JOURNALOF GEOPHYSICALRESEARCH, VOL. 91, NO.

B9, PAGES 9517-9532, AUGUST 10, 1986

THREE-DIMENSIONAL P AND S WAVE VELOCITY STRUCTURES OF SOUTHERN PERU

AND THEIR TECTONIC IMPLICATIONS

Paul S. Cunningham
1 and Steven W. Roecker2

Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge

Denis Hatzfeld

Laboratoire de Geophysique Interne

Institut de Recherches Interdisciplinaires de Geologie et de Mecanique
LfUniversite Scientifique et Medicale de Grenoble, France

Abstract. In 1981 an 18-station regional characterized by a voluminous magmatic arc

array was operated in southern Peru above the bounded on one side by a trench and on the other
area where the dip of the subducted Nazca plate by a fold and thrust belt, and is presumed to
changes from virtually horizontal in the describe an early developmental stage of some
northwest to about 30 ø in the southeast. Arrival ancient orogenic belts, such as that in western
times of compressional (P) and shear (S) waves North America [Burchfiel and Davis, 1972, 1975;
from microearthquakes recorded by this array are Hamilton, 1969]. As our knowledge of such margins
used in this paper to investigate the three- increases, however, it has become evident that
dimensional velocity structure of the crust and the generic term, Andean margin, embraces a broad
upper mantle in the region between the coast and spectrum of deformation styles, both in the type
the Cordillera Occidental. The results suggest a example of the Andes and in its earlier analogs.
crustal thickness of about 40 km beneath the For example, the broad zone of deformation that
coast, increasing to about 70 km beneath the exists in the Pampean ranges of Argentina with
Cordillera Occidental. This change in thickness faults that extend into the crystalline basement
occurs abruptly in the northwest but is gradual contrasts with the thin-skin tectonic style in
in the southeast. The inverse correlation between the Paleozoic sedimentary cover of Bolivia
the dip of the Moho and the dip of the slab [Jordan et al., 1983]. Similarly, in western
suggests a broad-scale, causal relation between North America, the broad zone of deformation with
the two. At the same time, free-air gravity faults extending into the basement in the
anomalies suggest that the steepening of the Moho Laramide of the western United States [Burchfiel
in the northwest may occur only in the region and Davis, 1972, 1975; Sales, 1968; Stearns,
under the array. Because the crust is thicker in 1978] contrasts with the thin-skinned fold and
the southeast than originally surmised, a suite thrust belt of western Canada [Balley et al.,
of earthquakes previously thought to occur in the 1966• Price and Mountjoy, 1970]. Therefore if one
mantle now appears to be confined to the crust. wishes to understand the mechanics of deformation
The association of these earthquakes with a in ancient Andean margins, it is imperative to
shallow dipping Moho is suggestive of ongoing study modern examples in greater detail.
crustal deformation to the west of the Andes. Information about the mechanics of deformation
However, other seismological and geological in an area may be derived from determinations of
observations make the role of these earthquakes the elastic wave velocity structure at depth.
in crustal deformation unclear. S wave velocities Changes in the dimensions or relative locations
in the mantle between 70- and 130-km depth above of various structures may be reflected in spatial
the 30 ø dipping slab are low, suggesting the variations of elastic parameters that give rise
presence of partially melted asthenosphere that to variations in seismic wave velocity. In this
may be responsible for the magmatic activity paper we discuss the results of an inversion of
observed in southern Peru. arrival times of waves from locally recorded
earthquakes for compressional (P) and shear (S)
Introduction wave velocity structures in the crust and upper
mantle of the central Andes. The inversion uses
The term "Andean margin" was introduced to data from an array that was operated for 6 weeks
define a tectonic environment in which a mountain in southern Peru, recording events from the
belt is formed as a result of the subduction of trench to the western edge of the Altiplano and
oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent [Dewey to depths of 200 km.
and Bird, 1970; James, 1971]. An Andean margin is
Tectonic Overview

1Now at Standard Oil Production Co., Dallas, The Andes mountain system extends continuously
Texas. from about 5øS to 40øS along the western edge of
2Nowat Department of Geology, Rensselaer the South American continent. Southern Peru, the
Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. area of interest in this paper, is within that
part of the system commonly referred to as the
Copyright 1986 by the American Geophysical Union. "central Andes." Morphologically, the central
Andes can be divided into five principal units
Paper number 5B5873. (Figure 1): (1) the coastal plains, (2) the
0148-0227/86/005B-5873505.00 Cordillera Occidental, (3) the Altiplano, (4) the

9517
9518 Cunninghamet al.: Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures

sedimentary rocks. The Precambrian rocks are

weakly to strongly foliated and locally reach
amphibolite to granulite grade. The Paleozoic
rocks are generally unmetamorphosed to weakly
5ø S ' metamorphosed. The deformation of these rocks has
been attributed to a middle to late Paleozoic
("Hercynian") event [Dalmayrac et al., 1980;
Megard, 1978].
The sub-Andean zone is a belt of folded
o
lOS
4 --,
sedimentary rocks lying between the Cordillera
Oriental and the Brazilian shield. The boundary
with the Cordillera Oriental is formed by a zone
of west dipping thrust faults [Ham and Herrera,
15ø 1963]. The shallow water and continental
sedimentary rocks of the sub-Andes were deposited
intermittently from Paleozoic to Pliocene time
and may reach a thickness of 10 km [Audebaud et
al., 1973]. Deformation in the sub-Andes is
difficult to date, but the age and intensity of
20
ø 4 deformation are typically shown to decrease
steadily to the east [Dalmayrac et al., 1980].
80øW 75øW 70øW 65øW Most of the large intraplate earthquakes in South
Fig. 1. Physiographic provinces of the Andes of America occur in the sub-Andes [Stauder, 1975;
Peru and northern Bolivia: (1) coastal plains, Suarez et al., 1983], indicating that it is a
(2) Cordillera Occidental, (3) Altiplano, (4) region of active and substantial crustal
Cordillera Oriental, and (5) sub-Andean zone. deformation.

Shaded areas indicate plutonic bodies, and The South American plate is bounded to the
hatched areas the volcanic rock cover. Insert west by the Peru-Chile trench, along which the
shows location of regional seismic array operated Nazca plate is subducting. Using teleseismically
during 1981 [adapted from Dalmayrac et al., located hypocenters [Barazangi and Isacks, 1976,
1980]. 1979], the subducted Nazca plate may be
subdivided along strike into five distinct
segments, each of which has a uniform dip. The
Cordillera Oriental, and (5) the sub-Andes. In segmented nature of the subducted slab may be
intimately related with variations in tectonics
southern Peru the coastal plains are composed of
observed at the surface [Barazangi and Isacks,
the Arequipa block, a Precambrian massif
1976, 1979; Jordan et al., 1983] such as the
containing rocks as old as 1.8 to 2.0 b.y.
cessation of volcanic activity in the north and
[Cobbing et al., 1977; Dalmayrac et al., 1977].
the occurrence of intracrustal seismicity in the
The Arequipa block is exposed near the coast and
is covered by Quaternary and Tertiary sediments
east. Likewise, the segmentation of the zone may
result from the interaction of various
inland. The Cordillera Occidental is composed of
topographic features on the Nazca plate, such as
volcanic and plutonic rocks of Mesozoic and
the Nazca and Juan Fernandez ridges, with the
Cenozoic age and shallow marine deposits of trench.
Mesozoic age. The main structural entity in the
Cordillera Occidental is the Coastal Batholith,
The area discussed in this paper is located
extending from about 6øS to 16øS and composed of
above and south of one of the regions where the
gabbroic and syenogranitic plutons emplaced dip of the slab changes from nearly horizontal in
the north to a more "normal" dip of 30 ø in the
episodically from 100 to 30 m.y. ago [Cobbing and
Pitcher, 1972; Cobbing et al., 1977; Pitcher, south (Figure 1). Despite the sudden change in
1975]. Cenozoic volcanic rocks and Neogene dip, the slab appears to be continuous in this
ignimbrites are widespread in the Cordillera region [Hasegawa and Sacks, 1981; Grange et al.,
Occidental [Dalmayrac et al., 1980], the youngest 1984], with the contortion in the slab being
of which indicate an abrupt end to volcanic parallel to the direction of convergence [Grange
et al., 1984].
activity in the north some 5 m.yo ago [Nobel and
McGee, 1977]. A subhorizontal east directed
thrust fault with a minimum displacement of 15 km Data and Preliminary Analysis
marks at least part of the boundary between the
Arequipa massif and the Cordillera Occidental The data used in determining the three-
[Vicente et al., 1979]. dimensional P and S wave velocity structures of
East of the Cordillera Occidental is the southern Peru are the arrival times of waves from
Altiplano, a plateau at 3000-m elevation that earthquakes recorded by a temporary regional
reaches a maximum width of 200 km near Lake array (Figure 2). The array was operated during
Titicaca (Figure 1). Much of the Altiplano in the summer of 1981 and was composed of 15
southern Peru is covered by a thick sequence of portable and three permanent stations. The
continental molasse deposited in the Oligocene permanent stations included the World Wide
and Miocene [Newell, 1949] and, in contrast to Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) station
the regions to the north, is only mildly ARE located near Arequipa and two others (ONG and
deformed. The Altiplano is bounded to the east by AYE) installed by the Department of Terrestrial
the Cordillera Oriental, which is composed of Magnetism (DTM) of the Carnegie Institute in
Precambrian crystalline rock and Paleozoic Washington. (All three of these stations were
plutonic and shallow marine and continental maintained by the Instituto Geofisico at
 Cunningham et al.' Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures 9519

those inferred by the investigators cited above

In addition, some investigators had determined
the existence of low-velocity zones (LVZ's) for
shear waves both within the continental crust
[Ocola and Meyer, 1972] and within the mantle
beneath the oceanic crust [James, 1971]. We
searched for possible shear wave LVZ's by
constructing plots of P travel time versus S-P
travel time (Wadati plots) for events in
different depth ranges (Figure 3). The ratios of
P to S velocity (Vp/Vs) deduced from these plots
reveal no large-scale (>30-km dimension) shear
wave LVZ under the array to depths of 100 km.
Between 100 and 130 km, however, a value of 1.76
ñ 0.01 was determined for Vp/Vs. Since this value
represents an average of Vp/Vs from the surface
to 130-km depth, and since arrivals from
earthquakes in the upper 100 km yield values of
1.74 ñ 0.01, the Vp/Vs between 100- and 130-km
depth could be as high as 1.84, suggesting the
existence of low shear wave velocities in this

74 W 73 W 72 W 71 W
depth range.
The model used to relocate the events (Figure
Fig. 2. Locations of stations used in 1981, 4) is divided into a series of rectangular
depth contours of hypocenters in the Benioff prisms, within each of which the velocity is
zone, and reliably located earthquakes with presumed constant. Values for P and S velocities
depths less than 60 km. Station locations are were derived both from the works cited above and
indicated by solid triangles and their from the Vp/Vs ratios determined from the Wadati
abbreviations. Thick dashed lines outline the plots. All of the 1100 earthquakes initially
contours of the Benioff zone in 10 km depth located by G84 were relocated with this model. In
intervals [adapted from Grange et al., 1984].
Solid circles show events whose epicenters and
depths are uncertain by less than 7 km (as
estimated by Grange et al. [1984]), while open Vp/Vs I 1.73 Vp/Vs I 1.74 .
circles show events with epicenters and depths
uncertain by less than 15 km.

Universidad de San Agustin in Arequipa.) A total

of 20 sites were occupied during the
investigation (three of the sites were very close - 20 km 0 km
to station CAB, so only the location of CAB is
plotted in Figure 2).
Details of the initial data reduction
Vp/Vs I 1.74 ß

Vp/Vs I 1.73
procedure are given elsewhere [Grange et al.,
1984; hereafter referred to as G84], as is the
procedure used for determining and testing
earthquake locations. The error in P arrival
readings was estimated by G84 to be less than 0.1
s, while S arrivals could be uncertain by 0.8 s.
The precision of the 592 best hypocentral
locations was estimated to be 7 km in depth and 5 O0 km
km in epicentral coordinates for intermediate
depth events and 5 and 3 km, respectively, for
shallow events.
Vp/Vs I 1.76
In selecting a data set to use in the
determination of the three-dimensional velocity
structures, we first tried to see if significant
improvement could be made in the locations by
using a more sophisticated velocity structure.
G84 had used a combination of three one-
dimensional models to mimic a two-dimensional
130 km
model, based on the work of previous / 130 - 190 km
investigators [Couch et al., 1981; Ocola et al.,
1971; James, 1971], of a crust that thickens from Tp Tp
about 12 km beneath the ocean to 70 km beneath
Fig. 3. Plots of P travel time (Tp) versus S-P
the Altiplano. Using a location algorithm that travel time (Ts - Tp) for arrivals from events in
employs an approximate ray tracing technique different depth ranges. The value of Vp/Vs
similar to that described by Thurber and deduced from these plots is given in the upper
Ellsworth [1980], we were able to locate the left corner of each plot. The standard error in
events with a model that more closely resembles each of the determinations is about ñ0.01.
9520 Cunningham et al.: Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures

selecting the best locations from this relocated The three-dimensional structure is
set, we applied the same criteria as G84, with parameterized by a set of layers bounded by
two additional qualifications that have bearing horizontal interfaces, each of which is divided
on the use of the data in a velocity inversion. into a mesh of rectangular prisms by two
First, the upper limit on the condition number orthogonal sets of vertical interfaces. The P and
(i.e., the ratio of largest to smallest singular S wave velocity within each block is specified
values) of the matrix of hypocenter partial independently, and each arrival time is treated
derivatives was taken to be 100. Second, the as an independent observation. Perturbations to
iterative procedure used to locate the events was these velocities, along with adjustments to
required to converge; locations oscillating by hypocentral coordinates, are determined
more than 2 km during the final iteration were simultaneously. Differences in station
removed. Of the initial 1100 events, 442 elevations are accounted for, and station
satisfied all of these criteria. We then decided
corrections are not applied, as any consistent
to relax the original root-mean-square (rms) offset in arrival time at a given station is
residual requirement of G84, since some of the presumed to be due to local structure. The
misfit in the data could be due to improper parameter separation technique [Pavlis and
modelling. The revised rms residual rule was (1) Booker, 1980] is employed so that a large number
if the numberof recorded phases (N) is less than of events can be used without exceeding the
15, the rms residual must be less than 0.5 s, (2) storage space available on the computer.
if 15 _< N _< 20, the rms residual must be less Stochastic damping is performed by adding a
than 0.6 s, and (3) if N > 20, the rms residual constant to the diagonals of the matrix of normal
must be less than 0.7 s. An additional 100 events equations [e.g., Aki and Lee, 1976]. Partial
were included in the selected data set after this derivatives of travel time with respect to the
rule was applied. hypocenter or velocity parameters are weighted to
No significant change was found in the reflect the expected accuracy of the observation.
locations as a result of the incorporation of the Generally, S wave residuals are given half the
more sophisticated model. Differences in depth weight of P wave residuals.
and epicenter were generally less than 7 and 5 The principle difference between the three-
km, respectively, and origin times were generally dimensional inversion method used here and that
different by 0.5 to 1.0 s. Of the 542 events that used by Roecker [1982] is our introduction of a
passed all of the criteria described above, 499 version of an approximate ray tracing technique
were among those selected as best by G84. This similar to that used by other investigators
agreement in event selection is not surprising, [e.g., Thurber, 1983; Horie, 1983]. Because this
since G84 had performed tests on the effects of technique provfdes a reasonable estimate of
laterally varying structure on the earthquake travel time thru,ugh a laterally varying
locations as part of the selection procedure. At structure, it al• ows the three-dimensional
the same time, the rms residual values decreased inversion to be iterative. •nerefore possible
as a result of relocation by about 0.1 s on biases in the results introduced by nonlinearity
average, indicating that the more sophisticated and choice of starting model are reduced, and the
model is closer to reality. resulting variance in the residuals can be more
The spatial distribution of selected events is realistically assessed.
an important consideration in performing a A damping constant of 75 was added to the
velocity inversion. The presence of a subducted diagonals for the first two iterations, after
slab beneath the array allows a fairly continuous which it was lowered to 25. Approximately 85% of
distribution of events from the near-surface to the diagonal elements are more than an order of
about 160-km depth. In addition, a zone of events magnitude greater than the damping constant, so
with depths less than 60 km extends from the slab the damping may be considered small for most of
to the surface near the eastern edge of the the variables. In the interest of saving
coastal plains (Figure 2). The broad distribution computation time, only blocks with 20 or more
of event depths and epicenters and the wide hits were included in the inversion. This step
aperture of the seismograph array ensures a wide eliminated most of the poorly sampled blocks at
variety of ray directions throughout the region, the edge of the model, the perturbations to which
which in turn decreases the affects of coupling would have been poorly resolved.
and anisotropy on the deduced velocity A priori information about the velocity
structures. structure of southern Peru was incorporated in
the relocation and selection of events, and
Method therefore the starting model for the three-
dimensional inversion varies in two dimensions
The three-dimensional velocity structures (Figure 4). Perturbations to this initial
discussed in this paper are arrived at through structure are deduced by a two-step iterative
minimizing, in a damped least squares sense, procedure. First, the earthquakes are located in
travel time residuals of P and S waves from the assumed two-dimensional structure or, later,
locally recorded earthquakes by adjusting in a deduced three-dimensional structure.
simultaneously the velocities in a discretized Second, this structure is perturbed. These two
model of the earth and the hypocentral steps are performed iteratively until there is no
coordinates of the earthquakes used. The method significant reduction in the residual variance.
is a modification of the "block" inversion scheme As a result of a given iterative step in a
originally proposed by Aki and Lee [1976]. Most three-dimensional velocity inversion, the
of the procedures used have been described in velocities in some of the blocks may not be
detail elsewhere [Roecker, 1982]. Therefore only perturbed because of insufficient data, and
a brief review will be given here. others may be perturbed too much because of poor
 Cunningham et al.' Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures 9521

Trench Coast Arequipa Lake Titicaca

I I I I
6.2/3.55 [ 5.2/3.0 .-,,

[7.1/4.11 6.0/3.45 6.5/3.75

2O

7.7/4.4 I 6.8/3.9 4O

7.5/4.3 6.8/3.9 -6O

I 7.3/4.2 7.0/4.0
7.8/4.5 [ -80
7.7/4.45
-100
7.9/4.3
.... 120

140

7.9/4.6 160

-180

Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the two-dimensional model used both to initially

relocate events and as a starting model for the three-dimensional inversions. P and S
wave velocities are given in kilometers per second. Values shown are averages in
their respective areas, as velocities between vertical boundaries grade laterally.

resolution, nonlinearity, or improper [Cunningham, 1984]. Accordingly, only a brief

parameterization. To reduce possible instability description of these tests will be given here.
caused by these effects, the structures are In each inversion the starting model was
smoothed from one iteration to the next. For adopted from the one used to initially relocate
unadjusted blocks this is done by assigning an the earthquakes (Figure 4). Of course, a given
average velocity calculated from the velocities set of interfaces may not line up with those
in surrounding blocks. Smoothing in adjusted assumed for initially relocating the earthquakes.
blocks is accomplished by damping those In those cases, average velocities were assigned
perturbations that exceed one standard deviation to blocks that encompassed regions of different
of the perturbations in a given layer. The amount initial velocities. The orientation of the blocks
of damping is weighted by the resolution was always assumed parallel to the coast, since
associated with the perturbation, so that large, the trench and most of the prominent geological
well-resolved perturbations may not be smoothed. features on the continent are oriented in this
Note that smoothing is done only on intermediate direction (Figure 1). Block sizes were chosen by
steps. The results from the final iteration observing the number of ray paths or "hits" in a
quoted in this paper have not been smoothed. volume, as well as the size of the associated
diagonal of the matrix of normal equations. More
Results
densely sampled volumes (typically those with
more than 300 hits), usually located in the
center of the mesh, were subdivided into smaller
Model Specifications blocks.
The boundaries in the first starting model
Discretizing the earth by dividing it into a (model 1; Table 1) were chosen to coincide as
mesh of rectangular prisms may introduce some closely as possible with those of the relocation
bias into the deduced structures because in most model. Three alternate models were formed by
cases the positions of the interfaces between the displacing the horizontal boundaries by 10 km up
prisms do not correspond to those of any real and down (models 2 and 3, respectively) and by
discontinuities in the earth. Moreover, since shifting the vertical interfaces parallel to the
these interface positions are not adjusted as coast inland by a distance of half a block in the
part of the iterative procedure, the influence of northeast direction (model 4). Besides revealing
a particular choice of discrete model may not be any unsuspected small-scale anomaly that may be
apparent in the usual indicators of least squares misrepresented by spatial aliasing, the major
solution quality (e.g., resolution and purpose behind trying these alternate models was
covariance). Optimally, the velocity to see if a better estimate of the depth and dip
perturbation deduced in a prism represents an of the Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho) could be
average over the whole volume. However, some made. All four models reduced the variance in the
misrepresentation of structure may result from residuals by about the same amount (=60%, or =40%
spatial aliasing or inadequate data sampling. In reduction in standard deviation, after two
applying this inversion technique therefore it is iterations). Model 4 gave essentially the same
necessary to perform a series of inversions with results as model 1, but there was a significant
different interface positions to test for any difference between the results of model 1 and
effects of improper modeling. Several models models 2 and 3; namely, that the increases in
were tried during the course of this velocity beneath the continent across the
investigation, and the results of most of these interface at 70-km depth in model 1 (e.g., 6.7 to
inversions are given in detail elsewhere 8.0 km/s; Figure 5) were usually much higher than
9522 Cunningham et al.: Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures

TABLE 1. Specifications for the Interface Configuration of Model 1

Interface Position
Layer Depth
km 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 0. NS -165.0 -75.0 -27.0 0.0 38.0 65.0 165.0

EW -220.0 -120.0 -70.0 -10.0 14.0 55.0 110.0 220.0
2 5. NS -165.0 -82.5 -55.0 -27.5 0.0 27.5 55.0 165.0
EW -220.0 -110.0 -88.0 -66.0 -44.0 -22.0 0.0 22.0 44.0 82.5 220.0
3 20. NS -165.0 -82.5 -55.0 -27.5 0.0 27.5 55.0 165.0
EW -220.0 -110.0 -88.0 -66.0 -44.0 -22.0 0.0 22.0 44.0 82.5 220.0
4 40. NS -165.0 -82.5 -55.0 -27.5 0.0 27.5 55.0 165.0
EW -220.0 -110.0 -88.0 -66.0 -44.0 -22.0 0.0 27.5 82.5 220.0
5 70. NS -165.0 -82.5 -55.0 -27.5 0.0 27.5 55.0 165.0
EW -220.0 -110.0 -88.0 -66.0 -44.0 -22.0 0.0 27.5 82.5 220.0
6 100. NS -165.0 -82.5 -55.0 -27.5 0.0 27.5 55.0 165.0
EW -220.0 -110.0 -88.0 -66.0 -44.0 -22.0 0.0 27.5 82.5 220.0
7 130. NS -165.0 -82.5 -55.0 0.0 55.0 165.0
EW -220.0 -110.0 -55.0 0.0 55.0 110.0 220.0
8 160. NS -165.0 -55.0 55.0 165.0
EW -220.0 -110.0 0.0 110.0 220.0
9 190. NS -165.0 -55.0 55.0 165.0
EW -220.0 -110.0 0.0 110.0 220.0

The interface postions are distances in kilometers from the center of coordinates, which is at
16øS 72øW. East and south are positive directions. The interface orientations (NS and EW) are
rotated 62.5 ø west of north.

those across the interfaces at 60- and 80-km Based on a comparison of results of runs with
depth in models 2 and 3, respectively. Because different models and results of different
the velocity within a block optimally represents iterations using the same model, we estimate an
an average of the true (perhaps varying) error in the more reliable results of ñ0.1 km/s,
velocities, and because these velocities are in which is about the same size as the standard
the range of those expected for a continental error deduced from the diagonals of the
crust and upper mantle, this result suggests that ½ovariance matrix.
70 km is a reasonable estimate for the depth of
the Moho underneath the continent. In what Results of Model 1
follows, we will concentrate on the results of
the inversion using model 1. The earth model used in model 1 was composed
A comment should be made on the format used to of nine layers (Table 1) with the deepest
present these results (Figures 5-7). Strictly interface at 190-km depth. Given the distribution
speaking, the velocity that is determined in a of events, however, structure beneath most of the
block should be the average for the earth within array could be resolved only to depths of about
that volume, and we have no information about how 130 km. The results discussed here are those
velocity varies within a block. However, if we obtained after four iterations, although most of
assume that the velocity in the earth is smoothly the features discussed below, as well as most of
varying, we can draw contours that depict the reduction in data variance (=60%), resulted
gradients of velocity between blocks. While not from adjustments made as a result of the first
entirely correct, these contours make the iteration, which suggests that the inverse
variations in velocity easier to visualize, and problemwas fairly linear. The trends in velocity
so we chose to use them in presenting the results deducedfrom the P and S solutions are generally
and in inferring correlations with geographic the same, with a few discrepancies that are
features. The positions of the blocks are plotted discussed below. This similarity in results lends
in Figure 6, and the values from which these credence to the structures deduced and shows that
plots are generated are given in Figure 5, so there was little trade-off between the solutions
that readers can evaluate the effects of for the two structures.
contouring for themselves. All of the velocities The first layer is thin (5 km thick) and
deduced by the inversion procedure were contains no events (Figure 6). The primary
incorporated into the figures regardless of their purpose of including this thin layer was to
apparent reliability (as may be inferred from the absorb any systematic travel time residuals due
diagonals of the resolution and covariance to local geology or to timing offsets at any
matrices' Figure 5) because the increase in station. Accordingly, the positions of the
standard error and the deterioration of vertical interfaces in this layer were chosen so
reliability follow a simple pattern. Generally that each station lay in a separate block. The
speaking, velocity estimates are less reliable results for both P and S velocity structure show
toward the edges of the array, especially toward regions of high velocity along the coast and
the northeastern edge. Furthermore, velocity inland, alternating with regions of low velocity.
estimates at depths shallower than 100 km are We note that the stations located in the high-
more reliable than those deeper than 100 km. velocity regions are situated on or near the
 Cunningham
et al.' Three-DimensionalP and S WaveVelocity Structures 9523

5.57 7.72 7.73 7.73 6.79 6.98

.19 .67 .77 .72 .77 .70
.03 .09 .08 .09 .07 .09
5.71 5.06 7.29 7.96 7.75 7.01 6.69
.62 .58 .51 .73 .82 .76 .60
.05 .05 .10 .09 .08 ,08 .09
5.65 5.64 4.32 5.26 7.59 7.95 7.60 6.82 6.65 6.74
.29 .47 .54 .33 .54 .78 .86 .85 .78 .62
.05 .06 .05 .04 .10 .09 .07 .07 .07 .09
5.10 5.99 7.58 8.02 7.85 7.24 6.72 6.73 6.73
.72 .67 .64 .82 .89 .89 ,85 ,70 .59
.05 .07 .10 .08 .07 .06 ,06 .08 .09
5.42 3.75 6.38 4,71 4.97 4.89 7.96 8.01 8.01 6.96 6.72 6.94 6.84
.24 .71 .58 .43 .43 .44 .67 .87 .92 .91 .88 .75 .70
.05 .04 .08 .06 .05 .05 .10 .07 .06 .05 .06 .08 .08
5.22 6.03 4.91 7.69 7.86 7.99 7.16 6.62 7.06 6.94
.31 .37 .53 .70 .88 .92 .91 .89 .77 .70
.06 .08 .06 .09 .07 .06 ,05 .05 ,08 .07

8.28 8.01 7.66 6.94 6.59 7.15 7.14

.64 .87 .92 .92 .89 .77 .64
.11 .07 .06 .05 .05 .08 .08

7.64 7.53 7.62 7,12 7.02 7.41 7,08

Layer 1 0 - 5 km .71 .89 .89 .87 .78 .63 .52
.10 .06 .06 .06 .08 .09 .08

6.37 6.86 7.90 7.38

.52 .60 .67 .65
.07 .06 .10 .10

5.94 5.67
.62 .55 Layer 4 40 - 70 km
.07 .06

5.85 5.71 5.78 7.86 8.04 7.60 7.90 7.90 8.13 7.98
.50 .73 .52 ß38 .55 .63 .73 .66 .54 .61
ß07 .05 .07 ß 10 .11 .10 .08 ,09 .11 .11

6.43 6.76 6.25 6.09 7.96 7.90 7.92 7.87 7.58 8.05
.56 .24 .41 .84 ß 37 .64 .72 .71 .70 .57
,08 .08 .08 .05 .10 .10 .10 .10 ,09 .11

5.81 6.18 6.49 6.27 5.80 8.74 7.91 8.37 8.00 7.98 7.99
.73 .83 .76 .61 .59 .40 .73 .78 .80 ,74 .65
.05 .06 .07 .08 .05 ß 12 .10 ,10 .09 .09 .10

6.27 5.87 6.20 6.37 6.63 5.71 7.33 7.52 7.96 8.06 7.81 7.96
,28 .76 .89 .82 .49 ,51 ß52 .82 .84 .82 .81 .67
.08 .07 .05 .07 .09 .06 ß10 .08 .08 .09 .08 .10
6.53 6.13 6.35 5.77 6.18 5.98 7.82 7.73 7.94 7.99 7.85 8.21
.40 .89 .85 .72 .66 .17 ß55 .83 .86 .85 .79 .64
.09 .05 .06 .07 .07 .06 ß 11 .08 .08 .07 .08 .10

6.40 6.63 6.19 5.97 6.02 6.01 8.42 7.95 8.15 7.85 8.09 7.97
.68 .88 .85 .74 .60 .53 ß44 .83 .85 .84 .77 .60
.07 .06 .06 .07 .08 .05 .12 .08 .08 .07 .09 ,10

6.37 6.02 6.30 6.14 5.81 7.94 8.21 8.35 7.87 8.11 7.84
.73 .70 .77 .77 .73 ß39 .76 .84 .82 .72 .58
.07 .07 .07 .07 .06 ß 11 .10 .08 .08 .09 .10

8.60 8.79 8.51 7.83 7.66 7.90

ß53 .72 .78 .73 .60 .44
ß12 .11 .10 ,09 .09 .09

8.24 7.51
Layer 2 5 - 20 km ß59 .70
ß 11 .09

7.25 7.78 6.68

.61 .67 .59 Layer 5 70 - 100 km
.09 .08 .09

7.09 8.09 7.41 6.70 6.33 7.89 8.00

.42 .57 .72 .64 .58 .38 .27
.09 .10 .09 .08 .08 .11 .10

7.54 7.30 7.25 6.44 6.38 8.26 7.95 8.56

.66 .69 .78 .80 .73 .04 .18 .18
.09 .09 .08 .07 .07 .04 .08 ,09

7.40 7.29 7.21 6.62 6.54 8.33 8.43 8.15

.72 .86 .88 .82 .52 ß 13 ,28 .35
.09 .07 .06 .07 .09 .08 .10 .11

7.05 7.40 7.20 6.82 5.99 6.24 6.61 8.33 8.62 8.73 8.55
.79 .87 .91 ,81 .55 .64 .47 .31 .38 .39 .50
.08 .07 .06 .07 .08 .08 .07 .10 .12 .12 .11

7.18 7.25 7.02 6.67 5.84 6.05 6.24 8.28 8.48 8.04 8.27 8.50
.79 .89 .92 .88 .75 .71 .57 .17 ,33 .49 .54 .47
.08 .06 .05 .06 .07 .07 .08 .09 .11 .11 ,11 .11

7.25 7.04 6.51 6.56 6.00 6.31 6.09 8.24 8.32 8.19 8.54 8.88
.82 .89 .93 .91 .76 .74 .62 .12 ,37 .55 .59 .51
.08 .06 .05 .05 .07 .07 .07 ,07 .11 .11 .11 .11

7.19 7.40 6.70 6.43 6.39 6,10 6.54 9.07 8.46 8.38 8.61
.76 .79 .91 .88 .78 .75 .48 .32 .66 ,67 .52
.09 .09 .05 .06 .07 .07 .08 .12 .11 .10 .11

7.67 6.75 6.95 6.26 6.35 6.03 8.02 8.35 8.46 8.25
.67 .84 .83 .78 .63 .63 .43 ,66 .63 .49
.10 .07 .07 .07 .08 .08 .11 ,10 .10 .10

8.16
.63
.11

Layer 3 20 - 40 km Layer 6 100 - 130 km

Fig. 5a

Fig. 5. Results of the inversion using model 1 (Table 1). Numbers in each box are
the velocity in kilometers per second, the diagonal of the resolution matrix, and the
standard error in kilometers per second determined from the diagonal of the
covariance matrix and the standard deviation in the travel time residuals. The top
row of boxes in each layer corresponds to the northeasternmost boxes in Figure 6. (a)
Results for P wave structure in layers 1-6. (b) Results for S wave structure in
layers 1-6. (c) Results for P (left) and S (right) wave structure in layers 7-9.
9524 Cunningham et al.' Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures

3.48 4.48 4.51 4.59 3.91 4.16

.19 .65 .77 .74 .78 .63
.02 .05 .05 .05 .04 .05
3.24 2.74 4.17 4.62 4.55 3.97
.72 .64 .54 .74 .84 .79
.03 .03 .05 .05 .04 .04
3.59 3.53 3.08 2.99 4.44 4.56 4.44 4.10 3.88
.49 .59 .54 .40 .57 .80 .87 .85 .69
.04 .04 .04 .03 .06 .05 .04 .04 .05
3.15 3.41 4.20 4.52 4.45 4.21 3.84
.76 .76 .65 .86 .92 .89 .81
.03 .04 .05 .04 .03 .04 .04
3.53 2.88 3.75 2.97 3.26 2.82 4.43 4.64 4.65 4.18 3.96 4.05
.29 .68 .68 .50 .30 .50 .72 .89 .93 .91 .88 .66
.04 .04 .05 .03 .03 .03 .05 .04 .03 .03 .03 .05
3.14 3.66 2.73 4.32 4.51 4.65 4.24 4.05 3.89 3.89
.37 .37 .64 ,71 .90 .93 .92 .86 .66 .71
.04 .05 .03 .05 .04 .03 .03 .04 .05 .04
4,36 4.54 4.37 4.10 3.88 4.21 3.98
.68 .88 .94 .92 .87 .64 .67
.06 .04 .03 .03 .04 .05 .05
4.25 4.40 4.36 4.09 4.03
Layer 1 0 - 5 km ,75 .89 .90 .87 .72
.05 .04 .04 .04 .05

3.65 3.79 4.38 3.90

.58 .64 .64 .69
.04 .03 .06 .05

3.65 3.35
.63 .48 Layer 4 40 - 70 km
.04 .04

3.58 3.52
4.27 4.57 4.39 4.65 4.56 4.39
.65 .73
.37 ,55 .68 .68 .63 .50
.04 .04
.05 .06 .05 .06 .06 .06
4.04 4.13 3.56 3.53
.59 .32 .68 .86
4.44 4.38 4.58 4.66 4.15 4.44
.43 .68 .70 .66 .65 .47
.05 .05 .05 .03
.06 .05 .06 .06 .05 .06
3.56 3.78 3.77 3.63 3.20 4.92 4.52 4.73 4.60 4.68 4.38
.75 .86 .82 .70 .61 .46 .74 .78 .74 .66 .58
.04 .03 .04 .04 .03 .07 .05 .05 .06 .06 .06
3.47 3.40 3.69 3.79
.54 .86 .91 .85
4.54 4.32 4.55 4.46 4.28 4.35
.05 .03 .03 .04
.51 .83 .84 .77 .78 .63
.06 .05 .05 .05 .05 .06
3.59 3.57 3.63 3.50 3.23 4.71 4.50 4.53 4.51 4.38 4.41
.65 .92 .89 .68 .59 .60 .84 .86 .82 .74 .66
.05 .03 .03 ,04 .04 .06 .04 .04 .05 .05 .05
3.90 3.76 3.67 3.46 3.44 3.43 3.33 4.68 4.49 4.67 4.17 4.42 4.68
.70 .55 .92 .87 .73 .50 .49 .57 .85 .85 .82 .79 .57
.04 .05 .03 .03 .04 .04 .03 .06 .04 .05 ,04 .05 .06
3.86 3.64 3.51 3.56 3.88 4.47 4.60 4.82 4.27 4.13
.77 .76 .84 .79 .66 .49 .80 .83 .81 .69
.04 .04 .03 .04 .05 .06 .05 .05 .04 .05

4.76 4.90 4.91 4.19 4.19

.58 .72 .80 .70 .60
.07 .06 .05 .05 .06
4.27
Layer 2 5 - 20 km .64
.06

4.39 4.52 4.31

Layer 5 70 - 100 km
.67 .72 .61
.05 .05 .06

4.07 4.51 4.19 4.02 5.00 4.49

.49 .65 .76 .66 .33 .20
,05 ,06 .05 .05 .06 .05

4.09 3.99 4.19 3.67 4.65 4.97 4.56

.69 .75 .79 .80 .06 .20 .19
.05 .04 .05 .04 .03 .05 .05

3.92 4.00 4.11 3.68 4.96 4.73

.76 .87 .90 .83 .27 .29
.04 .03 .03 .04 .06 .06

3.88 4.25 4.08 3.83 3.77 3.56 4.57 5.14 4.79 4.97
.79 .89 .92 .83 .49 .51 .41 .33 .41 .50
.04 .04 .03 .04 .05 .04 .06 .06 .07 .07

3.96 4.26 4.02 3.82 3.54 4.71 4.64 4.72 4.49 4,59
.83 .90 .94 .90 .76 .26 .40 .45 .49 .46
.04 .03 .03 .03 .04 .06 ,06 .06 .06 .06

4.01 4.02 3.85 3.83 3.63 3.63 3.86 4.82 4.48 4.42 4.72 4.62
.82 .91 .94 .92 .80 .66 .49 .20 .42 .59 .52 .49
.04 .03 .03 .03 .04 .05 .05 .05 .06 .06 .07 .06

4.11 4.23 3.86 4.00 4.10 3.66 3.98 5.05 4.63 5.00 4.74
.80 .83 .93 .87 .72 .69 .39 .38 .67 .58 .55
.05 .05 .03 .04 .05 .04 .05 .07 .06 .07 .06

3.89 3.87 3.98 3.71 3.78 4.64 4.47 4.53

.70 .83 .87 .80 .65 .50 .69 .63
.05 .04 .04 .04 .05 .06 .05 .06

4.64
.66
.06
,

Layer 3 20 - 40 km Layer 6 100 - 130 km

Fig. 5b
 Cunningham et al.' Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures 9525

preserved. In both layers the velocity gradient

is considerably steeper in the northwest than in
the southeast.

8.20 4.64
In layer 5 (70- to 100-km depth) the
.13
.08
.06
.03
northeast-southwest zonation of highs and lows
8.04 8.54 4.77 4.64
has largely disappeared for P waves but persists
.23
.09
.37
.10
.27
.06
.41
.06
for S waves. However, there is still a steep
8.27 8.27 4.76 4.09 gradient in both P and S wave velocities from
.46 .38 .46 .32
.11 .10 .06 .05 southwest to northeast in the southeastern part
of the array. The seismicity in the northwestern
part of the array in this depth range is within
the nearly horizontal slab in this area. P wave
Layer 7 130 - 160 km Layer 7 130 - 160 km
velocities exhibit a considerable amount of
lateral variation near the transition region
between the horizontally dipping and normally
dipping slabs, with a relative high positioned at
the northwest edge of the transition. A P wave
8.25
ß24
4.32
.28
velocity low located to the southeast of this
.09 .05
high is lower than the velocity directly above it
in layer 4 and thus represents an inversion in
velocity with depth. This low continues into
Layer 8 160 - 190 km
Layer 8 160 - 190 km layer 6 (100-130 km) although displaced somewhat
to the northeast. S wave velocities in these
layers mimic the P wave trends, although with
less contrast.
At depths greater than 100 km (layers 6-9),
resolution falls off (Figure 5), so that with the
exception of the southeastern part of layer 6,
7.98 the velocity perturbations tend to trade off with
.13
.07 other blocks or with hypocenter locations and
hence are less reliable. Therefore the results in
Layer 9 > 190 km Layer 9 > 190 km
layers 7-9 were not contoured. We note that the
Fig. 5c positions of the vertical interfaces in layer 6
were initially the same as those in layer 7 (130-
to 160-km depth; Figure 6, Table 1). In an
exposed Precambrian basement of the Arequipa attempt to resolve additional structure in the
massif, both along the coast (SGP, MOL, and AYE) upper mantle, the interfaces in layer 6 were
and at the eastern edge of the coastal plains changed to be the same as those in layer 5 after
(ARE, LLU, RAT, and CAY). The stations in the the second iteration. This change altered the
intervening low-velocity region (TOR, SIS, CAN, structure deduced in layer 6 only slightly and
and ONG) all sit on Quaternary alluvium. The low had no effect on the structure determined in the
velocities to the northeast are associated with
upper layers.
stations located at high elevation within the The deviation of the lower crust from a two-
Cordillera Occidental. This apparent correlation dimensional structure may be better viewed by
between the surface geology and velocity comparing cross sections perpendicular to the
structure at shallow depths suggests that the structural trends (Figure 7). These sections
average residuals at each station are due to reveal the gradual, nearly monotonic decrease in
local structural variations in the upper few the northeast-southwest velocity gradient from
kilometers, rather than being caused by any the northwest to the southeast that was suggested
timing errors. in the map views (section 5 is an exception;
The structure in layer 2 (5- to 20-km depth) Figure 8). Again, because the velocities
generally shows the velocities in the southwest determined are averages over the volume of a
to be higher than those in the northeast, block, we cannot say whether or not these
although the boundary between the two is gradients represent an actual discontinuity and,
complicated. There is also a prominent low moreover, whether or not the change in gradient
situated in the middle of the high-velocity zone represents a change in dip in the discontinuity
at about 16.5øS and 72.5øW. We note that almost or merely a difference in change in velocity
all of the earthquakes in this layer are located across it. Our prejudice is that a real
in the higher velocity regions. discontinuity in this area seems likely, and
Layers 3 (20- to 40-km depth) and 4 (40- to therefore we will assume in the discussion that
70-km depth) reveal a large-scale zoning of high these changes in gradient reflect a change in the
and low velocities, the highs being relegated to dip of the Moho.
the southwest and the lows to the northeast. The As may be expected, the P and S wave
gradient in velocity is steep in the region velocities within the slab (as defined by the
beneath the eastern edge of the Arequipa massif, microearthquake locations) are typically higher
suggesting that a real discontinuity, probably than those in the surrounding mantle. In
the Moho, is situated here. This result is addition, the top of the slab at depths greater
perhaps not surprising considering that the than 70 km appears to be roughly outlined in most
starting model assumed the Moho to be located in of the cross sections by the 4.6-km/s S wave
this area. Nevertheless, the assumed two- velocity contour. Since the dip of the slab, and
dimensional structure of the Moho is not hence the dip of the contours, increases to the
9526 Cunningham et al.' Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures

I I I

-15.0

-16.0

-18.0 I I I I I
-74.0 -73.0 -72.0 -71.0 -70.0 -74.0 -73.0 -72.0 -71.0 -70.0 -74.0 -73.0 -72.0 - -70.0

Fig. 6. Contours of the velocity structure determined from the inversion using model
1. The contour interval is 0.2 km/s. The three boxes in each row depict, from left to
right, contours of P wave velocity structure, contours of S wave velocity structure,
and the configuration of the interfaces in layers 1-6. Only the interface
configurations for layers 7 and 8 as the velocities in layers 7-9 were not contoured
(the configuration in layer 9 was the same as that in layer 8) because vecy few of
the results in these layers were well resolved. Crosses indicate the epicenters of
earthquakes located in each layer. The coastline and part of Lake Titicaca are shown
in each figure for reference. The locations of active and dormant volcanoes are shown
in layer 1 by solid and open triangles, respectively.

southeast, the shear wave velocities in the the overriding South American plate. For example,
mantle between about 70 and 130 km are lower in the tectonics above flat slabs are characterized
the southeast than in the northwest. P wave by a lack of recent active magmatism, active
velocities also tend to be low in some areas crustal shortening in the sub-Andes, and recent
above the slab in the southeast, although the uplift of the crystalline basement on high-angle
correlation is not as striking as it is for S reverse faults, while regions abo•e steeply
wave s. dipping slabs have an active volcanic axis, a
One feature that does not show up well on the high plateau (the Altiplano or Pqna), a high
cross sections, due to the type of contouring Neogene but inactive thrust belt (the Eastern
routine used, is the reversal in velocity in Cordillera), and an active eastward migrating
sub-Andean thin-skinned thrust belt. Studies of
layers 5 and 6 discussed above. These reversals
are located above the top of the slab near the seismicity [e.g., Stauder, 1975; Suarez et al.,
point where the slab begins to flatten to the 1983] show that large thrust events are common at
northeast. the western edge of the sub-Andes above the flat
Discussion slab region north of 14øS, but there are few if
any similar events located to the south.
Previous investigators [Barazangi and Isacks, Therefore both present and historic deformation
1979; Jordan et al., 1983] have pointed out of the South American plate appear to be
correlations between the changes in the dip of intimately related to the dip of the subducted
the subducted Nazca plate and the tectonics of Nazca plate.
 Cunningham
et al.' Three-DimensionalP and S WaveVelocity Structures 9527

-15.0

-16.C

-17.(:

i
-18.0
1' i i i i
++ +
II •
-15.0- ••.8 +
'• ++

-17,C •+
-18 C/ I I I I I II I I I I

+ •;•>. • // + •'•
• •-•l/ +• •
+mS+•
+ +

-16.o-• • +••• ••

I
-74.0 -72.0 -71.0 I
-70.0 -74.0 I _.
Fig. 6 (continued)

The locations of the microearthquakes used in

this study clearly delineate the increasing dip
of the slab from northwest to southeast (Figures
6 and 7), and several of the features of the
velocity structure noted above appear to be
related to this change in dip. Specifically, the
inferred steeply dipping Moho is located above
-16. the flat slab segment, gradually becoming less
steep over the more steeply dipping slab.
More6ver, the low mantle S wave velocities
•etween 70- and 130-km depth are apparent only
above the more steeply dipping slab.
The existence of low velocities in the mantle
above the steeply dipping slab corroborates the
-18.0 . I hypothesis that the lack of magmatism above the
flat subducting slab is due to the lack of
' !
partially melted (and therefore lower velocity)
ast•enospheric material above the slab [Barazangi
-15.0 + -
and Isacks, 1979]. The high value for Vp/Vs
.

determined for this depth range from the Wadati

plots (Figure 3) is most likely due to the low S
wave velocities above this part of the slab.
The steepening of the dip of the Moho to the

-16.0• northwest
of previously
is more difficult
postulated
in the Andes, but the correlation
to explain
mechanics of deformation
of this
in terms

phenomenonwith the flattening of the slab

suggests that the two are related. A possible
-18 01 i i I '-., explanation is that the crust above the steeply
-74.0 -73.0 -72.0
dipping Moho in the northwest represents a
Fig. 6 (continued) deformed version of the crust in the southeast.
9528 Cunningham et al.' Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures

•• -•-----------------•-4
2 - 20

• ++• 7 ++ •.½
I--'+ + • • •7.5 • -- •' • +•4 .• - 70

h + ++++
+ + + +
+1 ,• ++ •• ;+• •+ •+A+ + + + ++ - 100
I +'

• I I I I I I I/I • I I I I• I
+ 1•190
13o I I
160

40

- - 70+
100
+ + + + •+

- 130

- 160

2
19O

2O
+ +

+ 4O

7O

lOO
• , ++/++ + +• + •
+ +

130

160

3
190

Fig. 7. Contours of velocity structure for (left) P waves and (right) S waves shown
in cross section. The contour interval is 0.25 km/s for P and 0.2 km/s for S. The
locations of the sections are shown on the interface map for layer 2 in Figure 6. The
orientation of the sections is noted on the top of sections 1, 4, and 7. Crosses show
earthquakes located in each of the sections. The depth intervals given on the right
of the figure correspond to depths of layer boundaries in kilometers, while vertical
tick marks indicate positions of vertical interfaces as shown in layers 2-6 in Figure
6. Vertical and horizontal scales are the same. Open and solid triangles at the top
of some sections locate dormant and active volcanoes, respectively. Inverted solid
triangles in each section show the location of the coast. The trench is located about
100 km to the southwest of the coast.
 Cunningham et al.' Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures 9529

20

40

70

lOO
+ ++•• -
+ + + + + + + + •+ +
13o

I I
41160 9O

i i

2O

- 40

7O

IO0

130

- 160

5
- 190

+ •
2O

40

70

++ + + +++ +++
+ + + + ++ +
+ + + + - 130
+ + + +

160

6
190

Fig. 7 (continued)

We note that there is a plane of microearthquake both strike-slip faulting and thrusting in a
activity dipping westward from the surface to northwest-southeast direction (see Figures 4 and
near the edge of the slab that occurs above the 5 in G84), nor by geological evidence, which
more steeply dipping slab in the southeast. These while showing that west dipping thrust faults
earthquakes reach the surface at a thrust fault indeed exist at and near the western edge of the
at the contact between the Cordillera Occidental Cordillera Occidental, suggests that these faults
and the Arequipa massif. Owing to the breadth and have been inactive since Oligocene-Miocene time
dip of this zone of activity, it is tempting to [Vicente et al., 1979]. The manner in which
interpret these earthquakes as a result of the these earthquakes are contributing to crustal
crust beneath the Arequipa massif overthrusting deformation is therefore unclear. At the same
the Cordillera Occidental. Indeed, if this were time, while G84 suggested that these earthquakes
the case, one could postulate that the gently extend through the crust and on into the
dipping Moho in the southeast is presently being subducting slab, our results imply that they
steepened by such activity. However, this kind of occur only within the crust. This difference
motion is supported neither by the fault plane arises from the inference that the Moho in this
solutions of the microearthquakes, which reveal region dips more gently than the one assumed by
9530 Cunningham et at.' Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures

40

70

lOO

13o

16o

19o

20

40
ß

70

_ + + +•./+ ------ • 100

- 130
+ ++ +
_

160

190

20

40

70

IO0

130

160

190

Fig. 7 (continued)

G84, whichwasderived from an interpretation of basedon the results of thi; study, there does
gravity data by Couch et at. [1981]. exist an unusual gravity high of 225 mGats in the
Most of the surface tectonic features that northwest part of the array that grades to a low
previous investigators found to correlate with of -54 mGats in the southeast before returning to
changes in slab dip extend over a considerable values in the 50- to 75-mGals range. The strong
distance. However, the limited spatial extent of gravity high in the northwest is consistent with
the array used to deduce the velocity structure the inference of an elevated (high density)
in southern Peru allows no inference about how mantle in this area, while the lower values would
the features determined in this study relate to correspond to a thicker (and isostatically
structure in neighboring areas. In fact, a rough uncompensated) crust. The gravity high does not
interpretation of the free-air gravity anomalies extend very far to the northwest of the array,
in the area (Figure 9) suggests that features suggesting that the elevated mantle does not
such as the change in Moho dip exist only either. Incidentally, there is a striking
locally. Although the anomaly map is too correspondence between the pronounced gravity low
complicated to afford a complete interpretation in the middle of the array with the low-velocity
 Cunningham et al.' Three-Dimensional P and S Wave Velocity Structures 9551

I I I I I I ! ß region in layer 2 and with the inverted

velocities in layers 5 and 6 mentioned above, all
of which occur near the area were the slab
changes dip. We cannot offer an interpretation of
•Okm these low velocities because we do not understand
the mechanics of a slab contortion well enough.
1
Besides, the position of the low velocities does
not correspond to any mapped surface feature.
2 While the change in the dip of the Moho
determined in this study is a phenomenon that
possibly does not extend far outside of the array
area, it does seem to be connected with the
change in the dip of the slab. The question then
becomes one of cause and effect. If the
steepening of the Moho is somehow caused by the
flattening of the subducted slab, one can imagine
that as the contortion in the slab is propagating
southward, as it would if it were being caused by
the oblique subduction of the Nazca ridge, the
Moho to the south would steepen in the process,
,.

resulting in crustal deformation west of the

Cordillera Occidental. Alternatively, if the
position of the contortion is not propagating
because the contortion is aligned with the
I I i i I ! direction of convergence as the results of G84
Fig. 8. Summary of the inferred change in the suggest, it could be that the change in Moho dip
dip of the Moho, as indicated by the 7.5-km/s P is inherited from a previous phase of deformation
wave velocity contour. This contour was chosen and could be a cause rather than an effect of the
because it consistently reached the depth of 70 contortion in the slab.
km beneath the Altiplano, as is indicated by the
tick mark to the left of the section identifier. Acknowledgments. We thank O. Ancajima, C.
Vertical tick marks correspond to those plotted Anconeyra, R. Benites, A. Flores, J. Gagnepain,
in Figure 7. Cross-section numbers are given in F. Gomez, F. Grange, J. Melgar, T. Modiano, P.
Figure 6. Molnar, F. Pardo, A. Posadas, E. Salinas, R.
Stewart, J. Stock, G. Suarez, I. Vellejos, and A.
Vilkas for assistance in the field and M. Lazo,
F. Megard, M. Sebrier, and J. C. Vicente for
advice and help with logistics. This work was
supported by NASA grant NAG5-300 of the
Geodynamics Program.

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