CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Landslide, which sometimes called landslip, is the movement of earth within a

slope due to seismic waves occurred beneath the earth surface or gravity itself. Landslide

usually occurs in areas with unstable geology like those in mountainous regions or those

experiencing a high intensity of rainfall. It can cause damage to properties, injuries, delay

of supplies or even the worst scenario which is death.

Background of the Study

Major causes of landslides are the movement of earth due to natural phenomena,

high intensity of rainfall due to numerous typhoons and extended rainy seasons or other

human activities like mining or removal of vegetations. When the soils in sloped areas

are completely saturated, high tendency of failure usually occurs.

Philippines is located at the pacific ring of fire which has a lot of volcanoes

beneath it and is believed to be the cause of major seismic activity and earthquakes

around the Pacific Ocean. Studies show that roughly 90 percent of all seismic activities

occur in this area and 70 percent of all the volcanoes are active. Thousands of the island

in the Philippines experience earthquakes. The northern part of the Philippines

specifically the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) has one of the highest

geological conditions in the Philippines which is approximately 2500 to 2750 meters

above sea level. According to Mines and Geoscience Bureau (MGB), the Cordillera

Administrative Region’s provinces are in the list of top landslide-prone areas in the

country with Baguio City as the top.

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 MGB’s studies stated that all the provinces are prone to landslides not only

because it is located in seismically active region, have a high mountainous area and is

subjected to a high rainfall intensity but also due to rapid environmental growth.

Appendix A Table 1.0 shows the monthly rainfall distribution of Baguio City from 2001

to 2012. August has the highest total rainfall intensity while the month of January has the

least.

Figure 1 shows that 90 percent of the region is composed of steep slopes.

Obviously, the higher slope, the more it is unstable or prone to any earth movements

depending on the properties of the soil. Beside from the geography of the region,

different state and private watchdog points out that manmade activity also increase the

possibility of occurrence, which usually triggers during calamities like typhoons and

earthquakes. These are the removal or reduction of forest covers and vegetation which

covers and serves as cushion on the impact of rain water on slopes, and whose root

systems provide cohesion on slope (Gelcacio, et. al.,2014).

Due to increase of landslide cases in the province of Benguet, different techniques

were used to stabilize steep slopes like conventional ripraps and conventional gravity

retaining walls. Figure 2 shows that majority of Benguet is under “high susceptibility to

landslide” rating. In Figure 3, it says that the areas with high susceptibility rating have

active recent landslide and tension cracks that would directly affect the community.

According to Gelcacio et. al., (2014), previous engineering investigations show

that the stability of the different rock formations depends upon the degree of weathering

and fracturing the rock has undergone. Klondyke Formation and Zigzag Formation

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shown in Figure 4 are among the four major rock formations in Baguio City which are

more prone to landslides and other mass movements because of the relatively high degree

of weathering they have undergone. Paderes (1973) stated that high rate of precipitation

is one of the biggest factors of landslide occurrence in the area.

(Source: http://mgbcar.ph/files/Geohazard_Maps.pdf)

Figure 1. Slope Map (CAR)

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 Moreover, the 1990 earthquake recorded multiple landslide cases in Baguio City

and Benguet which is believed to be a triggering mechanism of the said cases. The slope

failures triggered by the earthquake was influenced by the tectonic history of the

Cordilleras that resulted in numerous steep slopes being locally topped by shattered rocks

and the presence of a complex network of faults (Saldivar-Sali, 2004). This complex fault

system has greatly disturbed the underlying rock formations thus reducing their shear

resistance and weathering resistance (Gelcacio et. al).

(Source: http://pia.gov.ph/gis/province.php?rid=16&id=102&lid=882)

Figure 2. Geo-Hazard Map of La Trinidad Benguet

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 Because of the stated geology and hazards of Baguio City and Benguet, the

researchers intend to conduct a study on an advanced geotechnical slope stability

application and design namely soil nailing along the boundary of Baguio City and La

Trinidad shown in Figure 5. Figure 6 shows an accident occurred in the said area. Fallen

rocks crushed a vehicle due to heavy rains overnight and fortunately, there were no

injuries reported and it did not caused any traffic delays.

Figure 3. Geo-Hazard Map Legend

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Figure 4. Geologic Map of Baguio City

(Source: http://mgbcar.ph/files/Geohazard_Maps.pdf)

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Development of the Soil Nailing Technique

Soil nailing was first developed and used by the engineers in Versailles, France in

1972 in an 18m high cut slope for a railroad widening project (Rabejac and Toudic, 1974;

Muthukmar and Premalatha, 2009; FHWA, 2009). Soil nailing was then used in many

areas in France due to its faster construction process and because it is cost-effective.

Germany started soil nailing in the early 1970s (Stocker et. al., 1979). It was then adopted

in the entire Europe aside from using other slope stability like the conventional gravity

retaining wall and crib walls.

Soil nailing originated from rock bolting and multi-anchorage systems in 1960’s

as well as from fill techniques reinforcement (Clourette, 1991; FHWA, 1998). It is also a

practical technique used in the construction of excavations and slope stability in a way

that the earth is reinforced through reinforcing steel bars or steel tendons. However,

reinforcing steel bars are majority used in construction because of economy and its

availability in the market (Bruce and Jewell, 1987; GEO, 2008). Bruce and Jewell (1987)

also stated that these are introduced into the soil mass as staged excavation proceeds and

act to produce a zone of reinforced ground. The said zone is now assumed to be

homogenous in nature and resistant unit to support the ground which is unreinforced in a

manner similar to a conventional gravity retaining wall.

The soil nailing technique evolved in the early 1970s with the different empirical

or semi empirical designs on the application of this slope stability method (GEO, 2008).

In Germany, during the mid-1970s, different engineers conducted a systematic research

concerning full scale field tests and model test (FHWA, 2003; GEO, 2008). France and

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United States then followed and initiated subsequent developments on the different

approach of tests and designs in the early 1990s. All of the research and developments

made by different engineers from the different countries were formed as a basis for the

formulation of design procedures and construction for the soil nailing technique in the

following decades.

Areas of Application

Soil nailing was conceptualized to reinforce existing earth surface in slopes or

excavations in a construction by installing steel bars or tendons called the nails which are

usually closely spaced (FHWA, 1997 & 2003; Babu, 2007; Miuthukumar et. al, 2009).

The process will now create a reinforced section making the ground behind it and the

slope stable.

Due to some indirect adverse geological conditions where ground investigations

are missed, vigorous design solutions which are weak in ground and groundwater

conditions is recommended (GEO), 2008). In addition, cuts which are unsupported,

particularly those with high altitudes have high potential of failing under any

circumstances must be avoided as far as possible due to economic consequences

(Fredlund and Rajardo, 1993; Vanapalli and Oh, 2010). Because of the absence of

strength, cut slopes are likely to have more probability of failing due to ground and

groundwater conditions (Khalili and Khabbaz, 1998). In addition, cut slopes which are

supported with reinforcement, are also incremented with different methods of drainage

measures if necessary (GEO-SLOPE International Ltd., ND).

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 A soil-nailed system can sustain the force driven by the ground and can take

priority in its weaknesses through stress distribution which also follows the conditions of

equilibrium. Most soil nailing works in Hong Kong are generally applied in stabilization

of existing and non-existing cut slopes depending on the project implemented in the

particular area (GEO, 2008). Moreover, soil nailing has been used for reinforcing natural

hillsides, terrains, fill slopes and cut slopes. However, soil nailing are not only applicable

in temporary works but also used in temporary excavations.

Figure 5. Boundary between Baguio City and La Trinidad

(Source: Google Map)

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 (Source: http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/image/nation/regions/06/10/14/rock-slide-baguio-city)

Figure 6. Landslide and Rockslide Accident along the Boundary of Baguio City and La

Trinidad

Al-Bhagdadi (2013) states that soil nailing’s fundamental concept comes from

idea of placing a closely spaced reinforcing steel bars or tendons in the sloping ground to

avoid any displacements during and after excavation. Similar to the analysis of a

conventional gravity retaining wall, soil nailing also uses the same slope stability analysis

to evaluate different parameters and elements found in the system such as pull-out

resistance of the nails acting on the two zones of the analysis and shearing.

Different methods are used to analyze and assess the stability of a soil-nailed

system. The most commonly used is the method of slices. This method should satisfy all

the conditions of equilibrium system in order to proceed in the analyses. This analysis

will provide several factor safety and the least of these will be the most critical mode of

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failure which will be adopted for the design. However, these method may not give

accurate and precise results. In line with this, there are also methods that uses force and

moment equilibrium which satisfies the analyses of a soil nailed system (Shiu et. al,

2007).

Stress-strain analysis are used to assess the analysis and design capacity of a soil-

nailed system or ground deformation under special circumstances. For instance, slope

which are more inclined can generate higher tensile force for the nail than those which

are slightly inclined. This situation may lead to the analyses using finite element or

difference method. The results of analyses may be incorporated using different design

procedures and stability assessment like the strength reduction method and the method

adopted by Khran in 2003 which is the coupling numerical analysis.

Locale of the Study

The soil sample was obtained from Pico, La Trinidad, Benguet. The study area is

vacant approximately 10 square meter area. Residential structures were located above and

below the lot area. Also, ahead the area is the Bell Church and adjacent the hill is slopes

with retaining wall because of its criticality against landslide. The slope has foliage which

consists of ferns, shrubs, alnus tree, and grasses. This different plant is only to protect the

slope, but a part of the slope is scoured.

The zenith of the slope is an alley path to Quirino Hill. It is primary used as

passageways to their respective residents to Pico, La Trinidad. The lowest point of the

area is a national highway going to La Trinidad from Baguio City and vice versa. Also,

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the area was a cut slope with retaining wall provided. The lot site is also being used as a

solid waste dumping area by the nearby houses.

Fundamental Mechanism of a Soil-Nailed System

The soil nailing method improves the strength of slopes and excavations due to

tensile force generated in the soil upon installation (GEO, 2008). The tensile forces are

produced in the soil nail fundamentally through the frictional collaboration or interaction

between the nail and the ground. The soil nail heads and facing also generates

reaction giving extra forces to the system. The ductility in the soil nails strengthens the

ground by specifically supporting a portion of the connected shear loadings and by

increasing the normal stresses in the soil on the possible failure surface, as a result

allowing higher shearing resistance to be used. (Barley, 1992; HKIE, 2013). Constraining

the deformation of the ground near to the normal slope surface from the soil-nail heads

and the facing gives control impact. Resulting in the increasing value of the mean

effective stress and the shearing resistance of the back of the soil-nail heads.

Furthermore, the condition prevent failures near the surface of a slope, and to promote a

fundamental action of the reinforced soil bulk over the redistribution of forces among soil

nails. The pullout failure aid resistance of the soil nails is given by the portion of the soil

nail that is driven in the ground behind the possible failure surface.

The internal strength soil-nailed system is commonly considered using a two-zone

model that is the active zone and the passive zone or resistant zone. These two are

separated by the possible slope failure. The region in front of the possible slope failure,

where it has a tendency to disengage from the soil-nailed system is the active zone. The

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region behind the possible slope failure, where it stays essentially intact is the passive

zone. The active zone and passive zone remain tact using the soil nails as a tie between

the two zones.

Since the deformation of the soil-nailed system is not accounted in the design,

designers must caution or treat the design conservatively since the two-zone

configuration is only a simplified analysis for limit of equilibrium. There is generally a

shear distortion subjected in a shearing zone in a soil slope unless joint settings dictates

failure where the surface is distinct (GEO, 2008; FHWA, 1996). Many factors influence

the forces developed and generated in the soil nails because the interaction between the

soil and the ground is complex. These factors are the size of the soil-nail head, slope

facing, the friction present in the ground to nail, shear strength of the slope, inclination of

the nail to the ground, stiffness of the soil nail and ground and mechanical properties of

the soil nail like the tensile strength, bending capacity and the shear strength (Landau

Associates Inc., 1999).

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Slope stability analysis depends on the different parameters and properties of the

soil. The analysis depends on different methods for evaluating the potential failure of the

slope surface and the final output should consists of different factor of safety. There are

different methods developed used to determine the factor of safety namely the ordinary

method also known as the Fellenius Method, Janbu’s Method, Spencer Method and the

Bishop’s method. Generally, the ordinary method of slices is used for the analysis. This

method assumes the soil to be entirely homogenous and considers circular failure. This is

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the simplest way of analyzing the mode of failure compared to the Bishop and Janbu

method because of it considers conservative analysis (Coduto, 2011). The mode of failure

considered is the toe circle, midpoint circle and the base circle. The application of the

modes of failure depends on the value of inclination of the slope. According to Das, if the

angle of inclination is greater than 53°, then the mode of failure to be considered is only

the toe circle; but, if the inclination of the slope is less than 53°, then all three failures are

considered. In the OMS, the trial failure surface is represented by an arc of a circle. The

trial failure is cut by equally spaced vertical lines wherein as the number of slices

increases, so does the accuracy of the analysis. The different iterations in each mode of

failure must have different trial failure surfaces and this is done by selecting different

origins for the drawing of the arc of a circle.

Soil nailing technique has been applied to civil engineering project at Mexico City

back to 1960s and has gained popularity in Europe since 1970. During the development

of soil nailing technique, cementitious grouted drilled nail, post-grouted driven nail,

percussion-driven nail, jet nail, and etc have been devised and improved (Shaw-Shong,

2005). Soil nailing is typically used to stabilize existing slopes or excavations where top-

to-bottom construction is advantageous compared to the other retaining wall systems. As

construction proceeds from the top to bottom, shotcrete or concrete is also applied on the

excavation face to provide continuity. In short Soil Nailing increases the shearing

resistance of soil by acting in tension (Deb, 2012).

Soil nailing technique is used to support new very steep cuts with advantage of

strengthening the slope with excessive earth works to provide construction access and

working associated with commonly used retaining systems. (Al-Baghdadi, 2013).

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Discussions with specialists in Europe, it would seem that the cost saving for excavations

of the order of 10m deep is 10% to 30% relative to an anchorage (Bruce, 1990).

Research Paradigm

Figure 7 discusses the research design and methodology utilized in this study. The

data collection activities and associated analysis methods will be systematically discussed

under three phases. The first to be inputted were the different soil properties obtained

through laboratory experiments which were used to determine slope failures and design

parameters for the soil nail such as allowable tensile capacity, allowable pullout

resistance provided by the soil-grout and allowable pullout resistance provided by the

grout reinforcement. Then, other inputs such as site investigation was conducted to assess

soil aggressivity and organic content. This process will now be transformed in the

determination of the proper soil nailing design considerations namely stability,

serviceability, durability, and economic considerations. In addition, soil nail spacing,

head diameter, nail length and factor of safety would be determined.

INPUT: PROCESS: OUTPUT:

 Soil Properties  Ordinary  Soil Properties

Unit Weight Method of Slices (ϒ, w, Gs, LL,
Moisture Content  Visual Slope PL, PI, c, Ø)
Specific Gravity  GEOStructural  Factor of Safety
Plastic Limit Analysis (Nail without and with
Liquid Limit Strength nails
Plastic Content Checking)  Soil Nail System
 Site Investigation Design
Field Work
 Maps
Geo-Hazard Map
 Interview with experts
 Literature Search

Figure 7. Research Paradigm

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Significance of the Study

The study was focused address landslide issues along the boundary of Baguio

City and La Trinidad, Benguet shown in Figure 5. The researchers innovated a different

approach for soil stability from a conventional retaining wall and ripraps to an advanced

geotechnical slope stability method called the soil nailing. Because the boundary is said

to be a landslide prone area and not yet stabilized, the study would be a great advantage

to mitigate or totally solve the problem. In addition, soil nailing would be best suited to

be the method for stabilizing the slope in the area because it can proceed rapidly and the

excavation can be shaped easily. This is highly advantageous in urban environments

where noise, vibration, access may pose problems (Bruce et. al., N/A). Moreover, the

study can be a basis for other future researchers in doing further studies about slope

stability not only in the said area but also areas with critical geological conditions.

Statement of the Problem

The study addresses unstable slope along the boundary of Baguio City and La

Trinidad. This study aims to introduce a new method of soil stability which can be a

potential future slope stability. Specifically, the study intended to answer the following

questions:

1. What are the soil properties of the study area?

2. What is the factor of safety developed in the slope as well as the factor of safety

with nails?

3. What is the design of the soil nail system?

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Limitations of Soil Nailing Techinique

The soil nailing technique offers an alternative design solutions to the

conventional techniques of cutting back and retaining wall construction. The following

are the main limitations of this technique in terms of construction, cost and performance

(GEO, 2008):

(1) The presence of utilities, underground structures or other buried obstructions

poses restrictions to length and layout of soil nails.

(2) The zone occupied by soil nails is sterilized and the site poses constraints to future

development.

(3) Permission has to be obtained from the owners of the adjacent land for the

installation of soils beyond the lot boundary. This places restrictions on the layout

of soil nails.

(4) The presence of high groundwater levels may lead to construction difficulties in

hole drilling and grouting, and instability problems of slope surface in the case of

soil-nailed excavations.

(5) The effectiveness of soil nails may be compromised at sites with past large

landslides involving deep-seated failure due to disturbance of the ground.

(6) The presence of permeable ground, such as ground with many cobbles, boulders,

highly fractured rocks, open joints, or voids, presents construction difficulties due

to potential grout leakage problems.

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 (7) The presence of ground with a high content of fines may lead to problems of

creeping between the ground and soil nails.

(8) Long soil nails are difficult to install, and thus the soil nailing technique may not

be appropriate for deep-seated lanslides and large slopes

(9) Because soil nails are not prestressed, mobilization of soil-nail forces will be

accompanied by ground deformation. The effects on nearby structures, facilities

or services may have to be considered, particularly in the case of soil-nailed

excavations.

(10 ) Soil nails are not effective in stabilizing localized steep slope profiles, back

scarps, overhangs or in areas of high erosion potential. Suitable measures, e.g.,

local trimming, should be considered prior to soil nail installation.

Scope and Delimitation

This study focused on the design approach of a soil nailed system proposed

along the said site given in Figure 5. The analysis of this system requires the geometry of

the slope and the different properties of the soil. The study started on a field investigation

by interviewing some residents residing at the peak of the slope and researching past

history of the slope. The geometry of the slope was generated through the application of

surveying using the engineers’ transit, tape measure and stadia rod and the soil sample

was obtained.

The researchers limited the scope of the study to the slope specified and extracted

sample at the peak of the slope since the slope is quite steep. Since borehole is expensive,

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the soil profile was considered to be homogenous. Going to the design, the researchers

decided to make two design approach using a program and manual design. The program

is only a trial version and the manual design requires tests such as pull-out capacity test

and the yielding strength of the steel. Soil nailing uses either tendons or reinforcing steel

bars. However, this study focuses on the use of reinforcing steel bars since it is more

economical than the tendon.

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