic
bonds.
– Cellulose are straight chained so can pack close together hence hydrogen bonds between cellulose chains
are strong.
– Many cellulose chains joined by hydrogen bonds form microfibrils.

Explain how the arrangement of cellulose microfibrils in plant cell walls and secondary
thickening contribute to the physical properties of plant fibres, which can be exploited by
humans.
 – Microfibrils arrange parallel to each other in primary structure of cell wall.
– Microfibrils arrange at right angles in secondary structure of cell wall.
– Arrangement of microfibrils contribute to tensile strength of fibres.
– Plant fibres are used to make clothes and building material by humans.

Compare the structures, position in the stem and function of sclerenchyma fibres (support) and
xylem vessels (support and transport of water and mineral ions).
– Xylem vessels provides structural support and transports water and mineral ions from roots to plant
cells.
– Sclerenchyma fibres are for structural support of the stem.
– Xylem vessels are hollow tubes with no end walls that allow constant flow of water while sclerenchyma
fibres have cell walls.
– Xylem vessels have a large lumen to allow water to flow through while sclerenchyma fibres have narrow
lumen.
– Xylem vessels have regular rings of lignin (waterproof) which keeps the xylem vessel open for water
flow, holds microfibrils together, keeps microfibrils parallel, and makes wall waterproof.
– Sclerenchyma fibres have irregular layers of lignin.

Describe how the uses of plant fibres and starch may contribute to sustainability, e.g. plant-
based products to replace oil-based plastics.

– Plant based products are renewable, carbon neutral (no net increase in carbon dioxide), and
biodegradable.
– Starch used as food, packaging material, glues.
– Oils from plants used as biofuel.
– Plant fibres used for clothes, building material and rope.

Identify sclerenchyma fibres and xylem vessels as seen through a light microscope.
– Chollenchyma tissue is located right below epidermis of stem.
– Sclerenchyma fibres which are dead empty cells are below chollenchyma tissue.
– Below sclerenchyma fibres are the vascular bundles (phloem-cambium-xylem).
– Paranchyma tissue are between vascular bundles.
– At the centre of the stem is the pith.

Explain the importance of water and inorganic ions (nitrate, calcium ions and magnesium ions)
to plants.
– Water is important to maintain turgidity of plant cells hence providing support.
– Water is required for photosynthesis.
– Evaporation of water from stomata drives transpiration of water form roots by cohesion in xylem.
– Water is the transport medium of nutrients in the phloem.
– Water is the environment for chemical reactions.

– Magnesium ions are needed for chlorophyll production.

– Nitrate ions are needed for nucleic acid/amino acid synthesis.
– Calcium ions are needed for pectin production.
Compare historic drug testing with contemporary drug testing protocols,
e.g. William Withering’s digitalis soup; double blind trials; placebo; three-phased testing.

Explain the terms biodiversity and endemism and describe how biodiversity can be measured
within a habitat using species richness and within a species using genetic diversity, e.g. variety
of alleles in a gene pool.
– Biodiversity is the number of species in a given area, and the number of different alleles in a gene pool.
– Endemisn is when a plant or animal taxon is restricted to a narrow geographical range (only found in a
specific area).
– Species richness can be measures by using quadrats or by counting the number of species in a known
area.

Biodiversity must be maintained:

– Loss of biodiversity means fewer species.
– Loss of endemic species leads to extinction.
– Species that are lost may be useful.

Describe the concept of niche and discuss examples of adaptation of organisms to their
environment (behavioural, physiological and anatomical).
– A niche is the role of an organism in a habitat.
– Adaptation is the process where an organism becomes fitted to its environment.
– Physiological adaptation is adaptation of abilities in order to survive.
– Behavioural adaptation is change in behaviour advantageous to survival.
– Anatomical adaptation is change in physical body structure to increase chances of survival.

Describe how natural selection can lead to adaptation and evolution.

– When selection pressure is introduced, organism with advantageous alleles survive.
– Organisms with advantageous alleles reproduce.
– Advantageous alleles are passed to offspring.
– Gene pool changes as allele frequency in organisms changes (evolution).

Discuss and evaluate the methods used by zoos and seedbanks in the conservation of
endangered species and their genetic diversity (e.g. scientific research, captive breeding
programmes, reintroduction programmes and education).
– Nature reserves conduct continuous monitoring, measures to facilitate successful completion of life
cycles, re-introduction of species into natural habitat).
– Breeding programmes in zoos:- Selection of genetically different mates.
– Use stud books which are records of mating.
– Exchange animals between zoos.
– Exchange gametes between zoos.
– Fertilisation by IVF.