RADIO

ASTRONOMY
Journal of the Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers
January- February 2015
 
 
 

 
 

1
 Radio Waves 
President’s Page                3 
Editor’s Note                  4 
 
  News 
Ken Redcap 
     SARA President   2015 SARA Western Regional Conference         
    Western Conference Abstracts          6 
Kathryn Hagen  Mark Your Calendar              10 
Editor  
  Call for Nomination              11 
Whitham D. Reeve   SARA Annual Conference at NRAO          11 
     Contributing Editor  
 
Call for Papers: 2015 SARA Annual Conference        12 
Christian Monstein   New Website Sections Introduced; Further Enhancements to Come  12
     Contributing Editor     
 
Stan Nelson  Feature Articles 
     Contributing Editor  Slooh Broadcasts with Radio Meteor Audio‐ Stan Nelson     14 
  The Big Bang is Bunk‐ Grote Reber          16 
Lee Scheppmann 
     Technical Editor  PstRotator Antenna Rotator Software Application for Radio Astronomy ‐ 
  Whit Reeve                23 
Radio Astronomy is published bimonthly as the 
official journal of the Society of Amateur Radio 
Cassiopeia: A Scintillation Observed by Radio JOVE Participants ‐Dave 
Astronomers. Duplication of uncopyrighted  Typinski et al                31 
material for educational purposes is permitted  Leap Second to be Added in 2015!‐‐Whit Reeve        37 
but credit shall be given to SARA and to the  
specific author. Copyrighted materials may not  RASDRviewer Pulsar Feature Description ‐ Paul L. Oxley      39 
be copied without written permission from the  Radio‐Frequency Interference (RFI) From Extra‐High‐Voltage (EHV) 
copyright owner.   Transmission Lines‐Patrick C. Crane          45 
 
Radio Astronomy is available for download only   Callisto‐Pi: Callisto Spectrograms from Rasperry Pi‐‐Whit Reeve    79 
by SARA members from the SARA web site and   First Light of TLM‐18 Antenna            85 
may not be posted anywhere else. 
 
Book Review—Radio Propagation            86 
It is the mission of the Society of Amateur Radio   
Astronomers (SARA) to: Facilitate the flow of  Membership 
information pertinent to the field of Radio As‐
tronomy among our members; Promote   New Members                88 
members to mentor newcomers to our hobby   Membership Dues and Promotions          88
and share the excitement of radio astronomy      
with other interested persons and organizations; 
Promote individual and multi station observing  Administrative 
programs; Encourage programs that enhance the  Officers, directors and additional SARA contacts       90
technical abilities of our members to monitor 
cosmic radio signals, as well as to share and  
   
analyze such signals; Encourage educational  Resources   
programs within SARA and educational outreach  Great Projects to Get Started in Radio Astronomy       91 
initiatives. Founded in 1981, the Society of 
Amateur Radio Astronomers, Inc. is a   Education Links               93 
membership supported, non‐profit [501(c) (3)],  Online Resources              95 
educational and scientific corporation.   
 
Copyright © 2015 by the Society of Amateur   For Sale, Trade, Wanted 
Radio Astronomers, Inc. All rights reserved.  SARA Polo Shirts              96 
 
  For Sale                 96 
Photograph:   Control room, 40‐Meter   
Telescope, Owens Valley Radio Observatory 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

2
‐Radio Waves 
 
President’s Page 
 
SARA had a booth at the 2015 HAMcation event in Orlando, FL. Many thanks go out to Melinda and Tom and 
Lynn Crowley for their help in supporting this effort. We got to meet a number of RA enthusiasts and talked 
a great deal on Software Defined Radio (SDR), SuperSID and Radio Jove just to name a few topics.  Just as 
HAMcation doubled in size for SARA this year HAMvention could do the same in May.  
 
There is still time to register for the 2015 Western Conference to be held at Stanford University in Palo Alto, 
California March 20 to 22.  More information is in this Journal as well as on‐line at http://www.radio‐
astronomy.org/meetings.   
 
It may seem a long way off, but we need to be thinking about officers and directors nominations.  If you 
are interested in serving as secretary, treasurer, director or director‐at‐large, let me know.  Also, take a minute 
to look at the responsibilities and duties of these positions at  
http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/pdf/operating‐procedures.pdf.  
 
The Annual Eastern Conference is set for June 21 to June 24, 2015 at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory 
in Green Bank, West Virginia.  More details are available on‐line at http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/meetings 
and in upcoming Journals.    
 
 
 
 
May your noise figure be low, 
Ken Redcap 
KR5ARA 

3
 
Editor’s Notes   
 
We are always looking for basic radio astronomy articles, radio astronomy tutorials, theoretical articles, 
application and construction articles, news pertinent to radio astronomy, profiles and interviews with amateur 
and professional radio astronomers, book reviews, puzzles (including word challenges, riddles, and crossword 
puzzles), anecdotes, expository on “bad astronomy,” articles on radio astronomy observations, suggestions for 
reprint of articles from past journals, book reviews and other publications, and announcements of radio 
astronomy star parties, meetings, and outreach activities.  
 
If you would like to write an article for Radio Astronomy, please follow the Author’s Guide on the SARA web site: 
http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/publicat/RA‐JSARA_Author’s_ Guide.pdf. You can also open a template to 
write your article http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/publicat/RA‐JSARA_Article_Template.doc 
 
Let us know if you have questions; we are glad to assist authors with their articles and papers and will not 
hesitate to work with you. You may contact your editors any time via email here: editor@radio‐astronomy.org.  
 
I will acknowledge that I have received your submission within two days. If I don’t, assume I didn’t receive it and 
please try again.  
 
 
 
 
 
Please consider submitting your radio astronomy observations for publication: any object, any wavelength.  
 
Strip charts, spectrograms, magnetograms, meteor scatter records, space radar records, photographs; 
 
examples of radio frequency interference (RFI) are also welcome. 
 
Guidelines for submitting observations may be found here: http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/publicat/RA‐
 
JSARA_Observation_Submission_Guide.pdf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Tentative Radio Astronomy due dates and distribution schedule
 
 
Issue Articles Radio Waves Review Distribution
 
  Jan – Feb February 12 February 20 February 23 February 28
  Mar – Apr April 12 April 20 April 25 April 30
  May – Jun June 12 June 20 June 25 June 30
  Jul – Aug August 12 August 20 August 25 August 31
 
Sep – Oct October 12 October 20 October 25 October 31
Nov – Dec December 12 December 15 December 20 December 31

4
 
News 
 
2015 SARA Western Regional Conference 
 
Palo Alto, California, USA on 20 ‐ 22 March 2015 
 
The  2015  SARA  Western  Regional  Conference  will  be  held  at  Stanford 
University in Palo Alto, California on Friday, Saturday and Sunday, 20 ‐ 22 
March  2015.    The  meeting  will  include  a  visit  the  Kavli  Institute  for 
Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology (KIPAC). 
 
Presentations  and  proceedings:  In  addition  to  presentations  by  SARA 
members, we plan to have speakers from the Stanford University faculty, 
SETI  Institute,  Allen  Telescope  Array  and  possibly  KIPAC.  Papers  and 
presentations  on  radio  astronomy  hardware,  software,  education, 
research  strategies,  philosophy,  and  observing  efforts  and  methods  are 
welcome.  Formal  proceedings  will  be  published  for  this  conference.  If 
presenters  want  to  submit  a  paper  or  a  copy  of  their  presentation,  we 
will make them available to attendees on CD.  
 
Basic  schedule:  Our  first  day  will  include  a  visit  to  the  KIPAC  facilities  at  Stanford  Linear  Accelerator  Center 
(SLAC).    The  next  two  days'  meetings  will  take  place  on  the  Stanford  University  campus  and  will  include 
presentations by members and guest speakers. 
 
Getting there:  Fly into San Jose or San Francisco airports and rent a car to drive to Palo Alto.  
 
Registration:  Registration  for  the  2015  Western  Regional  Conference  is  just  US$55.00.  This  includes  breakfast 
and lunch on Saturday and Sunday. Payment can be made through PayPal, www.paypal.com by sending payment 
to  treasurer@radio‐astronomy.org.  Please  include  in  comments  that  the  payment  is  for  the  2015  Western 
Regional  Conference.  You  also  can  mail  a  check  payable  to  SARA,  2189  Redwood  Ave, Washington,  IA   52353, 
USA. Please include an e‐mail address so a confirmation can be sent to you when we receive your payment. 
 
Hotel reservations: Marriott Courtyard Palo Alto Los Altos
Marriott hotel(s) offering SARA a special group rate: 
Courtyard Palo Alto Los Altos  for 129.00 USD  per night, Last day to book by: 3/5/15 
http://www.marriott.com/meeting-event-hotels/group-corporate-
travel/groupCorp.mi?resLinkData=SARA^paocy%60sarsara|sarsarb%60129.00%60USD%60false%603
/19/15%603/23/15%603/5/15&app=resvlink&stop_mobi=yes 
 
What to wear: Our conference settings are casual. 
 
Saturday night dinner: We will make a group dinner reservation at a local restaurant for Saturday night.  
 
Additional Information: Additional details will be published online at www.radio‐astronomy.org/meetings and in 
the  SARA  journal,  Radio  Astronomy,  as  we  get  closer  to  the  conference  date.  Please  contact  conference 
coordinators  David  Westman  and  Keith  Payea  if  you  have  any  questions  or  if  you  would  like  to  help  with  the 
conference: westernconference@radio‐astronomy.org. 
 
 

5
 Western Conference 2015 Abstract 
Author:  Tom Hagen 
Title: Portable VLF Receiver for Making Calibrated Magnetic Field Strength Measurements 
 
Abstract: This presentation is about the author's continuing efforts to get calibrated measurements of the field 
strengths of the various VLF stations used by the SuperSID program as reference sources to detect sudden 
ionospheric disturbances (SID’s). Presently, the amplitude of data coming in from the various SuperSID stations 
around the world is uncalibrated. When a SID is detected, there is a measurable change in relative signal 
strength, but actual field strengths are unknown. If a portable VLF receiver and loop antenna setup could be 
developed that is calibrated, then such a setup could be shipped to different sites for calibrated field strength 
measurements.  Users could even build their own receiver and loop antenna from standard plans. A small loop 
design and two receiver designs are discussed.  Estimated sensitivities of each receiver design are calculated. 
Calculations are verified with laboratory tests. 
 
Author: Curt Kinghorn 
 
Abstract:  One of the following:  1.  Converting drift scan lines from one of my radio telescopes to a full‐fledged 
sky map/image.  This is proving more challenging than I initially thought but the final product is also proving to 
be more rewarding in that the results looks more like what the sky would look like if I were looking at in through 
"radio‐eyes." 
2.  Inserting a time delay in one leg of an interferometer to get "steering" without having to move the antenna 
(sort of analogous to phased‐array radar)! 
3.  Comparing the results of my 611 MHz radio telescope using an ICOM R7000 receiver with that same system 
only with a FunCube Dongle Software Defined Radio receiver.  (So far, the ICOM is the undisputed champion but 
I am hoping to improve the performance of the SDR system!) 
4.  Converting a commercial satellite antenna positioner (used by commercial TV station remote units to send 
their remote signals to the "home" station) to (much more precisely!) aim the antenna for either my 611 MHz or 
my 12.2 ‐ 12.7 GHz radio telescope antennas. 
 
Author: Whitham D. Reeve, Anchorage, Alaska USA, SARA Member 
Title: Sudden Frequency Deviations Due to Solar Flares 
 
Abstract: This paper describes the interesting phenomena of Sudden Frequency Deviations (SFD), which are 
changes in the received frequency of a fixed carrier caused by rapid changes in Earth’s ionosphere from a solar 
flare. For purposes of this study I recorded WWV and WWVH time service signals received at Anchorage, Alaska 
USA between early June and end of December 2014. Part I describes the concepts of sudden frequency 
deviations in terms of solar flares and ionospheric propagation, and Part II describes the instrumentation and 
observations during the study period. 
 
WWV and WWVH transmit continuous radio frequency carriers with very high accuracy and stability on 2.5, 5, 
10 and 15 MHz. WWV also transmits on 20 MHz and in April 2014 restarted transmitting on 25 MHz. The 
transmitted carrier frequencies are accurate to a few parts in 1013 (about 0.000 000 000 000 3 Hz), but the short‐
term accuracy is degraded to a few parts in 109 during normal propagation to distant receivers. Sudden 
frequency deviations lasting a minute or more due to solar flares can be two or three orders of magnitude 
worse.  
 
Two ionospheric conditions are attributed to sudden frequency deviations, both caused by the x‐ray and 
extreme ultra‐violet (EUV) energy released by a solar flare and reaching Earth a little more than 8 minutes later. 
First, a slab of ionosphere below the reflection region undergoes a rapid change in refraction index and, second, 

6
the ionosphere’s reflection region undergoes a rapid vertical movement. Both conditions change the 
propagation path length and introduce a Doppler shift in the radio wave. Either one or both can cause a sudden 
frequency deviation. It is interesting to note that sudden frequency deviations are correlated with solar flares 
but due to the variability in the spectral content of flares at x‐ray and EUV wavelengths, only a fraction of all 
flares cause an SFD. 
 
The method of detecting sudden frequency deviations described here is quite sensitive (the weakest x‐ray flare 
detected in the study period was C1.8) and the technique may be helpful in verifying sudden ionospheric 
disturbances (SID) at very low frequencies. SFDs were studied extensively in the 1960s but there appears to have 
been little work since then. 
 
Author:  Dean Knight 
Title: A Student’s Hands‐on Introduction to Radio and Radio‐astronomy 
 
Abstract: The engaging introduction to radio electronics for students can involve the construction, modification 
and testing of a tunable (VHF/UHF) solar radio telescope of a tweeked Jove dual‐dipole design, incorporating a 
simple 1 transistor circuit, common household materials and Radio‐SkyPipe. Students are able to easily 
experiment (and establish controls) with the parameters of a radio telescope, thus allowing them to explore the 
effects of these modifications on both the observed frequency and amplitude of the processed incoming radio 
signal. 
 
Author: Ken Redcap (KR5ARA) 
Title: 611 MHz Total Power Radio Telescope ‐ Part 0x03 (Software) 
 
Abstract: Part 0x02 of this presentation was given at the SARA 2014 East Conference. Parts 0x01 and 0x02 dealt 
with the hardware (antennas (< $100 each), USB dongle (< $30), etc.) being used for this ongoing project. Part 
0x03 will focus on the programs available on the website SDRSharp.Com and how to make modifications. Other 
topics will include Visual Studio (Microsoft) used to build the application SDRSharp and an introduction to the 
new hardware (AIRSPY ($200)) available on the same website that is compatible with SDRSharp. This project is a 
work in progress and is my first effort on a radio telescope to detect energy in this frequency range. The 
telescope is being set up at the McMath Hulbert Solar Observatory (MHO) in Lake Angelus, MI. All electronic 
components and antennas required were purchased from Amazon except for the low noise amplifier. All 
freeware software components were derived from sites with various versions of SDR# like SDRSharp.Com. 
Inspiration for the project comes from Kurt Kinghorn's presentation at the 2013 SARA Western Conference on 
low cost radio telescopes using off‐the‐shelf TV receive antennas and an article in the August, 2013 SARA Journal 
about a low cost HI receiver. 
 
Author: Ray Fobes (W1OTH) 
Title: The Dipole Array Radio telescope (DART) 
 
Abstract: The radio astronomy observatory at Embry‐Riddle Aeronautical University, Prescott is in the process of 
designing and installing a cross‐dipole phased array radio telescope.  The principal purposes of this telescope are 
to provide students with a research grade radio telescope for enhancing their space physics and astronomy 
curriculum as well as performing long term pulsar timing in support of programs like LIGO. 
 
Based on the low frequency demonstrator of the original Mileura Widefield Array (now at the Murchison 
Widefield Array) we will be building a three tile, 110 – 300 MHz phased array telescope with direct sampled rf 
and signal processing in the digital domain. 30 MHz of bandwith can be directly sampled from each of the tiles 
simultaneously. Each tile will have up to 10 m2 collecting area with maximum gain in the 200‐250 MHz region, 
ideal for pulsar monitoring. Rapid all sky pointing above 30 deg in both polarizations will be available. 

7
 
In addition to characterizing the radio sky and tracking pulsar timing the telescope will also be available for long 
term solar research including the heliopause as well as passive and active ionospheric studies. 
 
This presentation will describe the design and construction of the DART telescope. 
 
Author: Tushar Sharma, Dhruv Bhaskar ,Ramzi Darraji, Fadhel Ghannouchi 
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Calgary, Canada  
Title: Radio Jove Instrumentation and Education Outreach 
 
Abstract: This paper looks into the effect of varying parameters on different antenna designs with an aim to 
achieve an optimized antenna design that can be used with the Radio Jove kit. As a team of amateur radio 
astronomers, we have simulated the response of different antennae on Numerical Electromagnetic Code – 2 
which uses the method of moments solution of the electric field integral equation and the magnetic field 
integral equation for closed, conducting surfaces. By varying the geometries (height above ground, diameter 
of loops, lengths of dipoles, tuning capacitors etc.) of antenna structures, we have observed how different 
parameters affect gain, directivity, V.S.W.R. and thus the cumulative efficiency of antennae. It is quite 
apparent that many minute factors play a key role in determining antenna performance. All the antenna 
designs have been optimized for a frequency of 20.1 MHz, which is the operating frequency of the Radio Jove 
setup. The Radio JOVE kit makes use of a dipole antenna which is relatively huge in size (because of the 
operating frequency of 20.1 MHz). Another aim of our research is to reduce the overall antenna size while 
maintaining performance. Simulation results have proved that a loop antenna poses as a potential substitute, 
as it can be constructed fairly easily and for a low cost. 
 
While experimental results are under way, we present the data collected from simulations in this paper. This 
data will provide an insight into the different factors affecting antenna response and can potentially lead to an 
optimized, easy – to – use Radio JOVE kit. With setting up of Astronomical Teacher training Institute in Alberta, 
Canada we have introduced different programs including STAR , Summer Grant with IEEE MTT chapter, Winter 
Grant and Student‐Mentor .With collaboration with IEEE to support student activities in field of Radio Science 
and engineering future goals are setting up of amateur observatories in school across Alberta. 
 
Author: Jack Welch, UC Berkeley Graduate School 
Title: Low Noise Feeds for the Allen Telescope Array 
 
Abstract: The goals for the Allen Telescope Array (ATA) antennas are low background noise and wide bandwidth.  
To achieve the low background pick‐up from the ground, the antenna optics uses an offset Gregorian secondary.  
To achieve the wide bandwidth, a log‐periodic antenna is used for the feed.  The log‐periodic feed is tapered 
with its shortest operating wavelength give by the dimension of its small end, and its longest wavelength given 
by size of the large end.  For the ATA. The range is 0.9 GHz to 15 GHz; four octaves.  At any particular frequency 
in that range, the active portion of the feed is relatively small.  One awkward feature for the log‐periodic is that 
all wavelengths are received from the direction of the small end, and the input terminals for the low noise 
amplifier must be at the small end.  The receiver box must be fitted within the large end of the log‐periodic 
structure with coaxial cables extended to the tip.  To avoid losses in these cables and in the feed, the entire 
structure is cooled to 70K.  The input amplifier produces very little noise at that temperature. Achieving the low 
physical temperature requires that the feed and receiver be enclosed in a transparent bottle.  The low 
background of the Gregorian optics and the cooled amplifier and feed combine to deliver very low system 
temperatures for the array. The forty‐two antennas of the ATA are currently being outfitted with these new 
receiver systems, thanks to a generous donation from Franklin Antonio. 
 
 

8
Author: Jon Richards, SETI Institute 
Title: The Signal Search at the Allen Telescope Array 
 
Abstract: This presentation will provide an overview the Allen Telescope Array (ATA), located in Northern 
California. The ATA is the instrument the SETI Institute's Center for SETI Research uses to search for 
extraterrestrial radio signals. The ATA has 42 radio dishes, each 20 feet in diameter able to detect signals 
between 1GHz and 10GHz. Jon will cover how the SETI signal search program works, what hardware is used, 
how the signals are detected, as well as review the current state of the effort. There will also be a discussion of 
the beginning efforts to use commercial software defined radio devices to aid in several aspects of operations. 
 
Author: Leif Svalgaard 
Title: "Radio, Ionosphere, Magnetism, and Sunspots" 
 
Abstract: When Marconi in 1902 demonstrated radio communication across the Atlantic Ocean at a distance of 
2000 miles it became clear that an electric 'mirror' existed high in the atmosphere to guide the radio waves 
around the curvature of the Earth. Kennelly and Heaviside independently suggested that a layer of ionized gas, 
the 'ionosphere' at an altitude of 60‐100 miles was responsible for the effect, but it was only more than two 
decades later that the existence of such a layer was firmly established by the British scientist Appelton for which 
he received the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physics. Physicists long resisted the idea of the reflecting layer because it 
would require total internal reflection, which in turn would require that the speed of light in the ionosphere 
would be greater than in the atmosphere below it. It was an example of where the more physics you knew, the 
surer you were that it couldn't happen. However, there are two velocities of light to consider: the phase velocity 
and the group velocity. The phase velocity for radio waves in the ionosphere is indeed greater than the Special 
Relativity speed limit making total internal reflection possible, enabling the ionosphere to reflect radio waves. 
Within a conducting layer electric currents can flow. The existence of such currents was postulated as early as 
1882 by Balfour Stewart to explain a the diurnal variation [discovered in 1722] of the Earth's magnetic field as 
due to the magnetic effect of electric currents flowing in the high atmosphere, such currents arising from 
electromotive forces generated by periodic (daily) movements of an electrically conducting layer across the 
Earth’s permanent magnetic field. Today, we know that solar Extreme Ultraviolet radiation is responsible for 
ionizing the air and that therefore the ionospheric conductivity varies with the solar cycle [e.g. as expressed by 
the number of sunspots]; so, observations of the Sun are vital in monitoring and predicting radio 
communications for Amateurs and Professional alike. Conversely, centuries‐long monitoring of variations of the 
Earth's magnetic field can be used to determine long‐term variations of solar activity. The talk weaves these 
various threads from multiple scientific and engineering disciplines together to show the unity of scientific 
endeavor and its importance for our technological civilization. 
 
Author: Maria Spasojevic, Stanford University 
Title:  Quantifying the Role of Wave‐Particle Interactions in Controlling the Dynamics of the Earth's Radiation 
Belt 
 
Abstract: The Earth's radiation belts are comprised of highly energetic ions and electrons that are trapped in 
Earth encircling orbits as a result of the dipolar configuration of the geomagnetic field. The electron flux in the 
outer radiation belt is particularly dynamic and can vary by several orders of magnitude in the timescale of hours 
to days. This intense and highly variable radiation poses a significant risk to satellites and astronauts in space. 
There have been significant advances in the past decade in understanding which physical processes are 
important in controlling the dynamics of the belts during solar‐driven geomagnetic disturbances. What remains 
to be quantified is where, when, and under what conditions, specific processes are active and to what degree 
they individually contribute to the overall balance of acceleration and loss. Increasing attention has been paid to 
the role of wave‐particle interactions in accelerating electrons up to very high energies. This talk will focus on a 
particular plasma wave known as whistler‐mode chorus emissions. There is evidence that chorus‐driven 

9
acceleration plays a major and possibly dominant role in the reformation of the outer belt in the aftermath of 
geomagnetic storms. However, a significant confounding factor is that wave‐particle interactions involving chorus 
can also result in significant losses of electrons due to scattering. We will highlight recent advances in quantifying 
the role of chorus in radiation belt dynamics. 
 
Author: Philip Scherrer, Prof Physics, Stanford University 
Title: Viewing the Sun, Inside and Out, with SDO"  
 
Abstract: The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) has been gathering data since its launch (5 years ago). SDO's 
goals include learning if solar activity is predictable and if so, how to do it. SDO carries three experiments, the 
Extreme ultraviolet Variability Experiment (EVE), the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA), and the Helioseismic 
and Magnetic Imager (HMI).  EVE measures Sun‐as‐a‐star spectra in the extreme ultraviolet to monitor 
wavelengths that are important for space weather impacts on the Earth.  AIA obtains images in 7 EUV, 2 UV, and 
1 visible bands to study processes in the low corona.  HMI measures photospheric motions to enable 
helioseismology and photospheric magnetic fields to enable connecting the interior to the corona. In this talk I 
will give a brief overview of SDO and the HMI and AIA data products.  I will describe some of the recent findings 
from HMI concerning the solar interior and evolving magnetic activity in more detail. 
 
 
 
 
Mark Your Calendar 
 
March 20‐22, 2015 SARA Western Conference at Stanford University, Palo Alto, 
California http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/node/177 
 
April 24 ‐ 25, 2015 Southeastern VHF Society Conference in Morehead, 
Kentucky www.svhfs.org  Subjects will include weak signal VHF to microwave 
communications.  Antennas, Transmitters, Receivers, and SDR methods are 
typically included. Many receiver and antenna techniques also apply to radio 
astronomy.  
 
May 6, 2015‐ Nobel Prize recipient Dr. Joseph Taylor, K1JT, will speak at Gloucester County Amateur Radio Club 
in Williamstown, NJ.  The informal session starts at 19:00 and the formal meeting at 19:30.  More information on 
the club can be seen at www.w2mmd.org.
 
May 15‐17, 2015 Hamvention Dayton, Ohio http://www.hamvention.org/index.php 
 
June 21‐24, 2015 SARA Annual Conference at National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green Bank, West 
Virginia www.radio‐astronomy.org/meetings 
 
Do you have an event to share with SARA members?  Send information to editor@radio‐astronomy.org to be 
included in the next issue. 
 
 

10
Call for Nominations 
As required by Section 3 of SARA By‐Laws (see below), this is the official call for nominations for SARA officers 
and board members. If you are interested in running for office and would like to know more about the positions, 
please contact a board member or SARA President Ken Redcap (president@radio‐astronomy.org). The 
requirement to be on the board is to attend the board meetings at the annual meeting and to actively 
participate in board‐related activities. If you are unable to attend the annual meetings, then the director at large 
position may be for you. This position is a full board position except that attending the annual meeting is not 
required. 
 
The following positions will be up for election in June 2015: Secretary, Treasurer, two Director at Large and two 
regular Directors. If you would like to run for one of the available SARA officer or board positions please send a 
note to Secretary Bruce Randall (secretary@radio‐astronomy.org) copying President Ken Redcap. Interested 
persons should review the duties and responsibilities by reading the Operating Procedures found at 
http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/pdf/operating‐procedures.pdf 
 
Contact information also is listed in the Administrative Info tab on the SARA website (www.radio‐astronomy.org) 
and in the Administrative section of the SARA journal. 
 
Text from the By‐Laws: SECTION 3: 
Elections of Directors and Officers will be accomplished by the President placing an initial call for nominations in 
"The Journal" no less than ninety (90) days prior to the regular scheduled meeting. Two (2) nominations from 
different members will be required to nominate a member for an office. 
 
No less than thirty (30) days prior to this meeting (in a newsletter issued prior to the meeting), the President will 
place a notice of the results of the nominations in "The Journal", along with a ballot for the members to use to 
vote for the nominee of their choice. This ballot will be forwarded to the Secretary for collection and counting at 
the regular meeting. 
 
 
SARA Annual Conference at NRAO 
 
2015 Annual Conference Keynote Speaker  
 
Duncan Lorimer from West Virginia University 
Department of Physics and Astronomy has agreed to be 
the Keynote Speaker at the 2015 Annual SARA 
Conference to be held June 20 to 24 at the National 
Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) in Green Bank, 
WV.  The following excerpt is from WVU website: 

I’m an astronomer interested in compact objects (black 
holes, neutron stars and white dwarfs) which I study 
using radio pulsars: rapidly spinning, highly magnetized 
neutron stars. Pulsars are great fun to study and have 
lead to a lot of exciting adventures over the years. A nice 
behind‐the‐scenes article describing how this work is 
carried out can be found here . 

11
I arrived at WVU in May 2006 from the Jodrell Bank Pulsar Group where I worked as a Royal Society Research 
Fellow. Before that I was at Arecibo Observatory (1998‐2001) and at the MPIfR in Bonn (1995‐1998). My 
research revolves around surveys for radio pulsars and what they tell us about the population of neutron stars. 
This work is carried out with many collaborators and uses some of the classic radio telescopes around the world. 
Of particular interest are young, energetic pulsars and binary systems where the orbiting companion is a white 
dwarf, a main sequence star, another neutron star, and (perhaps soon!) a stellar‐mass black hole. 

 
 
Call for Papers:  2015 SARA Annual Conference 
 
The Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers (SARA) solicits 
papers for presentation at its 2015 Annual Conference to be 
held 21 June ‐ 24 June 2015. 
Sunday 21 June, will start with an introduction to Radio 
Astronomy at the Science Center classroom, followed by 
learning to operate the forty foot radio telescope (1,420 MHz 
(21 cm). Presentations by SARA members and guests are 
scheduled on Monday and Tuesday.  A High Tech tour of the 
NRAO facility will be conducted on Tuesday 23 June. 
 
Papers are welcome on subjects directly related to radio astronomy including hardware, software, education 
and tutorials, research strategies, observations and data collection and philosophy. SARA members and 
supporters wishing to present a paper should email a letter of intent, including a proposed title and abstract to 
the conference coordinator at vicepres@radio‐astronomy.org no later than 6 April 2015. Draft of papers are 
due 20 April and final versions of the papers due no later than 4 May. Be sure to include your full name, 
affiliation, postal address, and email address, and indicate your willingness to attend the conference to present 
your paper. Submitters will receive an email response, typically within one week. Guidelines for presenter 
papers are located at:http://radio‐astronomy.org/pdf/guidelines‐submitting‐papers.pdf  
 
Formal printed Proceedings will be published for this conference and all presentations can be made available on 
CD 
 
 

 
New Website Sections Introduced; Further Enhancements to Come
 
By Stephen Tzikas 
 
The latest addition to the SARA website is a new tab on the header bar called SARA Sections, in 
addition to the tabs already there for: Home; Education; Administrative Info; Forum; Projects; Links; 
Photo Gallery; The SARA Store; and RASDR. The tab for the SARA Sections will bring the visitor to an 
Introduction page, under which will be six SARA Sections. The purpose of these sections is to create a 
more intuitive website experience when visitors view the SARA webpage. This will help to enhance the 
website with a similar feature seen with other national astronomy organizations like that of AAVSO and 
ALPO.  These organizations use sections to organize astronomical research/interest along terms that 
are more familiar to the public and which offer background and context to everything else on their 

12
website.  The new sections do not alter any existing content and are envisioned as an ongoing project 
with further refinements.  These refinements will include linking the sections to the Table of Contents 
for the SARA Journal; linking to the topics in the SARA Listserv; adding more information to the section 
pages; and information on observing awards.  Another phased enhancement will include bringing 
updates, background, and context to existing SARA links primarily found on the SARA Projects 
webpage. 
 
One of the potential attractions of having SARA sections is strategic planning.  The creation of section 
strategic plans would help to identify long‐term SARA goals, which would allow potential volunteers to 
come forward to work on such project goals.  
 
Another attraction of SARA sections is the creation of long‐term databases of member observations 
that can be available to professional astronomers.  SARA does this to some extent now when members 
submit data to other organizations like Sanford with SuperSID, but having our own unique SARA 
database could be a new welcomed source of data and standard methodologies to the professional 
community.  SARA databases related to the sectional observations/interests can be created, organized, 
managed, and stored long‐term based on this "library" structure. SARA would have to determine what 
is of interest to professional radio astronomers by a variety of methods, such as outreach, survey, the 
SARA Journal, and working sessions at annual conferences. Once the interest areas of importance are 
identified, a standard format for data collection would be required. When such a structure is in place, it 
becomes an attraction for members and non‐members to submit data. SARA could blaze the trail for 
this. A first step might be to pilot a project database to evaluate the feasibility for establishing a long‐
term database that could be expanded.  Member sample data could be compiled to help other 
observers determine if they are getting a good signal and/or usable data. Additionally, there can be 
opportunities to collect new types of data using professional equipment via a SARA coordinated effort.  
For example, the coordination of radio occultation events has not been fully explored.  Since radio 
occultation occurrences are few, having a standard methodology in place before they happen, and 
pooling the data could be of use to others.  
 
Now that each SARA section is created and posted, we hope we can find section coordinators and 
members who will be responsible for further enhancements and answering emails from individuals 
who have an interest in the section and want to join it as their focus within SARA.  If you have an 
interest in becoming a section coordinator please contact me at Tzikas@alum.rpi.edu.  If more than 
one person is interested in the same section, the possibilities exist for assistant coordinators and sub‐
section coordinators. 
 

 
 
 
Some days the best part about my job is the chair spins… 

13
 

Feature Articles 
 
 
Slooh Broadcasts with Radio Meteor Audio 

By Stan Nelson
Recently, I was contacted by Eric Edelman at Slooh.com about potentially using audio detected by radio
using the forward scatter mode. During significant meteor showers, Slooh broadcasts video from
observatories located in the Canary Islands, Chile, and Prescott, Arizona. They wanted to add the meteor
audio stream that is supported by www.SpaceWeatherRadio.com. The audio feed originates in
Roswell, New Mexico and is fed to www.streamguys.com 24x7. They can stream audio for up to 1000
listeners. SARA supported the audio feed with a grant last year.
As of January 1st, 2015, the following meteor showers have used the audio as an add-on feature during
broadcasts by Slooh:

Orionid Meteor Shower - October 21, 2014.

Leonid Meteor Shower - November 17, 2014.
Geminid Meteor Shower - December 13, 2014.

Ursid Meteor Shower – December 22, 2014.

Figure 1 is a screen clip from the typical Slooh broadcast during the Orionids.

 
Figure 1 ~ used by permission - courtesy Slooh.
 
Tweets from listeners are posted below the video as they arrive. Most are amazed we can ‘hear’ meteors.
The concept is explained during segments of the Slooh broadcasts.

Eric used Dave Horne’s Spectrogram to visualize the audio detected by my ICOM R-8500 in the USB
mode while tuned to Channel 2 TV (54.24 MHz) video carriers. The receiver is tuned to produce audio
from about 300 to 2000 Hz. The blue chart above shows a narrow portion of the audio spectrum. Note
the meteor trail in the camera at Prescott. It occurred at the same time as the large Doppler shift seen in

14
the audio in the right side of the spectrum chart. The meteor most likely passed south of Roswell, New
Mexico heading west towards Arizona. The TV stations detected are in Mexico.
Slooh posts a schedule of broadcasts on their web site at www.Slooh.com. The broadcast’s meteor audio
support by SARA is mentioned during various times throughout their broadcast.

Stan Nelson is a native of Niagara Falls, New York. He settled in Roswell, New Mexico in 1968 
with his wife and three children. He has been a licensed amateur radio operator since 1961 and 
currently holds an Amateur Extra Class license as KB5VL. He acquired a 1st Class 
Radio‐Telephone‐Operators license in 1962 while in the U. S. Air Force. He became involved in 
the land mobile radio business in Texas. He moved to NewMexico to work for Transwestern 
Pipeline Company and managed their communications systems for 34 years. He retired in 2002. 
He became involved in astronomy in the 1970s and served as Roswell’sastronomy club president 
and provided support to our local planetarium for over ten years. In the last fifteen years he runs 
an active meteor burst monitoring station which feeds www.SpaceWeatherRadio.com with live 
audio on a 24x7 basis. He has added numerous related frequencies and activities to monitor additional meteor burst 
and maintains a site at www.RoswellMeteor.com to share meteor detection data. Stan recently joined S.A.R.A. and 
attended the recent Western Region conference in Socorro, New Mexico. After that meeting he acquired an e‐Callisto 
station and TMA from Whit Reeve and is now a regular contributor to the program. Three years ago he was invited to 
write a feature article on his meteor activity for Monitoring Time. Monitoring Times then invited him to write a 
quarterly column on radio astronomy which has appeared regularly since December 2010. The magazine is now web‐
based and called Spectrum Monitor. 
 
 

Credit and copyright: Nick Downes

 

15
 The Big Bang Is Bunk
by Grote Reber
he whole business of Big Bang Creationism is very
T shaky and based upon dubious assumptions. The un­
derlying questions have become lost in the sands of
time and are no longer taught, even in astronomy schools.
lately, Big Bang Creationists have far overplayed their hand,
making themselves look like fools. However, because the
old-line scientific trade journals are also dominated by re­
actionary fuddy-duddies, there is not much opportunity for
readers to examine the underlying issues. Accordingly, it is
appropriate that these matters be brought forward in a pop­
ular scientific magazine. Everyone can examine them at
leisure, and I'll be pleased to receive direct comments from
readers. *
Where did this Big Bang idea come from?
In 1842, Johann Christian Doppler, a Viennese mathe­
matical physicist, predicted that if a source of radiating waves
Does the extremely thin, hot gas between galaxies-the
intergalactic medium-account for increases in redshift ob­
served in increasingly distant galaxies? The two galaxies
shown here are NGC 5296 and 5297.
16
"The world's first radio
2Jtt'Ml'lnnnlll ' argues that th�
,/e�l$t��c:� of an intergalactic
"I'lhealjum atcounls for, •
'AA'CAn,.1'f spectral shifts •
need to resort
.' ,"religion. •
HaHon Alp
and an observer of those waves were in relative motion, the
wavelength at the observer would change. When they are
approaching, the wavelength would shorten; when they
are separating, the wavelength would lengthen.
This was confirmed experimentally for sound by the Dutch
scientist Buys Ballot in 1845. He' used whistles on steam
locomotives, the fastest device available in that day. Sev­
enty-three years later, at age six, I independently discov­
ered the same phenomenon, also using whistles on railway
locomotives. In retrospect, I had a very clear idea of how it
was, but no idea of what it was, much less why. It created a
schism between mother and small son; mother was no
physicist. (Such is a good story in its own right. )
Three examples of the Doppler phenomenon are shown
for the case of light waves (Figure 3). In (a), the double stars
have a substantial range of orbital period from days to years,
a randomness independent of the distance from the source
to the observer. On the average, the double stars at large
distance are not rotating any faster or slower than similar
pairs nearby. In (b), the rotation of the Sun will be the same
whether viewed from Mercury, Earth, Pluto, Alpha Centau­
ri, or the Andromeda Nebula. In (c), the Earth tags along
21st CENTURY March-April 1989 43
with motion of the Sun in respect to other stars. Each star
has its own specific motion, and this randomness averages
out. The distant stars are not approaching or receding from
the observer any faster or slower than nearby stars.
In these and other examples, the Doppler phenomenon
consists of equal and opposite spectral shifts-toward the
red when recession lengthens the observed wavelength,
and toward the blue when approach shortens it. These shifts
are separated by a null-a point at which there is no shift-
How the Big Bang
Got Its Start
The Big Bang theory ofthe universe arises from one
of the possible solutions to the field equation in Ein­
stein's theory of general relativity. Einstein's own so­
lution specified a universe neither expanding nor
contracting. Sir Arthur Eddington, the British astron­
omer who promoted Einstein's theory, was also an
advocate for a solution that required the universe to
expand or contract.
After the initial mathematical work on relativity the­
ory had been done, the Big Bang theory itself was
invented by a Belgian priest, Georges lemaitre, im­
proved upon by an avowed atheist, George Gamow,
and is now all but universally accepted by those who
hold advanced degrees in astronomy and the physical
sciences, despite its obvious absurdity.
lemaitre posited a primeval egg about 30 times the
volume of the Sun, containing everything that was to
form the universe. The universe "began'� when the
egg exploded for unexplained reasons. The universe
has been expanding ever since, according to the the­
ory, and will either continue to expand and cool for­
ever, or else its expansion will eventually be overtak­
en by self-gravitation. In the latter case, it will collapse
upon itself again.
Gamow argued that the egg was made of neutrons
and their decay products-a mixture of neutrons,
protons, electrons, and radiation-being too hot for
helium nuclei to form. When the bang occurred, the
mess cooled, allowing the formation of helium nu­
clei. The relative abundance of hydrogen and helium
estimated for the universe-11 to 1-is found to be
that expected from Gamow's theory.
The theory also pre�icts that the explosion should
have left behind a universal background radiation.
Since a background microwave radiation at 2.7 K has
undeniably been found, Big Bangers claim that this
must be the predicted radiation.
Hubble's law was seized upon by the advocates of
Big Bang cosmology as supposed proof that the uni­
verse is expanding. Some scientists who reject the
Big Bang nonetheless think the evidence for the ex­
pansion of the universe is strong.
-David Cherry
17
44 March-April 1989 21st CENTURY
and are independent of distance from the observer. The
Doppler phenomenon has been used since the last quarter
of the 19th century to study double stars, motions of the
Sun, and rotation of celestial objects. There are always equal
and opposite redshifts and blueshifts separated by null. The
shifts are very small, from a few to a few tens of kilometers
per second, and are independent of distance.
During the 18th century, the French astronomer Charles
Messier compiled a list of these objects, and the numbers
he assigned to galaxies (noted as M1, M2, and so on) are
still in use today. The first spectra of galaxies-or white
nebulae as they were then called-were made by Vesto
Slipher at the lick Observatory near San Jose, California, in
1912 (Slipher 1914). By 1925, the list of such spectra had
grown to 41 objects. The unexpected finding was that spec­
tra of white nebulae showed only redshifts. These were 0.2
to 0.6 percent, far larger than any other celestial object. The
nature of these fuzzy patches was a matter of conjecture.
George Ellery Hale, director of the Mount Wilson
Observatory in California, organized a debate on this sub­
ject before the National Academy of Sciences in April 1920,
but lack of evidence prevented any conclusion. During 1928,
Milton Humason at Mount Wilson undertook a program of
measuring the spectra of white nebulae. Again only red­
shifts were found. By 1935 the list ran to more than 150
nebulae. Some produced redshifts of 13 to 14 percent,
equivalent of a symbolic velocity of about 40,000 km/sec.
During this time, Edwin Hubble, another staff astrono­
mer at the Mount Wilson Observatory, was searching for
Cepheid variable stars, stars that continually dim and
brighten with a period from a few hours to weeks. The
longer the period of a Cepheid variable star, the greater is
its absolute luminosity. Thus, when the period and appar­
ent luminosity are known, the distance may be secured
from the ratio of absolute to apparent luminosities. In late
1924, Hubble discovered Cepheids in the Andromeda Ne­
bula (M31), which demonstrated that M31 is at a vast dis­
tance, far outside our own Milky Way. The white nebulae
are separate stellar systems comparable in size to our own
galaxy. This discovery was sufficiently newsworthy to rate a
story on page 6 of the New York Times, Nov. 23, 1924.
Close collaboration disclosed that the redshifts mea­
sured by Humason were approximately proportional to dis­
tance as measured by Hubble. According to Hubble, "Hu­
mason assembled spectra of nebulae and I attempted to
estimate distances-Humason's adventures were spectac­
ular" (Hubble 1953). Humason is a name to remember.
Redshifts and Irrationality
From the very beginning, it was clear the spectral shifts
were not the Doppler phenomenon for two reasons: First,
as astronomers 50 to 60 years ago realized, there were no
blueshifts; second, the shifts were proportional to dis­
tance. As Humason writes in 1931, "It is not at all certain the
large redshifts observed in the spectra are to be interpreted
as Doppler effect. " Hubble in 1937 calls it a "sheer assump­
tion" (p. 54). R.H. Baker states in 1930, "The significance of .
these remarkable 'apparent' velocities is left open for the
present." Fritz Zwicky in 1957 writes, "1 refer here to the
origin and to the supposed expansion of the universe. . . "
 (p. 27). Hale in 1931 states that "Other physical causes may
explain a large part of the shift of the spectral lines." Even
as late as 1962, Otto Struve has misgivings: "But are we sure
that nothing ever happens to a ray of light even if it travels
over distances of 10 billion light years?"
During the 1930s, the cause of redshifts was still an open
question. Big Bang cosmology had not yet become en­
shrined as a creed of religious dogma, as some cosmolo­
gists even admit. For example Peter Goldreich, an enthu­
siastic Big Bang supporter, writes in 1976, "Although cos­
mologists like to think of their subject as a science, it has
much in common with religion." During recent years, Big
Bang cosmology has become a form of creationism, with its
creation date being 5 billion to 20 billion years ago, depend­
ing on the preference of the devotee.
In spite of all the evidence against it, the assumption was
made that the spectral shifts were Doppler shifts. Intelli­
gent, rational, educated people do not make irrational as­
sumptions; there must be some reason for this peculiar
mental aberration. There is: It is an earlier background
assumption, rarely mentioned, or even implied, that inter­
galactic space is empty, a void. Once that assumption is
made, it removes any possibility of light interacting with an
intergalactic medium. There is nothing left except relative
motion.
Now, this background assumption is very bad and indi­
cates a lack of knowledge of elementary physics. Suppose,
once upon a time, intergalactic space was an empty void.
Material would immediately begin expanding into it. The
only way this process could be stopped would be for every­
thing to have zero kinetic energy at absolute zero. Clearly,
this is not reality; however, the assumption was made. Again,
rational people do not make ridiculous assumptions; there
must be some reason. In this case, the reason is simply that
because astronomers could not find any intergalactic ma­
terial, none must exist.
There were dissenters from this ignorant conceit. Ac­
cording to Hubble, liThe fact that we have not been able to
detect any matter in internebular space does not necessar­
ily exclude its existence, even in considerable quantity"
(1937, p. 20). And Zwicky has some acid comments about
people who think intergalactic space is empty (1957, p. 25).
It is clear that I have had little use for Big Bang Creation­
ism, looking upon it as ignorant humbug and voodoo.
However, I urge readers not to be too hard on astronomers;
they are ordinary people immersed in their own special
interests, conceits, and prejudices.
My Entry into the Fray
How did I get mixed up in all this? Purely by accident
through the back door.
By the early 1950s, radio astronomy had become respect­
able and even popular. The trend was to look for emission
of ever shorter wavelengths, and the science seemed to be
in good hands. I decided to try for observations at longer
wavelengths. Since these long waves must get through the
ionosphere, the best locations for observing will be where
the electron density is lowest. Examination of a vast amount
of ionospheric data disclosed that there are two bands of
about 350 latitude radius centered on north and south mag-
18
netic poles that meet this requirement. The very best place
for observing will be where the band is at the-lowest geo­
graphic latitude, giving access to the sky as close as possible
to the celestial equator and then up to the celestial pole.
These places are (in the north) Georgian Bay in south­
eastern Ontario, Canada, and (in the south) southern Tas­
mania, Australia. The former looks out on the northern sky
and the periphery of the Milky Way, a relatively uninterest­
ing region. The latter looks out on the southern sky includ­
ing the galactic center, the Magellanic Clouds, and so on.
This, and adventure in a foreign country made me choose
the southern one as a start.
I arrived in Sydney, Australia, aboard the Orion on Nov.
1, 1954. During 1955-1960, I made preliminary observations
to get the feel of things. Cosmic static was getting through
the ionosphere and was of unprecedented strength. All this
was very encouraging. Accordingly, I decided to set up
properly with an antenna system that could be called a
hectometer radio telescope, for observations at a wave­
length of 100 meters. During 1961 and 1962, I constructed
an elaborate array consisting of 192 dipoles placed atop 128
wooden poles 80 feet long set 10 feet into the ground. The
overall size was 3,520 feet in diameter, providing a pick-up
area of 223 acres. The beam could be adjusted to any posi­
tion in the north-zenith-south plane from south celestial
pole to celestial equator. East-west scanning was provided
by rotation of the Earth. At 2,085 kilohertz (khz) the beam
was 7.10 in diameter at zenith. I made observations contin­
uously from Feb. 4, 1963, through May 10, 1967 (Reber 1968,
1977, 1986).
At meter wavelengths and shorter, the radio sky is much
like the optical night sky. There is a dark background with
small sources sprinkled over it. The Milky Way shows up as
a bright band across the background. I rather expected
something similar to this at hectometer waves; however,
the situation was completely different and quite unexpect­
ed. At 2,085 khz the sky is similar to the daytime optical sky.
It has a high intensity with maximum intensity at the galactic
poles. There are assorted low-intensity patches, like opti­
cally thick clouds scattered along the Milky Way, which
absorb the background radiation. The lowest intensity is at
the galactic center. These clouds are probably low-temper­
ature plasma,rather similar to the ionosphere here on Earth.
The high-intensity background lies definitely outside the
Milky Way as shown by absorption patches. Also, assorted
known radio sources such as in Centaurus, Fornax, Pictor,
and so forth, could be found. Accordingly, the background
is at some great distance. The Small Magellanic Cloud
seemed to have a small absorption dip. This suggests the
presence of low-temperature plasma in the Large Magellan­
ic Cloud similar to the Milky Way. These observations agree
with optical findings. Further investigation suggested the
background becomes opaque just beyond the source Pic­
tor at 330 megaparsec, or a billion light-years.
Source of High-Intensity Background
What is the source of the background radiowaves mea­
sured at 144 meters? A reasonable guess is that intergalactic
space IS filled with free electrons and protons. About one
pair per 100 cubic centimeters will be adequate. The kinetic
21st CENTURY March-April 1989 45
 G'rote Reber: Pioneer of Radio Astronomy
Antenna
Parabolic
reflector
Alter John 0, Kraus ...._-----
, focal point (Figure 1 shows a basic radio telescope de­
Figure 1
HOW A RADIO TELESCOPE WORKS
The simplest radio telescope is a parabolic dish and
an antenna, in combination with a radio receiver. Ra­
diowaves are reflected by the dish, whose parabolic
shape focuses them on a single point above the center
of the dish, where the antenna is placed. The receiver
can be tuned to the wavelength the observer chooses.
To produce a radio brightness map of part of the sky
for a given wavelength, the dish must cover the area
by scanning it, in the same way that the eye covers a
page by reading it line by line.
Modern radio telescopes use computers to reas­
semble the information into a two-dimensional map
or picture.
Grote Reber, a radio engineer and ham radio enthu­
siast, became interested in radiowaves from space in
1932, when Karl Jansky at Bell Laboratories first discov­
ered their existence.
Reber wrote to leading astronomers, offering them his
expertise in radio electronics so that radiowaves from
space could be systematically studied. No astronomer
would take up his offer; they could not imagine any
astrophysical mechanism by which such radio signals
could be generated. Perhaps it was just an experimental
error or even a hoax, some astronomers told him. At the
same time, most radio engineers were indifferent to the
problem. As a result, Reber became, on his own, the
first-and for 10 years the world's only-radio astrono­
mer.
Reber began by designing a parabolic dish to gather
the radiowaves and a radio receiver �o put at the dish's
sign). When he solicited bids for construction, Reber
found the cost far beyond his reach, so he built it himself
in his yard in Wheaton, Illinois, on weekends. He wag
not the first to employ such a device. John Kraus, then
at the University of Michigan, was also following Jansky's
work, and Kraus used a searchlight reflector in 1933 in
an attempt to detect radiowaves from the Sun at 15 mm
wavelength. Kraus's experiment was unsuccessful, how-'
ever, for want of sufficient sensitivity in the receiver.
Reber was determined to map the spatial distribution
of radio signals on the sky, while also discovering how it
varied by wavelength. The reflector antenna design al­
lowed for the reception of different wavelengths by
merely changing the receiver at the focus. To get the
maximum resolution, the parabolic dish should be as
big as possible, while the wavelength should be as short
as possible. If Planck's law of thermal emission applied,

·
30
20
10
o ��=3�----����-T��---
-10
-20
-30

150 120 90 60 30 o 330 300 270 240 210 180 150

Figure 2
REBER'S 1944 MAP OF THE GALACTIC CENTER
Reber made the first radio maps of the Milky Way-the equatorial plane of our galaxy. This is his 1944 contour map
of the strength of radio emission in the galactic plane at a wavelength of 1.87 meters. The contours are denoted in
units of watts per square meter per circular degree per megacycle of bandwith.
The peak intensity, enclosed in the contour for 10 units (at center), is the galactic center in the constellation
Sagittarius.
Source: Reber, "Cosmic Static," Astrophysical Joumal Nov, 1944, p, 279,

46 19 March-April 1989 21sf CENTURY

 ..
�.��___
Reber poses with his first radio telescope. Originally built
in 1937 in his yard in Wheaton, III., its home today is the
National Radio Astronomy Observatory at Green Bank,
W.Va., where this picture was taken in 1988.
the shorter wavelengths would also be stronger.
At a cost of $ 1,300, Reber built a 31-foot-diameter radio
telescope during the summer of 1937. In the initial ob­
servations, he sought radio emissions from the Sun,
Moon, planets, and the brightest stars-first at 9.1 cm
(3,300 megacycles) and then at 33 cm (910 megacycles)­
but none was a source of radio emission. Then in 1939,
he moved to 1.87 m (160 megacycles) and at last detected
radio emission from sources that were concentrated in
the Milky Way. When the Earth's rotation caused his
scope to pass across the Milky Way, Reber would read
off the intensity of the radiowaves on a microammeter
at 1-minute intervals.
Because of interference from passing automobiles,
Reber had to confine his observing to the period of min­
imum traffic-from midnight to 6 AM. He slept between
supper and midnight each night, observed until 6 AM,
and then droye toworkat the Stewart-Warner Company,
where he designed radio receivers.
Reber reported his first findings in a paper he submit­
ted to the Astrophysical Journal in 1940. The editor could
find no reviewer who would defend the paper, and
therefore,according to the rules of scientific publishing,
he could have rejected it. Instead, he decided to publish
a possibly erroneous paper rather than risk rejecting
what might be groundbreaking work.
Reber not only produced the first radio maps of the
galactic plane (Figure 2), but also correctly identified the
mechanism of radio emission as encounters between
free electrons and positive hydrogen ions in interstellar
space.
20
energy of electrons is equal to an apparent temperature of
3.5 x 1()6 degrees. (The nomenclature is bad because the
electron will have a different temperature at every wave­
length. ) The electrons lose.their energy by encounters with
protons, which I call free-free transition. Others refer to it
as bremsstrahlung or braking radiation (Figure 4). The
chances of a close encounter with considerable loss of en­
ergy is small. Conversely, the chance of a distant encounter
with trivial loss of energy is large. Thus, the spectral distri­
bution will have an inverse intensity-frequency relation.
Such is the observed case.
The universe has been around a long time. If the free
electrons are continuously losing energy by free-free tran­
sitions, their kinetic energy must be replenished from
somewhere. This worried me, and then I had an idea: Per­
haps the light photons traveling through intergalactic space
somehow lose a bit of their energy to electrons. The desired
�
mechanism is a Compton transition. Each time a photon
approaches an electron, the photon transfers some of its
(a)
i BIue
Center
Observer Null of';ass
Red B
(b)
S
Blue
aCen�uri PI� � Me�ry NUll
Red
(c)
Figure 3
THE DOPPLER PHENOMENON
In (a), two stars are in orbit about a common center of
mass. The spectrum of star A, while it is approaching
the observer, is shifted toward the blue. Meanwhile
the spectrum of star B, while it is receding from the
observer, is shifted toward the red. At the moment
when there is no receding or approaching motion
with respect to the observer, the spectra will not be
shifted.
In (b), the spectrum of light reaching the observer
from an approaching limb of the Sun will be blueshift­
ed, while the spectrum from a receding limb will be
redshifted. The shifts will be the same, regardless of
whether the observer is sited on Mercury, Earth, Alpha
Centauri, or anywhere else.
The mo tion of the observer rather than the motion
of the object is illustrated in (c). The small proper
motion of the Sun with respect to the stars of its neigh­
borhood is shown. The observer on the Sun or any of
its planets participates in this motion, seeing blue­
shifted spectra for all stars in the forward direction,
and redshifted spectra for all stars in the aft direction.
21st CENTURY March-April 1989 47
energy to the electron and is slightly deflected in its path, a
situation shown in Figure 5. The energy loss will be propor­
tional to the number of encounters, and these in turn are
proportional to distance. The energy of a photon is
E = hc/'JI., where h is Planck's constant, c is the velocity of
light, and 'JI. is wavelength. Since h and c are fixed, 'JI. must
increase as E decreases. Accordingly, the shift llA/'JI. will be
proportional to distance. This is exactly what the optical
observations tell us. Clearly, the spectral shifts have noth­
ing to do with relative motion. Hubble comments, "light
may lose energy during its journey through space, but if so,
we do not yet know how the energy loss can be explained"
(1937, p. 30).
The size of the scatter radius in Figure 5 will be on the
order of 0.01 arc second at 330 megaparsec, and increases
'
with distance. This may well account for the increasingly
fuzzy pictures we obtain of increasingly distant objects.
Figure 4
Another matter is worthy of consideration. As light pho­
BRAKING RADIATION AND THE
tons travel through the maze of electrons in intergalactic
INTERGALACTIC BACKGROUND
space, some will lose more than average energy and some
What Is the source of intergalactic background radia­
will lose less than average. Accordingly, if we start with all tion that becomes "bright" at long wavelengths? In­
photons having equal energy, a monochromatic line in a
teractions between free protons and free electrons,
spectrum will broaden as distance increases. But nothing is
called bremsstrahlung or braking radiation, would
known about this subject.
produce the observed background. When a free elec­
tron passes close to a free proton, the electron emits
What Hubble Really Said
electrbmagnetic energy. The closer the encounter,
Edwin Hubble is usually portrayed, as a promoter of the
the shorter the wavelength of the emitted energy.
expanding universe, but evidence indicates quite the op-

End view

Source Obeerver
Geometric path

Side view

FigureS 10
DO COMPTON TRANSITIONS EXpLAIN REDSHIFTSt
If the free electrons in intergalactic space are continuously losing energy through braking radiation (Figure 4), their
energy must be replenished somehow. Perhaps the light photons traveling through space are the source, transferring
energy in what is known as the Compton transition.
When a photon approaches an electron, the photon transfers energy to it and the photon is slightly deflected in
its path. The photon's energy loss will be proportional to the number of encounters; hence, the greater the distance
of the source, the greater the energy loss or redshift. Less energetic photons are those with longer (redder) wave-,
lengths, and more energetic ones are those with shorter (bluer) wavelengths.
Shown here is the line-of-sight path (end view and side view) of a photon undergoing 10 encounters with electrons
in intergalactic space, and the net or geometric path of the same pho to n.

48 21 March-April 1989 21st CENTURY

posite. I met him only once for a few minutes one morning
in January 1952. I was on my way to Hawaii and located him
in his office in Pasadena, Calif. My mission was to check up
on my mother: Could Hubble remember the name of his
seventh and eighth grade teacher in Wheaton, Illinois?
"Yes," he said, "it was Miss Grote. " Apparently my mother
made an impression on him. (I cannot remember the names
of my teachers in those grades. )
At that time I had no interest in cosmology. However,
being a guest, I thought it appropriate to talk about some­
thing interesting to him, Hubble seemed only mildly inter­
ested and appeared to feel that everything possible to say
had already been said many times over. Furthermore, if
__----------------------------------__
�n��
R.H. Baker, 1930. Astronomy, Urbana, III.: University of Illinois Press. 1st ed.,
1930, p. 497; also 3rd ed., 1947, p. 284.
P. GokIreich, 1976. Focus on the Stars, New York: Shakespeare Head Press,
p. 217.
G.E. Hale, 1931. Signals from the Stars, New York: Scribners, p. 130.
E. Hubble, 1937. The Observational Approach to Cosmology, Oxford University
Press.
� 1953. "The Law of Redshifts,· Monthly Notices ofthe Royal Astronom­
ical Society, 113:659.
M. Humason, 1931. "Apparent Velocity-shifts in the Spectra of Faint Nebulae,"
Astrophysica/,Joumal, 74:35-42.
G. Reber, 1968. "Cosmic Static at 144 Meters Wavelength," Journal of the
Frank/in Institute, 285:1-12.
____,_ 1977. "Endless Boundless Stable Universe," University of Tasmania
(Hobart) Occasional Paper No. 9.
____, 1986. "Intergalectic Plasma,· IEEE Transactions on Plasma Physics,

future progress were to be made, it would require some
new and different kind of evidence. Pursuing existing tech­
niques would merely lead farther down a dead-end road. I
asked him what kind of new and different observations
should be made, but he had no suggestion to offer (Reber
1977, p. 5 ).
Some years later I stumbled onto a letter Robert A. Milli­
kan wrote to the astronomer H.S. Shelton on May 15, 1952.
Millikan, who measured the charge of the electron, was a
close associate of Hubble. Millikan says: "Dr. Hubble never
P5-14:678-682 (Dec. 1986).
V.M. Slipher, 1914. "The Radial Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula," Lowell
Observatory Bulletin No. 58.
H.S. Shelton, 1953-54. "The Red Shift in Spectra of Distant Nebulae,· Observ­
atory, April 1953, p. 84; Aug. 1953, p. 159; Dec. 1953, p. 243; Aug. 1954,
p. 169. See p. 171 of last item.
O. Struve, 1962. The Universe, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, p. 151.
F. Zwicky, 1957. Morphological Astronomy, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, p. 27.
��------
• Readers may write to Grote Reber in care of 21st Century or at General
Delivery, Bothwell, Tasmania, Australia 7030.

committed himself to the theory of the expanding uni­

verse. . . . Personally I should agree with you that this hy­
pothesis [Compton collisions] is more simple and less irra­
tional for all of us. "
Now let us see what Hubble says himself:

The disturbing features are all introduced by the

recession factor, by the assumption that redshifts are
velocity shifts. The departure from linear law of red­
shifts, the departure from uniform distribution, the
curvature necessary to restore homogeneity, the ex­
cess material demanded by the curvature; each of these
is merely the recession factor in another form. These
elements identify a unique model among the array of
possible expanding worlds, and, in this model, the re­
striction in time-scale, the limitation of the spatial di­
mensions, the amount of unobserved material, is each
equivalent to the recession factor.
On the other hand, if the recession .factor is dropped,
if redshifts are not primarily velocity shifts, the picture
is simple and plausible. There is no evidence of expan­
sion and no restriction of time-scale, no trace of spatial
curvature and no limitations of spatial dimensions (1937,
p. 63).
Figure 6
Hubble concludes, "We seem to face, as once before in REDSHIFTED SPECTRA OF GALAXIES
the days of Copernicus, a choice between a small finite AT INCREASING DISTANCES
universe, and a universe indefinitely large plus a new prin­ The calcium Hand K emission lines of a galaxy, indi­
ciple of nature " (p. 66). cated by the vertical arrow in (a), are recognizable in
I submit that Hubble was looking for this principle of tired each of the spectra--but are shifted increasingly to­
light. A hundred years from now, people will look back on ward the red as the galaxy's distance increases (see
.
the Big Bang Creationists and their antics with laughter, horizontal arrows). The spectrum of galaxy NGC 221
much as we laugh at those who argued over how many at 2.6 megaparsecs (Mpc) distance is shown in (a).
angels can dance on the head of a pin! Galaxy NGC 4473 at 28. 8 Mpc is shown in (b)i and a
galaxy in the Gemini cluster at 287.5 Mpc is shown in
Astronomer Grote Reber, 77, observes and writes in Tas­ (c). One megaparsec is 3. 26 million light years.
mania.
22
21st CENTURY March-April 1989 49
PstRotator ~ Antenna Rotator Software Application for Radio Astronomy 
Whitham D. Reeve 
 
 
1. Introduction 
 
This article describes the PstRotator application software {PstR}. PstRotator is a  Note: Links in braces { } and 
Windows program used to control antenna rotators (also called rotors) in azimuth  references in brackets [ ] are 
and elevation or just azimuth (figure 1). PstRotatorAz is an almost identical program  located in section 9. 
for users with an azimuth‐only rotator; it has a slightly more compact user 
interface. PstR costs about US$20 and has built‐in celestial tracking features and interfaces of interest to radio 
astronomers. 
 

 
 

 
 
Figure 1 ~ PstRotator (upper) and PstRotatorAz (lower) main user interfaces. Most functions and features 
are designed for amateur radio but both programs have functions specifically incorporated for radio 
astronomy. A compact window can be selected (shown later). The main differences between PstRotator 
and PstRotatorAZ are 2‐axis (azimuth and elevation) versus 1‐axis (azimuth only) control and relay control 
functions (see text). 
 
 
2. Antenna rotator control 
 
The basic components used to mechanically point an antenna are a motor for each axis, a position sensor for 
each axis, mounting arrangements and a controller (figure 2). One motor is required for an azimuth‐only rotator 
and two for azimuth and elevation. For a given model, the controller usually is matched to the rotator. The 
controller provides power to the rotators and has a position indicator and momentary switches or buttons to 
control the azimuth motor (horizontal rotation) and elevation motor (vertical rotation). Most rotators have limit 
switches or a mechanical stop to prevent over‐rotation. The motors may be ac or dc depending on the model. 
 

23
 Elevation Motor
Azimuth/Elevation
Rotator System Shaft

AZ EL
Azimuth/Elevation Controller
279.0 53.5
AC Input
LT RT PWR DN UP

Azimuth Motor
Multi-Conductor Cables

Azimuth-Only
Rotator System Shaft

Azimuth Controller
PWR
AC Input
LT RT

Azimuth Motor

Multi-Conductor Cable
 
 
Figure 2 ~ Manually controlled rotator system block diagrams. Some models use ac and others use dc 
motors. The multi‐conductor cables between the controller and rotator motor usually have 4 to 6 
conductors, some for position indication and others to power the motor. (Images © 2015 W. Reeve) 
 
To control inexpensive rotator systems with a PC, it is usually necessary to modify the rotator controller to 
include a communications interface such as serial (EIA‐232), USB or Ethernet (figure 3). In most cases, the 
modified controller retains its original manual control features. Some vendors have a separate (external) EIA‐232 
interface accessory for this purpose. In my case, I modified stock controllers with a 3rd party interface as 
described later. More expensive rotator systems usually have a built‐in communication interface and no 
modifications are required. After the PstRotator software is installed on the PC, it sends movement commands 
through the controller communications interface to operate relays that simulate switch or button operation. 
 

24
 Azimuth-Only
Rotator System Shaft

Azimuth Controller
PWR
AC Input
LT RT

Azimuth Motor

Multi-Conductor Cable
Controller
Interface

USB or Serial
PC running
Ethernet PstRotator or
Local Area PstRotatorAz
Network
 
 
Figure 3 ~ PC‐controlled azimuth‐only rotator system block diagram; a rotator system for azimuth and 
elevation is similar. The controller interface may be added as an internal modification to the controller or 
external as shown here. The controller interface is connected to the PC through serial, USB or Ethernet, 
depending on its capabilities. PstRotator is capable of remotely controlling a rotator over the internet or 
through a local area network. (Image © 2015 W. Reeve) 
 
 
3. PstRotator evolution 
 
When I first installed PstRotator, I was very surprised by several things – ease of setup, ease of use, reliability 
and accessibility of the software developer, Codrut Buda. Prior to using PstRotator I had tried several other 
rotator control programs and none of them worked well or had any measurable level of software support. With 
PstRotator I finally had software that worked and was well supported. It did not take me long to realize the high 
support level, so I decided to ask Codrut for some celestial tracking features including Sun tracking for solar 
radio. I was surprised when these features were added within a couple weeks of my request.  
 
Although PstRotator originally was designed for amateur radio applications, it clearly has evolved to support 
radio astronomy. It now includes built‐in tracking for Sun, Moon and all planets as well as pointing to any 
celestial coordinates by specifying right ascension and declination. In addition, Codrut interfaced PstRotator to 
Jim Sky’s Radio‐Eyes {RE} program so that any celestial object can be tracked. PstRotator can be setup to work 
with Radio‐Eyes in two different modes, one simple and one using the more complex Radio‐Eyes Telescope 
Control Point Program (TCPP). I have extensively tested the simple mode, but discussion of the Radio‐Eyes 
interworking will have to wait until I have time for further investigation of the TCPP. 
 
Over time, at user request, Codrut added control over LAN and internet (using TCP/IP), satellite tracking and 
interworking with just about every radio amateur logging program and rotator under the Sun. Also added to 
PstRotatorAz is local or remote control of several types of relay modules figure 4). The relay control feature is 
not yet implemented in PstRotator as of this writing (January 2015). I simultaneously run several different 
installations (instances) of PstRotator. Some operate a Yaesu {Yaesu} rotator through an EIA‐232 interface using 
a USB‐Serial adapter and some through my local area network (LAN) using an Ethernet‐serial port server. 
PstRotator co‐exists with itself and all other programs that I have ever tried running at the same time. 

25
 

 
 
Figure 4 ~ PstRotatorAz can be used to remotely or locally control relays used for power control or other 
station control functions. The relay units shown here are KMTronic units compared to an HP calculator. 
The KMTronic units have 8 relays, each with Form C contacts (Normally Open, Normally Closed and 
Common). PstRotataor does not yet have the relay control feature. (Image left © 2015 W. Reeve) 
 
The PstRotator user interface has changed a little over the years as features were added. To reduce the clutter 
of unused features, Codrut added a compact view (figure 5). The user also can customize the “skins” and color 
schemes. From an operational standpoint, it is only necessary to setup PstRotator for the user’s location, type of 
rotor controller interface (protocol) and communications method and then specify the type of tracking. The user 
must specify geographical coordinates so that Sun, Moon and planet tracking will work as expected.  
 
Figure 5 ~ PstRotator user interface compact view. Only the azimuth and elevation are shown. 
 
There are several ways to control a rotor from the PstRotator user interface. These 
include entering the desired azimuth and elevation into boxes on the main window or 
clicking on the displayed compass. For terrestrial radio communications, there are 
several mapping options available and the user only has to click on a map location and 
the rotor is commanded to point at the appropriate great circle path (both long and 
short paths are supported).  
 
 
4. Software upgrades 
 
Upgrades are free and the user may install as many instances of the program on as many PCs as desired without 
additional license fees. Support for PstRotator is through the PstRotator Yahoo group {Yahoo}, and Codrut 
regularly publishes a “To Do” list of feature requests from users. Some new features require a couple weeks but 
most often a couple days. When I started writing this article in early 2014, PstRotator was updated to allow 
automatic turning of the antenna into the wind or any other preset azimuth when the wind reaches a preset 
speed threshold. This feature queries the Weather Underground website {WX} to determine wind speeds. If the 
user has a weather station that sends data to Weather Underground, then that can be selected or the user can 
select a nearby weather station. This is a useful feature for unattended operation to reduce the chance of wind 
damage to an antenna. Of course, internet access is required for the weather feature to work. 
 
PstRotator is progressively developed – new features are released immediately. Sometimes this leads to almost 
daily updates. However, updates are as simple as clicking Check for Updates in the Help menu. This 

26
automatically updates all instances of PstRotator that have been setup using the Multiple Instances feature. 
Updates are manually initiated by the user and all previous settings are retained so there are no surprises. If 
there are bugs in PstRotator, I am not aware of them after about six years of use. Occasionally, a new feature 
has a minor problem but these usually are fixed within 24 hours of a trouble report. 
 
 
5. Rotor controller interfaces 
 
Most of my rotatable antennas use an azimuth‐only rotator. I modified the factory controllers with the Easy 
Rotor Control (ERC) controller interface designed and sold by Rene Schmidt {ERC}. The ERC was another nice 
revelation in reliability and product support. The ERC is a small printed circuit board (PCB) with a microcontroller 
and several relays (figure 6) that can be installed in many of the Yaesu controllers. Because the Yaesu controller 
power supply is isolated from the metal chassis and ground and the ERC is not, I also installed a small 12 Vdc 
power supply and transformer for the ERC, making a simple self‐contained installation.   
 

 
 
Figure 6 ~ Easy Rotor Control printed circuit boards. The model ERC (left) and ERC‐3D (right) are installed in Yaesu 
controllers at my observatory. Since my installation, the vendor has upgraded the two models to ERC version 4 and ERC‐M, 
respectively. The ERC board dimensions are approximately 79 x 54 x 20 mm. (Images © 2014 Ing.‐Buero Alba de Schmidt, 
www.schmidt‐alba.de, used with permission) 
 
I have installed the ERC in Yaesu G450‐A and G800‐SA enclosures (figure 7). I also have a Yaesu G5500 controller 
used for azimuth and elevation. For this I used the ERC‐3D, which is similar to the ERC but is external and has 
two control channels and an optional digital display. The ERC‐3D is no longer available and has been replaced by 
the ERC‐M, which provides azimuth‐only, azimuth and elevation or dual‐azimuth functions. I also use the SPID 
Alfa RAS rotator {SPID} but it has a built‐in communications interface. 
 
 
6. PstRotator Setup 
 
When setting up PstRotator it is necessary to select the correct communications protocol. There are fewer rotor 
control protocols than rotor types – for example, a popular protocol is the Yaesu GS‐232, and it is used by many 
non‐Yaesu rotor controller interfaces. The PstRotator setup menu lists controllers by name so the user does not 
need to know the actual protocol, only the controller type.  
 

27
 Figure 7 ~ G450‐A controllers (upper‐right 
and lower‐left) and G800‐SA controller, 
all modified with internal ERC modules 
and in active service. Only the G800‐SA is 
shown tracking the Sun. Also seen in this 
picture is the 5‐port Ethernet switch that 
handles LAN traffic for the equipment. 
(Images © 2015 W. Reeve) 
 
During setup it also is necessary to 
specify the communication method 
and associated port. For example, a 
PC serial port may be used and it is 
necessary to specify the associated 
COM port number. For TCP/IP it is 
necessary to specify the IP port 
number (or use the default port). The 
various settings are grouped under 
the Communications menu (figure 8). 
 
Figure 8 ~ Communications setup dropdown menu reveals the various 
communication methods supported by PstRotator. 
 
PstRotator can be setup in Server and Client modes to allow remote control 
over a LAN or the internet. For the client/server configuration, PstRotator is 
setup on one PC to run as the server (the PC to which the rotor controller is 
connected) and on another PC as a client. The client then controls the rotor 
through the remote server PC. Instead of a PC, the remote server can be a 
terminal server or Ethernet‐serial port server such as the B&B Electronics 
VLinx ESP900‐series Ethernet Serial Servers. This is the configuration I use in 
Anchorage to control an HF log periodic antenna rotor over a wireless LAN.  
 
 
7. Celestial Object Tracking 
 
My installations use only a fraction of PstRotator’s capabilities. The ones I use are all related to celestial tracking, 
so the remainder of this review will describe only my applications. As mentioned earlier, PstRotator can track 
the Sun, Moon and all planets and it also works with Radio‐Eyes. For its built‐in tracking to work properly, 
PstRtotator needs an accurate time‐of‐day clock and the station’s geographical coordinates. There are many 
programs available to synchronize a PC’s clock (for a description of some programs, see [Reeve]). Station 
latitude and longitude are easy to obtain using Google Earth or online calculators. 
 
In my Anchorage observatory, I mainly use PstRotator to track the Sun. During mid‐summer, the tracking spans 
true azimuths from about 34° to 325° and elevations up to 52° (figure 9). During mid‐winter the Sun is tracked 
from as little as about 145° to 213° true azimuth with a maximum elevation of 6° around the winter solstice. 
PstRotator’s built‐in Sun tracking is enabled by selecting Sun on the Tracking menu and then selecting the 
Tracking Mode radio button on the main window. PstRotator can remember the tracking mode and will resume 
tracking if it is restarted. 
 

28
 Maximum daylight rotation range of Figure 9 ~ Reeve station solar tracking 
Sun during summer: 291° geometry throughout the year showing 
Maximum elevation: 52°
June 20 the variability in azimuth and elevation at 
325º 34º
northern latitude. (Images © 2015 W. 
Reeve) 
 
As the Sun moves across the sky, 
PstRotator commands the rotor to 
move accordingly. The Sun Tracking 
setup menu includes a setting to start 
tracking at a Sun elevation of –9° to 
Reeve Observatory +45° with respect to the horizon. For 
Station Coordinates: Summer arc
61.19925N : 149.95655W HF observations I usually start 
tracking –5° (before sunrise) and stop 
–5° (after sunset). This has helped me 
Beam Pattern of capture several solar HF radio bursts 
Sun-tracking
8-element Log
after sunset during summer (the Sun 
Periodic Antenna does not drop lower than about 5° 
below the northern horizon at 
Anchorage during mid‐summer).  
Minimum daylight rotation range of
213º Sun during winter: 68° 145º  
Maximum elevation: 5° Most of the time I use PstRotator’s 
December 20
Winter arc
Parking feature to park the antenna 
at 90° azimuth so that after sunset 
the antenna automatically rotates 
back around to the east, making it ready for the next sunrise. 
 
The resolution of the rotor movement can be specified. I have both PstRotator and the associated ERC controller 
set to 1° resolution. The resolutions can be different but the lowest one determines the system resolution. With 
this setting PstRotator sends a rotate command every 1° when tracking the Sun resulting in antenna movement 
approximately every 4 minutes or so. PstRotator is capable of tracking to within 0.1° but this is of little use if the 
rotor and its controller do not support such fine resolution (the resolution of the Yaesu rotators is around 5°) or 
the antenna has a wide beamwidth. Earth‐Moon‐Earth (EME) communications and satellite tracking use very 
high directivity antennas and high resolution rotator systems, so very fine resolution is needed for those setups. 
However, I use log periodic antennas with 50~60° beamwidths in my solar radio installations, so even 1° 
resolution setting is technically farfetched. 
 
Although I use PstRotator to automatically track the Sun every day, I often interrupt this schedule for Jupiter 
radio observations. However, I use a different strategy. Instead of tracking Jupiter, I use a fixed azimuth. Because 
of high RFI levels at my Anchorage observatory, I usually determine Jupiter’s azimuth range for a predicted pass 
(enhanced Io‐A, Io‐B or Io‐C) using Radio‐Jupiter Pro3 prediction software and then manually rotate the antenna 
to an azimuth near the middle of the pass but offset as needed to minimize the RFI. In other words, I try to point 
a null in the antenna pattern toward the RFI source while keeping Jupiter in the main beam. Of course, there are 
many times when I cannot find a compromise azimuth that both reduces RFI and has Jupiter in the main beam 
but this strategy has improved my success, especially during summer when RFI levels are lower. 
 
 
 
 
 
 

29
 8. Conclusions 
 
PstRotator and PstRotatorAz are application programs used to control almost any type of antenna rotator 
through a serial, USB or Ethernet interface. Unlike other rotator control programs, PstR and PstRAz are very 
reliable and have numerous useful functions directly related to radio astronomy. 
 
 
9. References and web links 
 
[Reeve]  Reeve, W., Maintain Your Time, Radio Astronomy, Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers, May‐June 
2012 
 
{ERC}    Easy Rotor Controller: http://easy‐rotor‐control.com/ 
{PstR}   PstRotator and PstRotatorAz: http://www.qsl.net/yo3dmu/index_Page346.htm 
(RE}    Radio‐Eyes: http://www.radiosky.com/softwarehome.html 
{SPID}    SPID Alfa rotator: http://www.spid.alpha.pl/english/01.php 
{WX}    Weather Underground: http://www.wunderground.com/ 
{Yaesu}   Yaesu rotator: http://www.yaesu.com/?cmd=DisplayProducts&DivisionID=65&ProdCatID=104 
{Yahoo}  PstRotator Yahoo group: http://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/PstRotator/info 
 
 
Author: Whitham Reeve is a contributing editor for the SARA journal, Radio Astronomy. He 
worked as an engineer and engineering firm owner/operator in the airline and 
telecommunications industries for more than 40 years and has lived in Anchorage, Alaska his 
entire life. 
 
 

30
Cassiopeia:  A Scintillation Observed by Radio Jove Participants 
Dave Typinski, AJ4CO Observatory
Thomas Ashcraft, Heliotown Observatory
Wes Greenman, LGM Radio Alachua
 
November, 2014 
 
In December 2013, Dave Typinski recorded a spectrogram with some ghostly sweeping features in it.  Discussion 
with the Radio Jove Spectrograph Users Group (SUG) suggested that since there was a CME impact at the time, 
the weird spectrogram was probably a result of a geomagnetic disturbance.[1]  In October 2014, Typinski again 
noticed more of these features appearing almost every other night in his spectrograms.  More discussion within 
the SUG ensued, whereupon the emissions were oh‐so cleverly dubbed “weird night time events” or WNE’s.  
Thomas Ashcraft started noticing WNE’s in his spectrograms, as did Wes Greenman.  We all scratched our heads.  
There were no coronal mass ejection (CME) impacts, but the Sun was rather active.  “What are these things?” 
we all wondered. 
 

 
 
Figure 1 – The spectrogram that started it all, a WNE observed in December 2013. Horizontal bands are radio stations, the 
bright angled trace is a radar sweep.  Cas A scintillation is seen as a series of nearly vertical wispy, somewhat curved and 
angled sweeping features.  The antenna array was steered to zenith at this time. 
 
Ashcraft suggested that maybe we were seeing Cassiopeia A or Cygnus A scintillation.  He noted the similarity of 
the WNE’s to scintillation events observed by the KAIRA research instrument in Finland.[2]  At the same time, Dr. 
Francisco Reyes was working out the transit time, flux density, and locations of Cas A and Cyg A and provided 
strip charts of Virgo A beam transits he made in 1991‐93 using the large 26 MHz array at the University of 
Florida Radio Observatory. These showed that sometimes the scintillation was strong and other times it was 
nearly absent. Dr Reyes also noted that since Cyg A transits a bit earlier than our observed WNE’s, Cas A 
scintillation was the best candidate for the observed WNE’s. He suggested that Typinski steer his 8‐element 
array toward Cas A, which was done on October 30.  Lo and behold, the wispy, sweeping features appeared 
much stronger (Fig. 2 below) and looked very similar to the KAIRA spectrograms.  The mystery was solved: the 
weird nighttime events were scintillation of Cas A’s emission.  To our knowledge, this is the first time the 
dynamic spectra of Cas A scintillation in the HF band has been intentionally observed by an amateur radio 
astronomer. 
 

31
  
 
Figure 2 – Cas A scintillation observed by Dave Typinski (High Springs, Florida) on 30 Oct 2014 with an 8‐element terminated 
folded dipole (TFD) array, the dual polarization radio spectrograph (DPS), and two Jove receivers. The antenna beam was 
steered to 0° azimuth and 60° elevation.  Cas A transited at 0221 UTC (represented by red arrows).  20 MHz half power 
beam width (HPBW) is 15° NS and 35° EW; directivity for emissions with random polarization (such as Cas A) is 
approximately 14 dBi.  Top: Spectrogram with time on the horizontal axis, frequency in MHz on the vertical axis (this 
spectrogram has 300 frequency channels), and signal power represented by color. Scintillation is seen as nearly vertical 
sweeping lines.  The horizontal streaking is interference from radio stations. Middle: Single frequency (~20.1 MHz) strip 
chart with time on the horizontal axis and antenna temperature on the vertical axis. Bottom left: Radio Eyes plot at 
observing time. Bottom right: Radio Jupiter Pro sky view at observing time. Ovals represent the array’s 20 MHz HPBW.   
 

32
  
 
Figure 3 – Cas A scintillation observed by Wes Greenman (Alachua, Florida) on 01 Nov 2014 with the dual dipole Carr array 
(1½‐inch diameter aluminium tubing element arms cut for 20.7 MHz with 25‐foot element spacing) and the FSX‐1 radio 
spectrograph.  Beam was steered to 0° azimuth and 60° elevation and the array directivity was about 8 dBi. 
 
 

 
 
Figure 4 – Cas A scintillation observed by Thomas Ashcraft (Lamy, New Mexico) on 07 Nov 2014 with a Radio Jove dual 
dipole array and the FSX‐4 radio spectrograph.  Beam was steered to zenith and the array directivity was about 8 dBi. 
 
Cas A scintillation explains why we have not observed such phenomena at other times of the year.  It is visible 
only when Cas A is in the antenna beam, far enough from the Sun to avoid daytime band noise, and not so far 
into the night that the ionosphere has smoothed out to a large extent.  We suspect there is perhaps a two or 
three month window where observation of Cas A scintillation is possible for the 8‐element terminated folded 
dipole (TFD)array.  We also suspect a possibility of observing scintillation in the emission from Cygnus A.  
Observational checks of these ideas will have to wait until next year when Cas A and Cyg A are in the proper 
positions relative to the Sun. 
 
Cassiopeia A is a supernova remnant roughly 11,000 light years away (about 3.4 kiloparsecs).  Discovered by 
amateur radio astronomer Grote Reber in 1947, it has a 20 MHz flux density of 65,000 Janskys, similar in 
strength to weak Jovian emission, and is the strongest radio source outside our solar system.[3] 

33
 

 
 
Figure 5 – Cassiopeia A in three frequency bands. Infrared data from the Spitzer Space Telescope are colored red; visible 
data from the Hubble Space Telescope are yellow; and X‐ray data from the Chandra X‐ray Observatory are green and blue.  
The central neutron star is the tiny turquoise dot at center of the shell of gas. Image and text credit JPL‐Caltech.[4] 
 
Cas A is located at right ascension 23h 23m and +59° declination. To find the proper beam elevation, we have: 
 
Source elevation at 0° azimuth (northward) = 90° – source declination + observer latitude 
 
Typinski’s latitude is 30° N, so his array’s beam was steered northward to 60° elevation.  A few degrees either 
way for small arrays with their relatively large half power beam widths (HPBW’s) makes no practical difference, 
so we went to the nearest 5° elevation increment. 
 
Since Cas A is a point source, it is very difficult to detect in the HF band with modest antenna arrays despite its 
high flux density.  The strip chart in Figure 2 shows the variations for this particular observation are only 1 dB or 
so above the galactic background with an 8‐element array.  While the scintillation observed with Wes 
Greenman’s Carr array steered to 60° N elevation (Fig. 3) shows up fairly well, the scintillation observed with 
Ashcraft’s dual dipole Jove array steered to zenith (Fig. 4) is just barely distinguishable in the spectrogram.  Quiet 
observing conditions help greatly, especially when using small arrays.  Even so, single‐frequency (Jove receiver, 
strip chart) observers using a dual dipole array would have great difficulty seeing and recognizing scintillation in 
Cas A emission. 
 
In fact, if the scintillation did not exist, we would not have been able to recognize Cas A emission even with the 
8‐element TFD array.  It would be difficult unto impossible to see a bell‐shaped curve in a strip chart as Cas A 
moved through the antenna beam.  To find out how long a radio source takes to cross an antenna’s beam, we 
have: 
 
beam width in degrees
Beam transit time in hours =  
15°/hour  ×  cos ( declination )
 
For the TFD array’s 35° east‐west HPBW, Cas A crosses the beam in about 4 hours 30 minutes.  For the roughly 
70° east‐west HPBW of the Jove dual dipole array, the time is 9 hours. These long transit times make it nearly 
impossible to separate Cas A’s emission from the diurnal variation in galactic background.  Scintillation, 

34
however, acts on a much shorter time scale – on the order of a few minutes – making it discernable in a strip 
chart or spectrogram. 
 
Radio scintillation is just like the twinkling of a star in the optical spectrum as starlight is refracted by density 
variations in the Earth’s atmosphere.  One cause of radio scintillation is spatial and temporal dynamic variation 
of the charge density within Earth’s ionosphere.  There may be other causes as the emission passes through the 
interstellar and interplanetary mediums (ISM and IPM).  We restrict the following discussion to the terrestrial 
ionosphere; however, similar phenomena may be occurring to some degree in the ISM and/or IPM, possibly with 
different intensities and on different time scales. 
 
The ionosphere is anything but flat and smooth; it is more like lumpy oatmeal.  Charge density variations (lumps 
in the oatmeal) move around within the ionosphere and can act like lenses for radio waves, intermittently 
focusing more of Cas A’s radio emission on the aperture of a ground‐based HF radio telescope, briefly increasing 
the power received by the antenna.  We believe this is what causes the nearly vertical sweeping streaks in the 
spectrograms in Figures 1 through 4. As the ionospheric disturbances move around, once in a while the lens 
effect sweeps past Cas A from the observer’s viewpoint, briefly increasing the received signal strength. The 
streaks in the spectrogram are not perfectly vertical because ionospheric effects are frequency dependent – at 
any given time, a good ionospheric lens for Cas A at one frequency may not be so good at another frequency. 
 
A disturbed ionosphere can cause the observed scintillation.  High solar activity or a CME impact will stir up the 
ionosphere.  However, sometimes when the Sun is active, Cas A scintillation is not observed.  The fine structure 
and variability of the ionosphere with solar activity is very much a field of current research. Instruments like the 
LWA and LOFAR are observing ionospheric scintillation in the emission from distant sources like quasars. Cas A 
scintillation is one probe of the ionosphere’s dynamics. 
 
 
 
 
[1] http://www.radiojove.org/SUG/ 
 
[2] http://kaira.sgo.fi/2012/10/ionospheric‐scintillation‐with‐kaira.html 
 
[3] Baars, et al., The Absolute Spectrum of Cas A, A&A (1977) 
 
[4] http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/1445‐ssc2005‐14c‐Cassiopeia‐A‐Death‐Becomes‐Her 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

35
  
 
Dave Typinski is a professional businessman
and amateur scientist who has been tinkering
with things electrical and mechanical since he
was old enough to hold a soldering iron and a
Crescent wrench. He is an active member of the
Radio Jove project, operating AJ4CO
Observatory in High Springs, Florida.

Thomas Ashcraft operates a radio and 
optical observatory in north central New 
Mexico. His primary observing targets are 
transient luminous events (sprites), Jupiter, 
fireballs, and the Sun.

 
 

       

Wes Greenman is a retired engineer from the University of Florida Astronomy Department.  He notes, "We 
were involved with Jupiter research for much of that time. The Radio Jove program enables me to continue 
this research. Besides, it's fun."

36
Leap Second to be Added in 2015! 
Whitham D. Reeve 
 
Introduction: Leap seconds are inevitable because of the way time is defined worldwide, but that has not 
stopped the news media from getting hysterical about it [USA Today]. The last leap second 
was introduced 30 June 2012 and the next one will be 30 June 2015. I wrote about the 2012 
event in [Reeve‐1] and have repeated some of the information from that article below. I also 
explored some of the problems and solutions associated with keeping proper time in amateur 
radio astronomy in [Reeve‐2, Reeve‐3]. 
 
Leap seconds are used only when needed as determined from measurements. A leap second is added or 
subtracted every so often to keep Universal Time (UT, in particular, UT1) and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), 
synchronized within less than ±0.9 second. The UT time scale is based on Earth’s rotation rate, which changes 
slightly over time, sometimes it speeds up but most often it slows down, and the leap second compensates for 
this variation.  
 
Embedded in UT is the mean astronomical second, which is defined as 1/86 400 of the mean solar day. It is 
determined by precise measurements. On the other hand, UTC, which is the legal basis for timekeeping and the 
time reference used in most countries, is an atomic time scale based on the emissions frequency of cesium 
atoms when certain electrons change state. Embedded in UTC is the definition of the second, 
which is 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation emitted from cesium 133 when it is under 
specified environmental conditions (a frequency of about 9.193 GHz).  
 
2015 Leap Second: The International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) 
issues Bulletin C every six months to announce either a time step in UTC (leap second) or to confirm that there  
will be no time step at the next preferred date. The preferred time and dates for leap second insertion or 
deletion are midnight 30 June and 31 December but 31 March and 30 September also may be used if necessary 
to stay within the 0.9 second difference requirement mentioned above. IERS published Bulletin C49 on 5 January 
2015 announcing a positive leap second in June 2015 with the following sequence of the UTC second markers 
(see also figure 1):     
     
  2015 June 30  23h 59m 59s 
  2015 June 30  23h 59m 60s 
  2015 July 1  0h 0m 0s 
 
30 June 2015 30 June 2015 01 July 2015

23:59:59 23:59:60 00:00:00

 
 
Fig. 1 ~ A leap second will be inserted to retard UTC at the end of June 2015. The clock shown here is conceptual and based 
on the UTC time scale, so the leap second will be added at different local times depending on the user’s time zone. It is 
unlikely that any real clock will show the digits “60” in the seconds field as shown here. (Image © 2015 W. Reeve) 
 
All leap seconds to date have been positive. Thus, the difference between International Atomic Time (TAI) and 
UTC has increased over time. With the next leap second, the difference will be 
 
  From 2012 July 1, 0h UTC, to 2015 July 1, 0h UTC:  UTC – TAI = –35 s 
  From 2015 July 1, 0h UTC, until further notice:  UTC – TAI = –36 s  
 

37
Conclusions: Exactly three years after the insertion of a leap second at midnight on 30 June 2012 another leap 
second will be added to the list. In keeping with the tradition promoted by an alarmist news media, many time 
users worldwide will be restocking their underground shelters with canned chili, bottled water and flashlight 
batteries. Meanwhile, the Sun will continue to rise in the east and set in the west as it has since the beginning of 
time as we know it. 
 
References: 
[Reeve‐1]  Reeve, W., Is Time Broken (Or, Will It Be Y2K All Over Again), Radio Astronomy, July‐August 2012 
[Reeve‐2]  Reeve, W., Time Differences in Charted Solar Observations at High Frequencies, Radio 
Astronomy, July‐August 2012 
[Reeve‐3]  Reeve, W., Maintain Your Time, Radio Astronomy, May‐June 2012 
[USA Today]  Griffin, A., Computer chaos feared over 2015's leap second 
(http://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/01/08/computer‐chaos‐feares/21433363/) 
[IERS]  Bulletin C49, International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service, 5 January 2015 
(http://hpiers.obspm.fr/iers/bul/bulc/bulletinc.dat) 
 
 

Above‐ Keynote Speaker Jill Tarter answers questions from the 
audience at the 2009 SARA Annual Conference at Green Bank, West 
Virginia. Ms. Tarter’s husband Jack Welch will be presenting a paper 
at the 2015 Western Conference at Stanford University in Palo Alto, 
California. 

38
RASDRviewer PULSAR FEATURE DESCRIPTION 
Paul L. Oxley 

ABSTRACT – This document describes the proposed process for capturing a pulse from a Pulsar. The
objective of the process is to be able to display and record the pulse profile1 during the period when the
Pulsar is within the beam width of the antenna. The process works in near real time on a high end
Windows PC. The process uses In phase and Quadrature (I & Q) samples that are presented to a Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT). The FFT output is entered into an accumulation matrix of time verses
frequency bins. The accumulated values are coherently integrated to improve the Signal to Noise Ratio
(S/N). The Time difference between each FFT is varied to allow the selection of the appropriate slope
(ΔT/ΔF) that will cancel the dispersion present in the Pulsar data. For the Dispersion Process, the user
needs only to supply a range of expected dispersion values and a Signal to Noise Ratio criteria that
defines a usable signal.

Further processing is accomplished using a lower frequency clock rate to identify both the fundamental
frequency of the pulse and its phase. The low frequency clock is locked to this phase to allow further
coherent integration (Folding). For the low frequency processing the user supplies a range of expected
pulse rates.

Although this procedure is developed for implementation in the RASDRviewer software, it is generally
applicable in those situations where software control of the sample rate and samples per frame are both
available.

INTRODUCTION –The author is developing a new Pulsar capture/analysis feature for the existing
RASDRviewer software 2 which is the companion to a small single chip receiver of interesting radio
astronomy spectrum. The receiver is named the Radio Astronomy Software Defined Receiver
(RASDR)3. The bandwidth of the receiver can be software configured in steps up to 28 MHz. The
sample rate of the receiver can be software configured over the range of 1.5 Million Samples per Second
(MS/S) to 32 MS/S. The receiver uses a Cypress FX3 chip to provide a USB 2 or USB3.0 interface to
the user’s Personal Windows Computer where the RASDRviewer software resides. The receiver covers
a range of frequencies from 300 MHz to nearly 3 GHz.

Pulsar experiments are of interest in the portions of this range where a good signal to noise ratio can be
obtained. Particular interest is in the frequencies where the regulatory bodies have reserved spectrum for
Radio Astronomy including 322 to 328.65 MHz, 406.1 to 410 MHz, 608 to 614 MHz and 1420 to 1427
MHz. Several Amateurs have built dish antenna systems that are sized for studying the 1420 MHz range.
These antennas likely can be modified for the lower frequencies by the application of a suitable feed.
The RASDRviewer software operates on a near real time basis to produce representations of the
received signal in a nearly continuous manner to produce Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs) of the
incoming data. Blocks of continuous data samples are gathered into frames and presented to the FFT-W

                                                            
1
See Lorimar, D.R. and Kramer, M., HANDBOOK OF PULSAR ASTRONOMY, Copyright 2005, Page 8 for a
description of a Pulse Profile.
2
Paul L Oxley, et al, RASDRviewer – RASDR2 Control and Analysis Software, SARA Proceedings of the 2014 Annual
Conference, Copyright 2014 SARA.
3
See various publications in the SARA Journal and Proceedings.
 
 
39
software. During the period of time that the FFT is being produced, the incoming data stream is ignored.
Once the FFT process completes, the process repeats on the next frame.

The RASDR receiver contains a Temperature Compensated Crystal Oscillator (TCXO) which controls
the timing of the sampling of the data and the Phase Locked Loop (PLL) oscillators that are used for
down conversion of the signal. The TCXO can be phase locked to an external 10 MHz frequency
reference such as a GPS receiver which improves the frequency accuracy. In phase (I) and Quadrature
(Q) samples are produced by the receiver chip. The I and Q samples are placed in a First In First Out
(FIFO) buffer on the FX3 chip. The FX3 chip gathers these I and Q samples into packets for
transmission via the USB interface.

TIMING – Timing is obtained by counting the packets that arrive from the USB interface. Each packet
contains a number of Bytes that is determined by the PC’s configuration. It can be either 512 or 1024
Bytes per packet. The Sample data that arrives in the USB3 FIFO buffer is precisely timed by the TCXO
on the RASDR boards. Since the number of bytes and the sample data rate is known, the packet arrival
rate is known. The following table shows some typical calculations of the packet rate and packet
duration.
USB Interface & Packet Counter      
Sample Rate 10 32 10 32 MS/S
Packet Size (Set by Machine) 512 512 1024 1024 Bytes/Packet
Bytes/Sample 4 4 4 4
Samples / Packet 128 128 256 256
Packet Rate 78,100 250,000 39,100 125,000 Packets/Sec
Packet Duration 12.80 4.00 25.60 8.00 uS/Packet

The first and third columns in the table shows the maximums for a USB2 interface. The second and
fourth columns are the maximum for a USB3.0 interface.

The packet duration numbers are used in the calculation of the number of packets necessary to time both
the High Frequency (Dispersion Equalization) and the Low Frequency (Pulse Recovery) portions of the
process. Using the second column as an example, if a time slot width of 12 milliseconds is needed for
timing, it would require a count of 3000 packets.

ACCUMULATION OF SAMPLES INTO FRAMES – The data from the packets are assembled into
frames of user specified N = 2X length (X = 1, 2, 3, etc.). An FFT is performed on each frame which
generates (N) complex (I & Q) frequency bins on each frame. The assembly process is repeated until N
frames are available to complete an N X N matrix of FFT bins. . The spacing of the frames is set to
accommodate the times necessary for a given Dispersion Measure (DM) value. The N X N matrix is
stored in a circular buffer for further processing.

SETTING DISPERSION MEASURE (DM) VALUES FOR TESTING – The DM value is changed
by selecting a packet count value and sample rate that will produce a slope (ΔT/ΔF) in the matrix for the
selected N bins. The following formula is used to convert a DM to a slope:

 
 
40
 ΔT/ΔF = 8.297616 DM /FCtr3 4
Where ΔF is in MHz, ΔT is in υS and FCtr is in GHz

COHERENT INTEGRATION OF THE MATRIX – The frame generation process is repeated to

accumulate additional data for integration to improve its Signal to Noise (S/N) ratio. The integration
process uses complex calculations to retain the quadrature relationship of the data in each FFT bin. A
Signal to Noise (S/N) test is performed to determine when the data is adequate for further processing by
succeeding program steps. The test involves the comparison of the peak values of a frequency bin to the
mean of all frequency bins. When the peak value exceeds the mean by X dB, the S/N is deemed
adequate. X is a user specified variable that will be determined by experience running the system. The
test is continuously repeated for several successive frames to insure that a valid S/N is available.

DE-DISPERSION PROCESS - The de-dispersion involves the collection of data from the FFT frames
that correspond to the amount of delay correction needed for each FFT frequency bin. The de-dispersed
data can be viewed as a representation of the original pulse generated by the Pulsar where all
frequencies were pulsed simultaneously.

The FFT matrix is used by the De-Dispersion process to perform a cancellation of the delay distortion.
Each of the lines in the matrix contains data from a different point in time. The process picks one bin
from each line to form the de-dispersed data.

The separation in time between each line is based on the Dispersion Measure (DM) currently being
tested. Initially, the DM is set to the lowest value within a range of values supplied by the user. The DM
is incremented until at least two of the lines contain a bin which meets the criteria for a valid S/N ratio.
Each time that the DM being tested is changed, the accumulators in the matrix are reset to avoid having
mixed data from multiple DM values.

Figure 1 Determining Slope of the Dispersion

Once two or more values are valid, a slope ΔT/ΔF is calculated. An example of the slope calculation is
shown in Figure 1. The slope is used to set a new DM test value, the accumulators reset and retested
after an integration period.
                                                            
4
Derived from Lorimer, D.R. and Kramer, M, Handbook of Pulsar Astronomy, Copyright 2005, Appendix A2.4
 
 
41
 Figure 2 Dispersive Lock Condition
Once all of the lines contain one bin with valid S/N ratios, the De-Dispersion process is locked. This
condition is shown in Figure 2.

During the Dispersion Lock state, no further changes are allowed in the Sample Rate, Frame Length and
Frame Timing. This is necessary to allow the continuing cancelling of the dispersion for the low
frequency processing.

The Matrix is continuously displayed for the duration of the De-Dispersion process. It optionally can be
recorded to disk. Once the De-Dispersion process is locked, the dispersion matrix display is held at its
last value. This is necessary since the matrix accumulators will be reset for each change of the Low
Frequency Time Slot Width (W).

LOW FREQUENCY (PULSE) PROCESS –The low frequency data is stored in an accumulator 1 X
M array. The accumulation of the data occurs during the period of time between the start and end of the
Time Slot. A mean value of all frequency bins present in the de-dispersed data is added to the
accumulator for each frame that is processed. At the end of the time slot, the accumulated value in the
array is held for additional processing the next time that that time slot is processed. This is a continuous
integration process. The accumulation process moves on to the next time slot until all M time slots have
received data. The accumulators for the mean calculations are reset to zero whenever a user request is
received, or a parameter such as the time slot width (W) is changed.

OBTAINING A GOOD S/N RATIO – To obtain a good S/N, it is necessary to allow the continuous
integration to operate long enough to lower the random noise from the mean value in each time slot.
To determine when sufficient time has lapsed, a calculation is made of the mean of M sequential time
slots. The mean of each of the M time slots is compared to the mean of all time slots. When more than
one of the M time slots is above the mean of all time slots by a user defined margin of X dB, the S/N is
declared as sufficient for further processing. For this step to be successful, the width W of each time slot
and the number of time slots M must be set to values that will show the differences between a time slot
with a high level pulse present and others without the pulse present.

OBTAINING THE FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY OF THE PULSE – The user specifies a range
of expected pulse rates to test. In some cases, the user may know more precisely what pulse rate to
 
 
42
expect from previous observations or a published catalog. In those cases, the search time can be greatly
reduced. To search for the fundamental frequency of the pulse, the highest pulse rate R is tested first. A
value of W is calculated from the following formula:
W = 1/2R

This establishes the condition where alternate time slots will contain the pulse peak with the other time
slot containing the valley for the condition when the pulse rate fundamental frequency is detected. For
this processing, the number of time slots M should be set to have multiple time slots processed
simultaneously. For convenience in processing, the number of time slots M will be set to 9.
TS 0 TS1 TS0 TS1 TS0 TS1 TS0 TS1 TS0
High Low High Low High Low High Low High
Figure 3 – The alternate Time Slot condition for fundamental frequency lock

The pulse rate R is decremented from the maximum until the alternate time slot condition is met. This
condition is shown in Figure 3. The accumulators are all reset with each change in R. It should be noted
that for each change in R, the processing must wait for the necessary integration time for a good S/N.
Since the value of M was set to 9, the exit test for the fundamental frequency decrement process is 5
highs and 4 lows, or 5 lows and 4 highs. This can be done with a matrix where the even numbered and
odd numbered time slots are compared for the alternate pattern. If the ratio is different than a 5/4 ratio,
either an increment or decrement of R and W is indicated.

LOCKING THE PHASE OF THE SYSTEM TO THE PULSE RATE – As described above, the
packet rate is a constant for a given setup. Using the second column of the table, the rate was 4
microseconds per packet. This is many times shorter than the values of W used for the fundamental
frequency of the pulse. Thus a range of packet counts can be used to change the phase of the time slots
without changing the frequency. .

TS1 TS2 TS3 TS4 TS5 TS6 TS7 TS8 TS9

High Low High Low High Low High Low High
Figure 4 – The condition for Odd Half Cycle Lock

To obtain a phase lock, the 9 time slot matrix above can be used. If the 5 high values are in the odd
numbered time slots, this is defined as an odd half cycle lock. This will be used in the system. Thus the
first step in locking the phase is to change the packet count to a point where an odd half cycle lock
occurs. Since an unlocked phase would result in the beating of the pulsar pulse with the time slot clock,
if displayed, the pulse would walk across the screen and appear in different time slots. To stop this
walking, the count of packets is changed. Between changes, it is necessary to perform a reset of the
accumulators and wait for a good S/N. Further work is needed to speed up the process of finding the
lock point. This likely will involve dividing the range of counts into sub ranges and determining the rate
of walking of the slots and its direction.

When the system is locked, the walking will halt. In addition, the low frequency integration in the
accumulators will be operating as a coherent integrator since the phase of the system is matched to the
phase of the pulsar.

DISPLAYING AND RECORDING THE PULSE PROFILE – Once the fundamental frequency and
phase is locked, the display and recorded values can be increased to provide analysis of the shape of the
pulse and nearby features in time. This can be done by increasing M without changing the W count.
 
 
43
However, for a wider display, it may be desirable to allow the user to create a display that shows both
the fundamental and harmonics. This can be done by keeping W at integer divisor values and setting M
appropriately for the display.

CONCLUSION – It appears feasible to develop a system that will meet the objective of capturing a
Pulsar pulse during the time when it is present in an antenna beam width. If the antenna is capable of
tracking the target pulsar, it is highly likely to be effective. If the drift scan method is used, further
testing after the system coding is needed to prove the concept.

FURTHER WORK – The next step is to develop the C/C++ logic and Graphical User Interface (GUI)
code necessary to carry out the process. Further knowledge will be gained from this step. Speed of
processing is the primary area of concern. It likely will require a PC with multiple cores and the use of
planned threads in the process. It also may be necessary to limit some of the parameters used in the
system such as the frame size to accommodate the process.

Once the process is coded, it will be tested on antennas with and without tracking.

Paul Oxley is a retired AT&T Microwave

Engineer.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
44
 Radio-Frequency Interference (RFI) From Extra-High-
Voltage (EHV) Transmission Lines
Patrick C. Crane
22 March 2010
1. Introduction

The subject of radio-frequency interference (RFI) generated by high-voltage transmission

lines has long been of both academic and commercial interest because of concerns about
static on AM radio. Today audible noise is of greater concern because many states,
counties, and municipalities have noise ordinances and transmission lines are designed to
reduce audible noise, while people now expect static on AM radio (Chartier 2009). The
subject is of interest today because of the proliferation around the world of low-frequency
radio telescopes – including the Low Frequency Array (LOFAR), the Giant Metrewave
Radio Telescope (GMRT), the Murchison Widefield Array (MWA), and the Long
Wavelength Array (LWA), which is particular interest to the author.

The present discussion will concern high-voltage alternating-current (HVAC)

transmission lines; high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission lines will be
addressed in Appendix A.

As described by Pakala and Chartier (1971) power lines are divided into two classes with
respect to radio noise: (1) lines with voltages below 70 kV and (2) lines with voltages
above 110 kV. Lines in the first class in general exhibit only gap-type discharges and
lines in the second class principally exhibit corona discharge. Gap-type discharges are
essentially a maintenance issue; corona discharges are a design issue.

Extra-high-voltage (EHV) transmission lines have operating voltages of 345 kV or

greater. The possibility of interference from such a transmission line first impinged
significantly upon radio astronomy (in the United States, at least) in 1984 when the El
Paso Electric Company proposed building a 345-kV transmission line from Red Hill, NM
to Deming, NM which would run east along US60 to its junction with NM78 (now
NM52) and then south along NM78. This route would have crossed both the north and
east arms about two miles from the center of the Very Large Array (VLA) radio
telescope. In response, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) hired Vernon L.
Chartier of the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) as a consultant to study the
problem and recommend minimum separation distances for the VLA and for the Very
Long Baseline Array (VLBA) radio telescope, construction of which began in 1985. Mr.
Chartier was well qualified for the task as the Chief High Voltage Phenomena Engineer
of BPA’s Division of Laboratories with many years of research in the field. He is still
active and when I contacted him (vlchartier@ieee.org), he provided more recent
references. Among them is the EPRI Red Book (2008) which is published by the Electric
Power Research Institute, Inc. (EPRI); Mr. Chartier sent me the small number of relevant
pages because the Red Book sells for $5000. The EPRI is an independent nonprofit

45
 organization that conducts research and development relating to the generation, delivery
and use of electricity for the benefit of the public. The Red Book (2008) recognizes the
BPA method because

The most complete empirical method for predicting EMI above 30 MHz is the method
developed by the Bonneville Power Administration (Chartier 1983). The BPA method
was first developed to predict TVI from overhead lines during rain, but the method has
been expanded so that EMI above 30 MHz can be calculated at any frequency, at any
distance from the line, at any antenna height, for any bandwidth, and for any detector.

Furthermore, it is “the one method that is useful for EMI predictions between 30 and
1000 MHz” and “the most complete empirical method for predicting EMI above 30
MHz.”

The BPA model also has been recognized by the International Council on Large Electric
Systems (CIGRE, 1996), which is one of the leading worldwide organizations on electric
power systems.

2. What Is Corona?

Hubbell Power Systems, Inc. (2004) has produced a clear and concise report on corona
with the title “What Is Corona?” which is available on the World Wide Web. This report
defines corona in the following terms:

Corona is a luminous discharge due to ionization of the air surrounding a conductor

around which exists a voltage gradient exceeding a certain critical value,

based upon IEEE Std 539-1990 (IEEE Corona and Field Effects Subcommittee, 1991) as
applied to transmission-line conductors. Or in more physical terms:

The corona discharges observed at the surface of a conductor are due to the formation of
electron avalanches which occur when the intensity of the electric field at the surface of a
conductor exceeds a certain critical value.

Furthermore,

Any defect on the conductor[,] which projects however slightly above the nominal
conductor surface, increases the field intensity in its immediate vicinity...Water drops on
the conductor surface provide a multiplicity of projections from which corona discharges
can originate...A weathered ACSR conductor generally has a multiplicity of tiny surface
defects which project above the nominal surface of the conductor.

The presence of corona manifests itself primarily in three ways:

46
 1. “Visual corona” – violet-colored light coming from the regions of electrical overstress.
Daytime corona cameras and ultraviolet cameras both are used to inspect transmission
lines for corona.

2. “Audible corona” – a hissing or frying sound when corona is present.

3. Radio noise – apparently this is the most serious manifestation from the point-of-view
of the power company (for radio astronomers, too) because its effects have the longest
range.

The phenomena associated with corona have been described quantitatively by Chartier
(1983): radio noise (RI) over the frequency range 0.1-20 MHz (i.e., AM radio, ham
radio); television interference (TVI) over the frequency range 10-1000 MHz, which
includes VHF and UHF television and FM radio and, coincidentally, is measured in the
radio-astronomy allocation 73.0-74.6 MHz because of the absence of interference;
audible noise (AN); and ozone (concentration C). The total power loss per meter of
conductor is identified as the corona losses (CL).

The presence of more surface defects produces higher levels of corona and related
phenomena. Indulkar (2004) discusses the effects of such surface irregularities on the
threshold voltage for the onset of corona. He reports that this voltage is directly
proportional to an irregularity factor, m0 (0<m0≤1):

1 for smooth, polished, solid, cylindrical conductors; 0.93-0.98 for weathered, solid,
cylindrical conductors; 0.87-0.90 for weathered conductors with more than seven
strands; and 0.80-0.87 for weathered conductors with up to seven strands.

Finally, the Introduction states that corona from EHV transmission lines is primarily a
design problem. While that is true – from the point-of-view of a radio astronomer,
corona can be a maintenance issue because of such problems as degraded or damaged
insulators; contamination with coastal salt, industrial vapors and dust, cement dust, road
salt, tire dust and vehicle emissions; agricultural dusts and fertilizers; improper design
and/or installation; and loose hardware.

3. Television Interference (TVI)

As stated above the method developed by the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) is
the most complete empirical method for predicting radio-frequency interference (RFI)
above 30 MHz.

The BPA calculation of TVI/phase for a CISPR quasi-peak detector from corona
discharge is given by Equation 9.6-4 in EPRI (2008):

TVI/phase = 10 + TVIV(E) + TVIS(d) + TVIf + TVIA+ TVID(L), (1)

where

47
 TVI/phase = electric field (dBμV/m), measured during steady rain with an
IEC/CISPRQuasi-Peak (QP) detector with a 1-ms charge time constant, a 550-ms
discharge time constant, and 6-dB bandwidth of 120 kHz, for a single phase,
E = conductor surface voltage gradient (kV/cm),
d = subconductor diameter (cm),
f = frequency (MHz),
A = altitude above sea level (km),
L = distance between antenna and phase (m).

Individual terms will be discussed in the following sections.

3.1. Conductor Surface Voltage Gradient

TVIV(E) = 120*log(E/16.3), (2)

where

E = conductor surface voltage gradient (kV/cm).

The conductor surface voltage gradient is the single most important factor in determining
the corona performance of a high-voltage transmission line. This is indicated by the
multiplicative factor of 120 in front of the appropriate (second) term in Equation (1); the
multiplicative factors for other terms are 40, 20, and 1. If E changes by a factor of ±2,
the TVI will change by ±36 dB. It is so important, also, because its value is entirely a
design issue. Therefore, the calculation of its value has long and widely been the subject
of investigation.

A survey of methods used for such calculations (as of 1979) was published by the IEEE
Corona and Field Effects Subcommittee (1979). Seventeen techniques were applied to
multiple extra-high-voltage (EHV, ≥345 kV) transmission-line configurations. Empirical
techniques were found to agree with exact solutions to within a few percent, so that when
applied in the field the overall uncertainty was less than ten percent. A further
uncertainty may arise from the definition of the conductor surface voltage gradient; the
three definitions used in the survey include the average bundle gradient (A), the average
maximum bundle gradient (AM), and the maximum bundle gradient (MB). As a
practical matter, Table I of the paper provides parameters for EHV transmission lines
with operating voltages of 345 kV, 500 kV, 765 kV, 1100 kV, and 2000 kV (AC) and
±375 kV and ±1000 kV (DC). The computed gradients are listed in Table II. Participant
No. 4 is Vernon L. Chartier and he reports only the results of an AM calculation.

By 1979, such calculations had migrated to the digital computer and had expanded in
capability and complexity. One can see an earlier version of the BPA calculation,
suitable for manual calculation, in Pakala and Taylor (1968). I have implemented in IDL
(Appendix B) the 1991 version of the Fortran code used by V. L. Chartier (Participant
No. 4) for the 1979 paper and obtained exactly his results.

48
 Table 1 presents the conductor surface voltage gradients reported by Participant No. 4
(IEEE Corona and Field Effects Subcommittee 1979). The numbers of phases, ground
wires, and subconductors are listed to illustrate the variety of configurations included;
information on horizontal and vertical offsets, diameters, and separations are in the
report.

It should be noted that the report presents only the two highest values of the conductor
surface voltage gradients (suitable to obtain peak or quasi-peak values of static) while
radio astronomers are interested in rms total power which potentially includes significant
contributions from all phases and even grounds.

Table 1. Conductor Surface Voltage Gradients (1979) For Participant No. 41

Line Operating Phases Ground Sub- Highest 2nd
Config. Voltage Wires Conductors (kV/cm) Highest
No. (kV) (kV/cm)
1 345 3 0 1 15.51 14.67
2 345 3 0 2 15.66 14.49
3a 345 6 2 2 15.50 15.20
3b 345 6 0 2 15.58 15.18
4a 500 3 2 2 16.73 16.63
4b 500 3 0 2 16.71 16.30
5 500 3 0 3 16.93 15.80
6a 765 3 2 4 21.07 19.59
6b 764 3 0 4 21.07 19.38
7 1100 3 0 8 16.55 14.98
8 2000 3 0 16 14.19 12.93
2
9 ±375 2 0 2 19.21 19.21
2
10 ±1000 2 0 8 20.47 20.47
1
V.L. Chartier (BPA)
2
DC

The results presented in Table 1 also illustrate the effect of differences in design on the
value of the conductor surface voltage gradient. Line Configuration No. 8 has an
operating voltage almost three times that of Line Configuration No. 6 (2000 kV vs. 765
kV), yet its voltage gradients are about 1/3 smaller. One significant difference in design
is that the subconductor bundles for Line Configuration No. 8 include sixteen
subconductors instead of four.

Another factor to keep in mind when evaluating the conductor surface voltage gradient is
that conductor cables sag. The degree of sag depends upon the outside temperature and,
especially, upon the heat generated by the electrical load. In exceptional circumstances
overheated electrical cables have been known to sag so much that they touched the
ground. In the case of a conductor anchored at a height H at each of two towers and
which sags by an amount S at its center, the average height h is given by

49
 h = H – ⅔ S. (3)

This is the value that should be used to calculate the conductor surface voltage gradient.

3.2. Subconductor Diameter

TVIS(d) = 40*log(d/3.04), (4)

where

d = subconductor diameter (cm).

The subconductor diameter affects the TVI in two ways, which tend to offset each other.
The first is indirectly through its effects on the values of the conductor surface voltage
gradients; the larger the diameter, the lower the values. For example, Chartier (1984)
reported that increasing the subconductor diameter from 1.108 inches to 1.196 would
decrease the values of the conductor surface voltage gradients by 6 percent; the
corresponding decrease in the value of the second term in Equation (1) would be 3.3 dB
or 53 percent.

The second way is directly through the third term in Equation (1). The increase in
subconductor diameter mentioned in the previous paragraph would increase the TVI by
1.4 dB or 37 percent.

3.3. Frequency Dependence

TVIf = 20*log(75/f), (5)

where

f = frequency (MHz).

The data supporting this correction are discussed in Pakala and Chartier (1971). The
measurements presented in their Figures 10 and 11 were obtained in fair weather at a
reference distance of 200 feet (61 m) from the outer conductor of transmission lines with
voltages of 244 kV, 345 kV, 525 kV, and 735 kV. In theory and practice this simple
behavior breaks down at larger distances.

At low frequencies of interest to the LWA and the VLA (13.385, 25.610, 37.875, 73.8,
151.525, 325.3, 408.05, and 611.0 MHz), the contributions from this term are 15, 9.3,
5.9, 0.1, -6.1, -13, -15, and -18 dB, respectively.

3.4. Altitude Dependence

TVIA = (A/0.3), (6)

50
 where

A = altitude (km).

This term reflects Paschen’s Law which states that at typical atmospheric pressures the
breakdown voltage for corona discharge decreases as the pressure (density) decreases
(which occurs naturally as the altitude increases). This form of the correction was
derived from measurements of the radio noise (RI) produced by low-altitude (195 m) and
high-altitude (3200 m) EHV transmission lines. It was later shown to describe the
behavior of television interference (TVI) by Chartier et al. (1987).

This term is relatively unimportant, since a change in altitude from sea level to 3 km
results in an adjustment of only 10 dB.

3.5. Lateral Attenuation

TVID(L) = 20*log(L0/L), for L and L0 ≤ Lc, (7a)

= 20*log(L0/Lc) + 40*log(Lc/L), for L ≥ Lc and L0 ≤ Lc, (7b)

= 20*log(Lc/L) + 40*log(L0/Lc), for L ≤ Lc and L0 ≥ Lc, (7c)

= 40*log(L0/L), for L and L0 ≥ Lc, (7d)

where

ha = antenna height (m),

H = conductor height (m),
λ = wavelength (m),
L = lateral distance between phase and antenna (m),
L0 = 61 m (200 ft), reference lateral distance,
Lc = 12 ha H λ-1, changeover distance.

This relatively simple expression accounts for the lateral attenuation of TVI in the BPA
method for corona discharge from EHV transmission lines. Nominally, it applies to
frequencies between 30 MHz and ≥1000 MHz; at distances of interest to us it probably
applies to frequencies ≥10 MHz (Chartier 2009).

This expression does not depend explicitly upon frequency but an implicit dependence is
introduced by the changeover distance, Lc, which marks the boundary between near-field
and far-field behavior. At frequencies of interest to the LWA (13.385, 25.610, 37.875,
and 73.8 MHz), the values of the changeover distance are 16.7 m, 32.0 m, 47.4 m, and
92.3 m, respectively. The lateral attenuation is normalized to unity (0 dB) at L0
independent of frequency and the transition from near-field to far-field behavior (L-2 to
L-4) occurs at Lc. Consequently, at lower frequencies for which L ≥ L0 ≥ Lc and at the
large distances of interest to us, we have

51
 TVID(L) = 40*log(L0/L), (8a)

which is frequency independent. On the other hand, at higher frequencies for which L ≥
Lc ≥ L0 and at the same large distances, we have

TVID(L) = 20*log(L0/Lc) + 40*log(Lc/L), (8b)

which is systematically greater than the prior result (since Lc ≥ L0) and frequency-
dependent through the presence of Lc. These behaviors are illustrated in Figure 1.

However, if the distances are normalized to the value of Lc at 75 MHz:

L75 = 12*106 ha H f c-1, (9)

the sum of Equations (5) and (8b) can be simplified to

TVIf + TVID(L) = 20*log(L0/L75) + 40*log(L75/L), L ≥ Lc ≥ L0. (10)

Surprisingly, as long as L ≥ Lc ≥ L0, the TVI/phase is independent of frequency, which is

apparent in Figures 2, 3, and 4.

The propagation of radio waves over a finitely conducting plane was first addressed by
Sommerfeld (1909). These results were simplified for engineering work (Norton 1936,
1937) and extended eventually to the case of the finitely conducting spherical Earth
(Norton 1941). Additional simplifications are provided by Pakala and Chartier (1971). I
have not determined the provenance of Equation (4) but it is accepted by the domestic
(EPRI 2008) and international (CIGRE 2000) electric power industries.

Equation (4) applies to distances between approximately 61 m and 15000 m. At shorter

distances interference between the space wave (itself a combination of direct and ground-
reflected waves), the surface wave, the induction field, and the electrostatic field
predominates – all propagating over a finitely conducting earth. At larger distances the
curvature of the earth is important as is the variation of atmospheric refraction with
altitude.

4. Detector, Bandwidth, and Power

Equation (1) is based upon a CISPR quasi-peak (QP) detector with a bandwidth of 120
kHz. However, in practice, a different detector and different bandwidth may be used; the
following conversion procedure originated with Chartier (1988). Corrections to other
detectors and bandwidths are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively, which are based upon
Table 9.6-1 and Equations 9.6-5, 9.6-6, and 9.6-7 in the EPRI Red Book (2008).

52
 TVI/phase in Equation (1) is an electric field whereas radio astronomers measure noise
power. The steps in making the conversion from TVI (dBμV/m) to noise power
P(dBW/m2/Hz) are

(1) Convert from dBμV to dBV

Correction = -120 dB. (11)

(2) Convert from quasi-peak electric field to rms electric field

Correction = -10 dB. (12)

(3) Convert from a bandwidth of 120 kHz to a bandwidth of 1 Hz

Correction = 10*log(1/120000) dB = -50.8 dB. (13)

(4) Convert from rms electric field to noise power, which is done via

P = E2/Z, (14)

where

P = noise power (W/m2/Hz),

E = rms noise voltage (V/m/Hz1/2),
Z = impedance of free space (377 Ω).

Or

10*log[P(W/m2/Hz)] = 20*log[E(V/m/Hz1/2)] – 10*log(377), (15)

P(dBW/m2/Hz) = E(dBV/m/Hz1/2) - 25.8 dB. (16)

Finally,

P(dBW/m2/Hz) = TVI(dBμV/m) – 206.6 dB. (17)

Table 2. Corrections from QP to Other Detectors

Detector Correction
Quasi-Peak +0 dB
Peak +5 dB
RMS -10 dB

Table 3. Bandwidth Corrections

Detector Correction1 (ΔEpk)
Quasi-Peak +0 dB
Peak 20 log (BW/BW0) dB

53
 RMS 10 log (BW/BW0) dB
Average 10 log (BW/BW0) dB
1
BW0 = 120 kHz

5. Operating Voltages

Extra-high-voltage (EHV) transmission lines are labeled by voltages of 345 kV, 500 kV,
765 kV, 1100 kV, and even 2000 kV. But these voltages are only nominal. The actual
operating voltages may be significantly higher; they are set by the individual utilities and
will vary during the day as the nature of the load changes. There are, however, standards
for the maximum voltages which manufacturers use to design and build the high-voltage
equipment. The maximum extra-high voltages as established by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI C84.1-2006) are listed in Table 4; I found them listed in the
IEEE Dictionary (IEEE 100).

Table 4. Operating Voltages for EHV Transmission Lines1

Nominal (kV) Actual (kV)2 Maximum (kV)
345 ~350 362
500 ~535 550
765 … 800
1100 … 1200
1
ANSI C84.1-2006
2
Bonneville Power Administration

It should be noted that operating voltages are rms phase-to-phase while the voltages used
to calculate voltage gradients are rms line-to-ground; the latter are thus a factor of 31/2
smaller than the former.

6. Weather

The altitude dependence discussed above is a simple example of the effects of the
environment on TVI. More generally, weather has significant, but highly variable,
effects. For example, according to Chartier (2009), a typical plot of an all-weather RI
distribution is the superposition of three distinct Gaussian distributions: (1) high values
during mean rainy weather (i.e., conductors thoroughly wet), (2) low values during mean
fair weather, and (3) a transition distribution between measurable rain and fair weather -
i.e., when the conductors are wet with dew, fog, light snow, and after rain - or in the
presence of pollution caused by industry, farmers plowing their fields, etc.

The BPA method calculates the TVI level during mean rainy weather but in very heavy
rain the TVI level may be even higher (Pakala and Chartier 1971; Chartier 2009).

Table 5. Adjustment for Weather Conditions

Weather Condition Adjustment
Heavy Rain +5 dB

54
 Mean Rainy Weather 0 dB
Mean Fair Weather -25 dB

7. Thresholds for Harmful Interference

In the United States, electromagnetic interference from power transmission systems is

governed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Rules and Regulations
presently in existence (FCC, 1988). A power transmission system falls into the FCC
category of “incidental radiation device,” which is defined as “a device that radiates
radio frequency energy during the course of its operation although the device is not
intentionally designed to generate radio frequency energy.” Such a device “shall be
operated so that the radio frequency energy that is emitted does not cause harmful
interference. In the event that harmful interference is caused, the operator of the device
shall promptly take steps to eliminate the harmful interference.” For purposes of these
regulations, harmful interference is defined as: “any emission, radiation or induction
which endangers the functioning of a radio navigation service or of other safety services
or seriously degrades, obstructs or repeated interrupts a radio communication service
operating in accordance with this chapter” [FCC 1988].

This statement is reproduced from the Final Environmental Impact Statement for the
Klondike III/Biglow Canyon Wind Integration Project (BPA 2006).

The frequency range (10-88 MHz) of the LWA includes five allocations for radio
astronomy; six other allocations are (or eventually may be) of interest to the VLA (Table
6).

Table 6. Low-Frequency Allocations for Radio Astronomy

Frequency Range Description (U.S.)
13360-13410 kHz Primary
25550-25670 kHz Primary
37.5-38.0 MHz Secondary, Land Mobile Primary
38.0-38.25 MHz Primary, Shared with Fixed and Mobile
73.0-74.6 MHz Primary
150.05-153.0 MHz Fixed, Mobile, and Land Mobile Primary*
322.0-328.6 MHz Footnote, Fixed and Mobile Primary*
406.1-410.0 MHz Primary, Shared with Fixed and Mobile
608.0-614.0 MHz Primary, Shared with Land Mobile
1400.0-1427.0 MHz Primary, Shared with Earth-Exploration Satellite
(passive) and Space Research (passive)
*
Radio Astronomy Primary Outside U.S.

Twenty-five years ago it was recognized that synthesis-imaging arrays were intrinsically
less sensitive to radio-frequency interference (RFI) than single radio telescopes that
operate in total-power mode. In the case of a connected-element array fringe-frequency
averaging and broadband decorrelation (Thompson 1982) may reduce the sensitivity to
RFI significantly [see Figure 15.2 in Thompson, Moran, and Swenson (2001)]. In the

55
 case of the VLA, in particular, these effects reduce its sensitivity to RFI by 15 dB, 19 dB,
and 22 dB at 73.8 MHz, 325 MHz, and 1413.5 MHz, respectively (Crane 1985).

However, what may be overlooked is that radio-astronomical arrays – such as the LWA –
today and in the future need not be used exclusively for synthesis imaging. Indeed, one
need only look at the science proposed for the first station of the LWA (LWA-1) to
understand how erroneous that view is – pulsar spectra, “giant” pulses, scintillation and
scattering effects; all-sky monitoring for transient events; low-frequency radio
recombination lines; ionospheric-transparency events; ionospheric scintillation;
frequency structure of solar and Jovian radio bursts; interplanetary scintillation. And,
because multiple, independently tuned and pointed beams will be provided, both
interferometric and total-power observations likely will occur simultaneously.

Consequently, the appropriate protection criteria for the LWA are those recommended by
the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) for a radio telescope operating in
total-power mode in “ITU-R Recommendation RA.769-2: Protection Criteria for
Radioastronomical Measurements” (ITU 2003): The harmful interference level is that
level of interference which equals 0.1 of the rms noise level which sets the fundamental
limit of the data. The corresponding spectral power flux density, ΔSH
(Wm-2Hz-1), is given by

ΔSH = 0.4πf2kTS(Bt)-1/2(c2Gs)-1, (18)

where f is the observing frequency; k, Boltzman’s constant; TS, the system temperature;
B, the observing bandwidth; c, the speed of light; Gs, the gain, with respect to an isotropic
antenna (λ2/4π), of the antenna in the direction of the arrival of the interfering signal; and
t, the total integration time. RA.769-2 adopts a total integration time of 2000 seconds,
which is intermediate between short observations of time-varying phenomena and deep
spectral-line observations. An antenna gain Gs of 0 dBi is adopted as a compromise
between the high gain of the main beam and the low gain of the distant sidelobes. The
system temperature, TS, is the sum of the antenna noise temperature, TA, and the receiver
noise temperature, TR, or

TS = TA + TR. (19)

The Galactic background dominates the antenna temperatures at low frequencies;

RA.769-2 uses the minimum temperatures observed at the North Galactic Pole in its
calculations. The minimum temperature for 37.875 MHz was provided by Emil
Polisensky (2009) using his program LFmap (Polisensky 2007).

Table 7. Threshold Levels of Harmful Interference (RA.769-2)

Center Frequency Assumed Minimum Antenna Receiver Noise Spectral pfd
fc Bandwidth Noise Temperature Temperature ΔSH
(MHz) Δf TA TR (dB(Wm-2Hz-1))
(MHz) (K) (K)
13.385 0.05 50000 60 -248
25.610 0.12 15000 60 -249
37.875 0.75 4000* 60 -255

56
 73.8 1.6 750 60 -258
151.525 2.95 150 60 -259
325.3 6.6 40 60 -258
408.05 3.9 25 60 -255
611.0 6.0 20 60 -253
1413.5 27.0 12 10 -255
*
Polisensky (2009)

The thresholds of harmful interference derived in RA.769-2 are summarized in Table 7.

ΔSH is fairly constant between 13.385 MHz and 1413.5 MHz but at higher frequencies
the f2 dependence dominates and ΔSH decreases rapidly.

8. Minimum Separation Distances

As described in Section 5, there are several standard (nominal) operating voltages for
EHV transmission lines: 345 kV, 500 kV, 765 kV, and 1100 kV. The El Paso Electric
transmission line is 345 kV. The High Plains Express and SunZia projects are planning
for 500-kV transmission lines, possibly even double-circuit 500-kV transmission lines.
765-kV transmission lines are not uncommon in the United States and the line
configuration (No. 6) analyzed by the IEEE Corona and Field Effects Subcommittee
(1979) has the highest conductor surface voltage gradients of those analyzed, so using it
will provide a conservative estimate for the minimum separation distances. The values of
the voltage gradients, however, need to be scaled to the maximum operating voltage of
800 kV.

Since we have converted from quasi-peak electric field to rms electric field to noise
power, it is necessary to sum the contributions from the three phases. A final
conservative assumption is that conditions of heavy rain apply. The various assumptions
that will form the basis for the calculations of minimum separation distances are listed in
Table 8. The distances will be calculated for the LWA and the VLA; Table 8 includes
appropriate heights for the LWA and VLA antennas and altitudes for the continental
divide at Pie Town (a possible LWA site) and the VLA site on the Plains of San
Augustin.

Table 8. Assumptions for Calculation of Minimum Separation Distances

Line Configuration No. 6
Three phases
No ground wires
Conductor surface voltage gradients 21.07 kV/cm (Center Phase) and 19.38 kV/cm
(Outer Phase) for operating voltage of 765 kV
Scale from 765 kV to operating voltages of 800 kV and 510 kV
Antenna heights of 1.5 m (LWA) and 25 m (VLA)
Altitudes of 7796 ft (LWA) and 7000 ft (VLA)
Heavy rain (+5 dB)
Total noise power => Sum contributions from three phases
Total-power observations

57
 Threshold levels of harmful interference from Table 7

The minimum separation distances (Figure 2 and Table 9) derived for a transmission line
with an operating voltage of 800 kV and the LWA are exactly compatible with the
separation distance of 10 miles (16.09 km) that has been discussed with the New Mexico
Renewable Energy Transmission Authority (NMRETA). However, given that the
conductor surface voltage gradient is more fundamental than the operating voltage, it is
more appropriate to say: For a single circuit, as long as the conductor surface voltage
gradients are less than about 22 kV/cm, 10 miles or more is a sufficient separation
distance from the LWA.

On the other hand, the derived minimum separation distances at the six radio-astronomy
allocations of interest to the VLA are considerably greater than 10 miles (Figure 3 and
Table 9). The reason is that the changeover distances for the transition from near-field to
far-field behavior are much greater than for the LWA because of the greater height of the
antenna and the shorter wavelengths. Decreasing the operating voltage to 510 kV,
however, provides minimum separation distances that are exactly compatible with a
separation distance of 10 miles (Figure 4 and Table 9). Therefore, subject to the caveat
about operating voltages and conductor surface voltage gradients and for a single
circuit, as long as the conductor surface voltage gradients are less than about 14
kV/cm, 10 miles or more is a sufficient separation distance from the VLA.

Table 9. Minimum Separation Distances

Center Frequency Distance Distance1 Distance2
fc (LWA) (VLA) (VLA)
(MHz) (km) (km) (km)
13.385 16.15 … …
25.610 12.37 … …
37.875 14.37 … …
73.8 15.05 58.64 15.19
151.525 … 64.12 16.09
325.3 … 58.64 15.19
408.05 … 48.34 12.78
611.0 … 43.97 10.19
1413.5 … 49.34 5.55
1
800 kV: 22.03 kV/cm (C.P.) and 20.27 kV/cm (O.P)
2
510 kV: 14.05 kV/cm (C.P.) and 12.92 kV/cm (O.P)

It is important to remember that the values of the conductor surface voltage gradients are
essentially a design feature of a transmission line. The values are largely determined by
the operating voltage and by the design of the subconductor bundle. Using
subconductors with larger radii and bundles including more subconductors both reduce
the value of the voltage gradient. On the other hand, as discussed in Section 3.2, the term
TVIS(d) increases as the subconductor diameter increases, offsetting in part the effect of
decreasing the voltage gradient.

58
 The preparation of this report is very timely because on 29 May 2009 the Bureau of Land
Management announced that it was initiating the process to prepare the Environmental
Impact Statement for the SunZia Southwest Transmission Project which is proposed to
run from Bingham, NM (near Socorro) to Tucson, AZ by way of San Antonio, NM and
Deming, NM. The proposed and alternate routes pass near several possible LWA sites:
SA, CU, EN, HN, AK, and NM. The proposed line configuration includes two 500-kV
transmission lines. Consequently, the noise power from six phases (and grounds,
potentially) must be summed, and possibly a larger minimum separation distance will be
necessary.

For us to evaluate a proposal for EHV transmission line, we shall require the
complete set of physical parameters for the transmission line(s): maximum
operating voltages; horizontal and vertical offsets; numbers, diameters, and
separations of subconductors; numbers and diameters of grounds; conductor sag;
number and separation of circuits; and altitudes. This information will allow us to
evaluate the potential for radio-frequency interference using the BPA method
(USDOE/Bonneville Power Administration, undated).

9. Acknowledgements

I wish to thank Vernon L. Chartier for his invaluable assistance in the preparation of this
memorandum.

Basic research in radio astronomy at the Naval Research Laboratory is supported by the
Office of Naval Research.

10. References

Accredited Standards Committee on Preferred Voltage Ratings for AC Systems and

Equipment, C84, 2006, ANSI C84.1-2006: American National Standard for Electric
Power Systems and Equipment – Voltage Ratings (60 Hertz), National Electrical
Manufacturers Association, Roslyn, Virginia.

BPA, 2006, Final Environmental Statement: Klondike III/Biglow Canyon Wind

Integration Project, Appendix C: Electrical Effects, Bonneville Power Administration,
Portland, Oregon
(http://www.efw.bpa.gov/environmental_services/Document_Library/Klondike/Appendi
xC.pdf/).

Chartier, V. L., 1983, “Empirical Expressions for Calculating High Voltage Transmission
Corona Phenomena,” Proceedings of First annual Seminar, Technical Career Program for
Professional Engineers, April 1983, pp. 75-82.

Chartier, V. L., 1984, “Evaluation of Electromagnetic Interference from El Paso Electric

Red Hill to Deming 345-kV Line on the Very Large Array Radio Telescope,” Bonneville
Power Administration, Laboratory Report ER-84-18.

59
 Chartier, V. L., 1988, "Comprehensive Empirical Formulas for Predicting EMI from
Overhead Power Line Corona," Proceedings of the 1988 U.S.-Japan Seminar on
Electromagnetic Interferences in Highly Advanced Social Systems (Modeling,
Characterization, Evaluation and Protection), August 1-4, 1988, Honolulu, Hawaii, pp. 5-
1 to 5-11.

Chartier, V. L., 2009, private communication.

Chartier, V. L., Lee, L. Y., Dickson, L. D., and Martin, K. E., 1987, “Effect of High
Altitude on High Voltage AC Transmission Line Corona Phenomena,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery 2 (1), 225-236.

CIGRE, 1996, Addendum to CIGRE Document No, 20 (1974), Interferences

Produced by Corona Effect of Electric Systems – Description of Phenomena and
Practical Guide for Calculation, International Council on Large Electric Systems, Paris,
France.

Crane, P. C., 1985, “The Responses of the Very Large Array and the Very Long Baseline
Array to Interfering Signals,” VLA Scientific Memorandum No, 156.

EPRI, 2008, EPRI AC Transmission Line Reference Book – 200 kV and Above,
Third Edition, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California.

FCC, 1988, Federal Communications Rules and Regulations, 10-1-88 Edition,

Volume II, Part 15, 47 CFR, Chapter 1, Federal Communications Commission,
Washington, D.C.

Hubbell Power Systems, Inc., 2004, What Is Corona?, Bulletin EU1234-H, Hubbell
Power Systems, Inc., Centralia, Missouri
(http://www.hubbellpowersystems.com/powertest/literature_library/pdfs4lib/OB/EU1234
-H.pdf).

IEEE Corona and Field Effects Subcommittee, 1979, “A Survey of Methods for
Calculating Transmission Line Conductor surface Voltage Gradients,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS-98 (6), 1996-2014.

IEEE Corona and Field Effects Subcommittee, 1991, IEEE Std 539-1990: IEEE
Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Corona and Field Effects of Overhead
Power Lines, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, New
York.

IEEE Standards Project Editors, 2000, The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE

Standards Terms (IEEE 100), Seventh Edition, IEEE Standards Information Network
(SIN)/IEEE Press, Piscataway, New Jersey, p. 1261.

60
 Indulkar, C. S., 2004, “Sensitivity Analysis of Corona and Radio Noise in EHV
Transmission Lines,” Journal IE(I)-EL 84(4), 197-200.

ITU, 2003, “ITU-R Recommendation RA.769-2: Protection Criteria for

Radioastronomical Measurements,” ITU-R Recommndations, RA Series, International
Telecommunications Union, Geneva.

Morris, R. M., and Maruvada, P. S., 1976, “Conductor Surface Voltage Gradients on
Bipolar HV dc Transmission Lines,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems PAS-95 (6), 1934-1945.

Norton, K. A., 1936, “Propagation of Radio Waves Over the Surface of the Earth and in
the Upper Atmosphere, Part I,” Proc. IRE 24, 1367-1387.

Norton, K. A., 1937, “Propagation of Radio Waves Over the Surface of the Earth and in
the Upper Atmosphere, Part II,” Proc. IRE 25, 1203-1236.

Norton, K. A., 1941, “The Calculation of Ground-Wave Field Intensity Over a Finitely
Conducting Spherical Earth,” Proc. IRE 29, 623-639.

Olsen, R. G., Schennum, S. D., and Chartier, V. L., 1992, “Comparison of Several
Methods for Calculating Power Line Electromagnetic Interference Levels and Calibration
with Long Term Data,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery 7 (2), 903-913.

Pakala, W. E., and Chartier, V. L., 1971, “Radio Noise Measurements on Overhead
Power Lines from 2.4 to 800 kV,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems
PAS-90 (3), 1155-1165.

Pakala, W. E., and Taylor, E. R., 1968, “A Method for Analysis of Radio Noise on High-
Voltage Transmission Lines,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems
PAS-87 (2), 334-345.

Polisensky, E., 2007, “LFmap: A Low Frequency Sky Map Generating Program,” Long
Wavelength Array (LWA) Memorandum No. 111.

Polisensky, E., 2009, private communication.

Sommerfeld, A., 1909, “The Propagation of Waves in Wireless Telegraphy,” Ann. Phys.
28, 665-736.

Thompson, A. R., 1982, “The Response of a Radio-Astronomy Synthesis Array to

Interfering Signals,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation AP-30, 450-456.

Thompson, A. R., Moran, J. M., and Swenson, G. W., 2001, Interferometry and
Synthesis in Radio Astronomy, Second Edition, Wiley-Interscience, New York.

61
 USDOE, Bonneville Power Administration, undated, “Corona and Field Effects”
Computer Program (Public Domain Software), Bonneville Power Administration, Post
Office Box 491-ELE, Vancouver, WA 98666.

62
 Appendix A. High-Voltage Direct-Current (HVDC) Transmission Lines

High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission lines are not common in the United
States. But 500-kV transmission lines of this type are under consideration for the SunZia
Southwest Transmission Project. The following discussion is included for the sake of
completeness.

According to CIGRE (1996),

Positive pulsative corona is the dominant source of [RFI] on direct-current (DC)

transmission lines because the current pulses induced by corona discharges on the
positive conductor have much higher amplitudes than those on the negative polarity
conductor…Experimental studies have shown that DC lines produce very little [RFI]
above 30 MHz.

…contrary to the case of AC lines, the RI [radio interference] level of a bipolar DC line
decreases in rain or wet snow.

The BPA calculation for RI/(positive phase) for a CISPR quasi-peak detector from
corona discharge from a high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission line is given
by Equation 7.4 of CIGRE (1996), for frequencies f ≤ 30 MHz:

RI/(positive phase) = 51.7 + RIV(E) + RIS(d) + RIf +RIA +RID(L), (A.1)

where

RI/(positive phase) = electric field (dBμV/m), measured during mean fair weather, with
550-ms discharge time constant, and 6-dB bandwidth of 120 kHz, for a single
phase,
E = conductor surface voltage gradient (kV/cm),
d = subconductor diameter (cm),
f = frequency (MHz),
A = altitude above sea level (km),
L = distance between antenna and positive phase (m).

However, by adjusting the constants inside the logarithmic terms, it is possible to rewrite
Equation (A.1) in terms familiar from the discussion of TVI in Section 3:

RI/(positive phase) = 8.1 + 0.717*TVIV(E) + TVIS(d) + RIf + TVIA + RID(L). (A.2)

Superficially this resembles Equation (1) for TVI from EHV transmission lines, including
the value of the initial constant.

A.1. Conductor Surface Voltage Gradient

63
 The factor of 0.717 (86/120) multiplying TVIV(E) indicates that the dependence on the
conductor surface voltage gradient of RI from HVDC transmission lines is weaker than
that of TVI from EHV transmission lines. For example, doubling the values of the
conductor surface voltage gradient increases the contributions to RI and TVI by factors of
25.8 dB and 36 dB, respectively. On the other hand, for the largest values in Table 1 of
conductor surface voltage gradient for HVDC and EHV transmission lines, the
contributions of these terms to RI and TVI, 8.5 dB and 13.4 dB, respectively, differ by
only a few dB.

A.2. Frequency Dependence

RIf = 10*[1 - log2(10*f)], (A.3)

where

f = frequency (MHz).

At low frequencies of interest to the LWA (13.385 and 25.610 MHz), the contributions
from this term are -35 and -48.0 dB, respectively, which correspond to the values of 15
and 9.3 dB calculated for TVI. The large numerical differences arise because the
reference frequency for RI is 0.5 MHz or 1.0 MHz and that for TVI is 75 MHz. RIf is
zero at 0.1 MHz and TVIf is zero at 75 MHz.

A.3. Lateral Attenuation

RID(L) = 40*log(L0/L), (A.4)

where

L = lateral distance between positive phase and antenna (m)

L0 = 61 m (200 ft), reference lateral distance

This is the same result as the far-field limit of TVID(L) given in Equation (8a).

A.4. Detector, Bandwidth and Power

Equations (A.1) and (A.2) are based upon a CISPR quasi-peak (QP) detector with a
bandwidth of 120 kHz. As discussed above in Section 4, in practice, a different detector
and different bandwidth may be used. The conversion from electric field to noise power
is the same:

P(dBW/m2/Hz) = RI(dBμV/m) - 206.6 dB. (A.5)

A.5. Weather

64
 As noted in Section 6, Equation (1) calculates the TVI level during conditions during
mean rainy weather. To adjust the result to the same conditions of mean fair weather that
apply to Equations (A.1) and (A.2), the result for TVI must be adjusted downward by -25
dB (Table 5).

A.6. Summary

As noted above, Equations (1) and (A.2) superficially resemble each other, including the
values of the numerical constant. But the introductory comments suggest that the RI and
TVI generated by HVDC transmission lines are significantly less than those generated by
EHV transmission lines. The primary difference in value between the calculations of RI
from HVDC transmission lines and TVI from EHV transmission lines is introduced by
the frequency corrections. For frequencies of interest to the LWA below 30 MHz, on
average the difference between Equation (5) and Equation (A.3) is about -50 dB. This is
only partially compensated by the 25-dB adjustment of Equation (1) to mean fair
weather. The contribution of the conductor surface voltage gradient is perhaps 5 db
smaller for RI from HVDC transmission lines. Overall it appears that RI from HVDC
transmission lines is about 30 dB less than TVI from EHV transmission lines at
frequencies below 30 MHz; it is realistic to assume that a similar factor applies to TVI at
higher frequencies from HVDC transmission lines relative to that from EHV transmission
lines.

65
 Appendix B. IDL Subroutines for Conductor Surface Voltage Gradient

Calculation of conductor surface voltage gradients is the only quantity or effect discussed
in this report not amenable to simple and straightforward calculation. Instead I obtained
the FORTRAN files CSMXGRAD.TXT, CSMXINVR.TXT, and C3INCL.TXT from the
“Corona and Field Effects” Computer Program (USDOE/Bonneville Power
Administration, undated) from Vernon L. Chartier. They were combined and translated
into a single IDL (Interactive Data Language) subroutine, BPA_CSVG.PRO, for the
calculation of conductor surface voltage gradients. An IDL procedure,
TEST_BPA_CSVG.PRO, was written and used to test BPA_CSVG.PRO on the thirteen
different conductor configurations studied by the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
Subcommittee (1979). The results of these tests` agreed exactly with those of Participant
No. 4, who was Vernon L. Chartier. The two IDL routines are listed below.

pro bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts, $
phase,acdc,gradcomp
;
; IDL procedure to calculate conductor surface voltage gradients for an
; array of energized conductors and ground wires
;
; inputs
;
; numph = number of energized phases
; numgnd = number of ground wires
; xdist = (numph+numgnd) array of horizontal distances from reference
; (m)
; ydist = (numph+numgnd) array of vertical distances from ground (m)
; numsubcond = (numph+numgnd) array of numbers of subconductors in
; bundles
; diam = (numph+numgnd) array of diameters of single subconductor (cm)
; subspc = (numph+numgnd) array of subconductor spacings (cm)
; volts = (numph+numgnd) array of operating voltages kV
; phase = (numph+numgnd) array of phase angles (degrees)
; acdc = (numph+numgnd) array of ac/dc flags (0 for ground, 1 for AC, 2
; for DC)
;
; notes
;
; the operating voltages for AC transmission lines are phase-to-phase
; rms voltages
; the voltages used to calculate conductor surface voltage gradients
; are line-to-ground rms voltages
; therefore V(line-to-ground)=V(phase-to-phase)/sqrt(3) for AC
;
; no conversion is necessary for DC
;
; outputs
;
; gradcomp = (numph+numgnd) array of computed conductor surface voltage
; gradients (kV/cm)
; qreal = (numph+numgnd) array of computed real components of
; charge(Coulomb?)
; qimag = (numph+numgnd) array of computed imaginary components of
; charge (Coulomb?)

66
 ;
; BACKGROUND
;
; Conductor gradient calculation routine for CORONA and field effects
; program
;
; author
;
; U. S. Department of Energy - Bonneville Power Administration
; Paul Kingery
;
; purpose
;
; To calculate the surface gradient for each conductor. Also,
; calculate the real and imaginary charge factors
; for each conductor.
;
; history
;
; Originally written by Douglas Lewis, 15 December 1984.
; Modified by Paul Kingery to use C3INCL.FOR include file, June 1991,
; as well as extensive modifications abnd
; code cleanup.
;
; Converted to IDL function by Patrick Crane, June 2009
;
; constants
;
zero=0.0d0
tenth=0.1d0
one=1.0d0
two=2.0d0
three=3.0d0
root2=sqrt(two)
root3=sqrt(three)
four=4.0d0
ten=10.0d0
fifty=50.0d0
hundred=100.0d0
one80=180.0d0
thousand=1000.0d0
pi=3.1415926536d0
halfpi=pi/two
twopi=two*pi
rootpi=sqrt(pi)
root2pi=root2*rootpi
d2r=pi/one80
r2d=one80/pi
eps1=18.0d9
eps2=18.0d6
n360x10=3600
;
; initialize variables
;
numcond=numph+numgnd ; total number of energized and ground conductors
pmatrix=dblarr(numcond,numcond) ; square matrix
qtotal=zero ; total charge

67
 radius=dblarr(numcond) ; bundle radius
spacing=dblarr(numcond) ; effective bundle spacing
vreal=dblarr(numcond) ; real voltage
vimag=dblarr(numcond) ; imaginary voltage
bundiam=dblarr(numcond) ; effective bundle diameter
deq=dblarr(numcond) ; equivalent diameter
;
; output arrays
;
gradcomp=dblarr(numcond) ; computed conductor gradient
qreal=dblarr(numcond) ; computed real component of charge
qimag=dblarr(numcond) ; computed imaginary component of charge
;
; intermediate results in calculation of gradients
;
ck2=zero
frb=zero
;
; do conversions
;
; convert phase-to-phase voltages to line-toground voltages for AC
; ACDCF=1 => all AC
;
wac=where((acdc eq 1),nac)
if (nac gt 0) then begin
volts(wac)=volts(wac)/root3

acdcf=1
endif
;
; check for AC-DC mix
; ACDCF=2 => all DC
; ACDCF=0 => mix
;
wdc=where((acdc eq 2),ndc)
if (ndc gt 0) then acdcf=2
if (nac*ndc gt 0) then acdcf=0
;
; calculate radii and set defaults for numsubcond=1
;
radius=diam/two
spacing=radius
bundiam=diam
;
; loop for each conductor to compute effective radius and diameter
;
for i=0,numcond-1 do begin
rnsc=double(numsubcond[i])
if (numsubcond[i] gt 1) then begin
spacing[i]=subspc[i]
bundiam[i]=subspc[i]/sin(pi/rnsc)
endif
deq[i]=(bundiam[i]*(rnsc*diam[i]/bundiam[i])^(one/rnsc))/hundred
endfor
;
; loop for each conductor and compute square matrix
;

68
 for i=0,numcond-1 do begin
for j=0,numcond-1 do begin
;
; do calculation as if diagonal element
;
pmatrix[i,j]=eps1*alog(ydist[j]*four/deq[i])
;
; redo calculation for non-diagonal elements
;
if (i ne j) then $
pmatrix[i,j]=eps1*alog(sqrt((xdist[i]-xdist[j])^two+ $
(ydist[i]+ydist[j])^two)/ $
sqrt((xdist[i]-xdist[j])^two+ $
(ydist[i]-ydist[j])^two))
endfor
endfor
;
; invert the square matrix with IDL function LA_INVERT which uses LU
; decomposition and LAPACK routines
;
pmatrix=la_invert(pmatrix)
;
; loop around circle in tenths of a degree
;
for i=0,n360x10-1 do begin
;
; loop for each conductor
;
for j=0, numcond-1 do begin
if ((i ne 0) and (acdc[j] eq 1)) then phase[j]=phase[j]+tenth
;
; compute real and imaginary voltages
;
vreal[j]=volts[j]*cos(phase[j]*d2r)*thousand
vimag[j]=volts[j]*sin(phase[j]*d2r)*thousand
endfor
;
; perform matrix multiplications
;
qreal=pmatrix##vreal
qimag=pmatrix##vimag
;
; loop for each conductor and compute gradient
;
for j=0,numcond-1 do begin
rnsc=double(numsubcond[j])
qtotal=sqrt(qreal[j]^two+qimag[j]^two)
ck2=two*(rnsc-one)*sin(pi/rnsc)
frb=qtotal*(one+ck2/(spacing[j]/radius[j]))*eps2/(rnsc*radius[j])
if (i eq 0) then gradcomp[j]=frb
if (frb gt gradcomp[j]) then gradcomp[j]=frb
endfor
;
; do not continue main loop if all AC or DC
;
if (acdcf ne 0) then break
endfor

69
 ;
; loop for each conductor to adjust sign of gradient
;
for i=0,numcond-1 do if (volts[i] lt zero) then $
gradcomp[i]=-gradcomp[i]
;
; return with calculated gradients
;
return
end

***********************************************************************

; test_bpa_csvg.pro
;
; IDL procedure to test bpa_csvg function for calculating conductor
; surface voltage gradients
; using BPA model and subroutine
;
; calls IDL procedure
; bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts, $
; phase,acdc,gradcomp
;
; inputs
;
; numph = number of energized phases
; numgnd = number of ground wires
; xdist = (numph+numgnd) array of horizontal distances from reference
; (m)
; ydist = (numph+numgnd) array of vertical distances from ground (m)
; numsubcond = (numph+numgnd) array of numbers of subconductors in
; bundles
; diam = (numph+numgnd) array of diameters of single subconductor (cm)
; subspc = (numph+numgnd) array of subconductor spacings (cm)
; volts = (numph+numgnd) array of operating voltages kV (phase-to-phase
; rms for AC)
; phase = (numph+numgnd) array of phase angles (degrees)
; acdc = (numph+numgnd) array of ac/dc flags (0 for ground, 1 for AC,
; 2 for DC)
;
; outputs
;
; gradcomp = (numph+numgnd) array of computed conductor surface voltage
; gradients
; qreal = (numph+numgnd) array of computed real components of charge –
; N/A
; qimag = (numph+numgnd) array of computed imaginary components of
; charge - N/A
;
; line configuration no. 1 from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=3
numgnd=0
xdist=[-7.92d0,0.0d0,7.92d0]
ydist=11.18d0*[1,1,1]
numsubcond=[1,1,1]

70
 diam=4.475d0*[1,1,1]
subspc=0.0d0*[1,1,1]
volts=345.0d0*[1,1,1]
phase=[-120.0d0,0.0d0,120.0d0]
acdc=[1,1,1]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 1',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 2 from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=3
numgnd=0
xdist=[-8.31d0,0.0d0,8.31d0]
ydist=13.61d0*[1,1,1]
numsubcond=2*[1,1,1]
diam=3.08d0*[1,1,1]
subspc=45.72d0*[1,1,1]
volts=345.0d0*[1,1,1]
phase=[-120.0d0,0.0d0,120.0d0]
acdc=[1,1,1]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 2',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 3a from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=6
numgnd=2
xdist=[6.12d0*[-1,1],8.405d0*[-1,1],6.425d0*[-1,1],3.66d0*[-1,1]]
ydist=[26.31d0*[1,1],18.85d0*[1,1],12.29d0*[1,1],33.93d0*[1,1]]
numsubcond=[2*[1,1,1,1,1,1],1,1]
diam=[3.165d0*[1,1,1,1,1,1],1.463d0*[1,1]]
subspc=[45.72d0*[1,1,1,1,1,1],0.0d0*[1,1]]
volts=[345.0d0*[1,1,1,1,1,1],0.0d0*[1,1]]
phase=[120.0d0*[-1,1],0.0d0*[1,1],120.0d0*[1,-1],0.0d0*[1,1]]
acdc=[1,1,1,1,1,1,0,0]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 3a',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 3b from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=6
numgnd=0
xdist=[6.12d0*[-1,1],8.405d0*[-1,1],6.425d0*[-1,1]]
ydist=[26.31d0*[1,1],18.85d0*[1,1],12.29d0*[1,1]]
numsubcond=2*[1,1,1,1,1,1]
diam=3.165d0*[1,1,1,1,1,1]
subspc=45.72d0*[1,1,1,1,1,1]
volts=345.0d0*[1,1,1,1,1,1]
phase=[120.0d0*[-1,1],0.0d0*[1,1],120.0d0*[1,-1]]
acdc=[1,1,1,1,1,1]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $

71
 acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 3b',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 4a from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=3
numgnd=2
xdist=[-6.095d0,0.0d0,6.095d0,-3.935d0,3.935d0]
ydist=[13.94d0,22.32d0,13.94d0,33.29d0,33.29d0]
numsubcond=[2,2,2,1,1]
diam=[4.069d0,4.069d0,4.069d0,0.978d0,0.978d0]
subspc=[45.72d0,45.72d0,45.72d0,0.0d0,0.0d0]
volts=[500.0d0,500.0d0,500.0d0,0.0d0,0.0d0]
phase=[-120.0d0,0.0d0,120.0d0,0.0d0,0.0d0]
acdc=[1,1,1,0,0]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 4a',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 4b from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=3
numgnd=0
xdist=[-6.095d0,0.0d0,6.095d0]
ydist=[13.94d0,22.32d0,13.94d0,33.29d0,33.29d0]
numsubcond=[2,2,2]
diam=[4.069d0,4.069d0,4.069d0]
subspc=[45.72d0,45.72d0,45.72d0]
volts=[500.0d0,500.0d0,500.0d0]
phase=[-120.0d0,0.0d0,120.0d0]
acdc=[1,1,1]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 4b',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 5 from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=3
numgnd=0
xdist=[-12.19d0,0.0d0,12.19d0]
ydist=14.43d0*[1,1,1]
numsubcond=3*[1,1,1]
diam=2.959d0*[1,1,1]
subspc=45.72d0*[1,1,1]
volts=500.0d0*[1,1,1]
phase=[-120.0d0,0.0d0,120.0d0]
acdc=[1,1,1]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 5',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 6a from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;

72
 numph=3
numgnd=2
xdist=[-13.72d0,0.0d0,13.72d0,-10.975d0,10.975d0]
ydist=[20.83d0,20.83d0,20.83d0,31.49d0,31.49d0]
numsubcond=[4,4,4,1,1]
diam=[2.959d0,2.959d0,2.959d0,0.978d0,0.978d0]
subspc=[45.72d0,45.72d0,45.72d0,0.0d0,0.0d0]
volts=[765.0d0,765.0d0,765.0d0,0.0d0,0.0d0]
phase=[-120.0d0,0.0d0,120.0d0,0.0d0,0.0d0]
acdc=[1,1,1,0,0]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 6a',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 6b from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=3
numgnd=0
xdist=[-13.72d0,0.0d0,13.72d0]
ydist=[20.83d0,20.83d0,20.83d0]
numsubcond=[4,4,4]
diam=[2.959d0,2.959d0,2.959d0]
subspc=[45.72d0,45.72d0,45.72d0]
volts=[765.0d0,765.0d0,765.0d0]
phase=[-120.0d0,0.0d0,120.0d0]
acdc=[1,1,1]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 6b',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 7 from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=3
numgnd=0
xdist=[-15.24d0,0.0d0,15.24d0]
ydist=21.34d0*[1,1,1]
numsubcond=8*[1,1,1]
diam=3.556d0*[1,1,1]
subspc=45.72d0*[1,1,1]
volts=1100.0d0*[1,1,1]
phase=[-120.0d0,0.0d0,120.0d0]
acdc=[1,1,1]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 7',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 8 from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=3
numgnd=0
xdist=[-35.00d0,0.0d0,35.00d0]
ydist=45.00d0*[1,1,1]
numsubcond=16*[1,1,1]
diam=3.810d0*[1,1,1]

73
 subspc=45.72d0*[1,1,1]
volts=2000.0d0*[1,1,1]
phase=[-120.0d0,0.0d0,120.0d0]
acdc=[1,1,1]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 8',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 9 from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=2
numgnd=0
xdist=[-6.095d0,6.095d0]
ydist=13.92d0*[1,1]
numsubcond=[2,2]
diam=4.577d0*[1,1]
subspc=45.72d0*[1,1]
volts=375.0d0*[-1,1]
phase=[0.0d0,0.0d0]
acdc=[2,2]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 9',gradcomp
;
; line configuration no. 10 from the IEEE Corona and Field Effects
; Subcommittee Report (1979)
;
numph=2
numgnd=0
xdist=8.38d0*[-1,1]
ydist=18.29d0*[1,1]
numsubcond=[8,8]
diam=4.572d0*[1,1]
subspc=45.72d0*[1,1]
volts=1000.0d0*[-1,1]
phase=[0.0d0,0.0d0]
acdc=[2,2]
bpa_csvg,numph,numgnd,xdist,ydist,numsubcond,diam,subspc,volts,phase, $
acdc,gradcomp
print,'line configuration no. 10',gradcomp
stop
end

74
75
76
77
78
Callisto‐Pi: Callisto Spectrograms from Raspberry Pi  Abbreviations: 
Whitham D. Reeve  FITS: Flexible Image Transport System 
FTP: File Transfer Protocol 
  LAN: Local Area Network 
1. Introduction  PNG: Portable Network Graphics 
  RPi: Raspberry Pi 
This paper describes how to use the inexpensive Raspberry Pi computer to  WAN: Wide Area Network 
WLAN: Wireless LAN 
automatically produce spectrogram images in near real‐time from Callisto 
FITS data files (figure 1). In this article the hardware is called RPi and the hardware together with software is 
called Callisto‐Pi. The RPi is used rather than a Windows desktop PC because the installation and operation on a 
Windows PC of the many Python libraries and dependencies needed for Callisto‐Pi would require huge effort 
and time and have a low probability of success. All libraries were originally written for the Linux operating 
system and run naturally on the RPi whose operating system is based on Linux. 
 
My involvement in developing this application was merely as project manager. Others did all the hard work (see 
Acknowledgements at the end). As a service to Callisto users I have made available an RPi hardware platform 
with a preprogrammed 8 GB memory card setup to run Callisto‐Pi (see Contact Information at the end). Real‐
time spectrograms produced by Callisto‐Pi may be viewed at {Reeve} and 
{Nelson}.The Callisto‐Pi project is a follow‐up to my LWA TV Raspberry Pi project  Note: Internet links in braces { } 
and references in brackets [ ] 
described at [RvLWATV].  
are provided in section 7.
 

 
 
Figure 1 ~ Image of the first Callisto spectrogram produced by Callisto‐Pi from a FITS file over a 15 minute interval starting 
at 1945. It shows a Type II radio burst on 16 April 2014 at 1957; the horizontal bands are radio frequency interference, 
mostly from TV broadcast stations. The vertical axis is frequency and horizontal axis is time. Color indicates intensity 
relative to the background noise level. See text for additional details.  (Image © 2014 W. Reeve) 
 
The standard file format for data produced by the e‐Callisto solar radio spectrometer network is the NASA‐
designed Flexible Image Transport System {FITS}. Archived and current data and spectrogram images for all 
Callistos that participate in the network are available online at {CallistoData}. These data and images generally 
 
 
79
are accessible within 30 to 120 minutes after the FITS files are produced at a given Callisto station. However, 
there often is a need to prepare spectrograms in near real‐time for local viewing or for posting on a user’s 
website. Callisto‐Pi meets this need at low complexity and cost.  
 
A Callisto spectrogram simultaneously shows three pieces of related information – frequency, time and received 
intensity. Frequency is shown on the vertical axis in MHz with the low frequency limit at the top. Callisto‐Pi 
automatically scales the spectrogram frequency scale between 10 and 870 MHz according to the frequency data 
in the FITS file. Time is shown in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) on the horizontal axis in HH:mm:ss, 
progressing left to right. Most Callisto spectrograms cover a 15 min interval starting at HH:00:00, HH:15:00, 
HH:30:00 and HH:45:00 throughout local daylight hours. Intensity is a relative scale indicated by colors. Darker 
colors (blue) indicate lower intensities and lighter colors (green, yellow, orange, through red) indicate 
progressively higher intensities. The scale is logarithmic (nonlinear in absolute power) so the color indicates the 
relative power in dB of each frequency‐time pixel. 
 
 
2. Raspberry Pi and Callisto‐Pi 
 
Hardware: The Raspberry Pi is a low‐cost, small computer platform designed for educational purposes by the 
Raspberry Pi Foundation {RPi}. The RPi can be plugged into an ordinary computer monitor or TV and can use a 
wired Ethernet connection or WiFi wireless access device for LAN and internet access and a wired USB or 
Bluetooth wireless keyboard and mouse. However, the RPi used in Callisto‐Pi is operated “headless” in which no 
monitor, keyboard or mouse is required for setup or operation. Callisto‐Pi requires an internet connection if 
spectrogram images are to be sent to and viewed on an internet website. 
 

 
 
Figure 2 ~ Raspberry Pi model B and B+ hardware. The model B+ is shown in an aluminum enclosure with USB WLAN and 
BlueTooth dongles (left) and with no enclosure (middle). The model B (right) also is in an aluminum enclosure. The 
interfaces vary slightly between the model B and B+ but Callisto‐Pi works on both models. Enclosure dimensions are 
approximately 100 x 65 x 25 mm. (Image © 2014 W. Reeve) 
 
The RPi hardware has become available in three versions – original model A (not generally available in North 
America), model B and model B+. Callisto‐Pi has been tested only with the model B and B+ (figure 2), and there 
is no advantage of one over the other. The RPi uses an SD memory card (B) or micro‐SD memory card (B+) for 
program storage. Refer to [Reeve] or online search for a more detailed hardware description.  
 
Software: Callisto‐Pi uses a software image on the memory card that includes the operating system and Python 
software applications, libraries and support files. The operating system is based on a Raspbian distribution. 
Callisto‐Pi uses relatively simple scripts to call Python libraries and routines. The bulk of the work is done by 
 
 
80
three libraries: SunPy {SunPy}, which processes the FITS files; MatPlotLib {MatPlotLib}, which plots the 
spectrograms as PNG image files; and Optipng {Optipng}, which optimizes (reduces) the size of the image file for 
web use.  
 
 
3. Basic Operation 
 
The system block diagram shows how the various components work together (figure 3). An ordinary Windows 
PC controls the CALLISTO instrument. It typically produces a FITS file at 900 s (15 min) intervals as determined by 
the Callisto configuration file.  
 
Minimum Equipment List:
• Raspberry Pi B or B+ Callisto
• Power supply PC
• 8 GB memory card
CALLISTO

Optional  Internet 
WLAN Callisto‐Pi using Router
Ethernet Local Area
Raspberry Pi Internet
Network
Model B or B+

5 V Power

USB Network 
AC Power Flash Attached 
Adapter or HD Storage
 
 
Figure 3 ~ System block diagram. Callisto‐Pi collects FITS files from the Callisto PC, processes them and then 
sends the spectrogram images to a website and archive storage. (Image © 2014 W. Reeve) 
 
The Callisto PC is configured to send each new FITS file to Callisto‐Pi, which acts as an adjunct spectrogram 
processor to produce an image file. After producing the image file, Callisto‐Pi sends it to a website (or any FTP 
server) for viewing. These images are produced as picture.png files and are disposable; that is, each new image 
overwrites the previous image. Callisto‐Pi also sends a date‐ and time‐stamped copy of the image (based on the 
original FITS date and time) to local Network Attached Storage (NAS) or, alternately, to a USB flash or hard drive 
connected to the RPi.  
 
Two program functions embedded in the Raspbian distribution called crontab and launcher.sh control Callisto‐Pi 
actions. Crontab loads and runs when Callisto‐Pi is powered up and whenever it is rebooted. Crontab then loads 
launcher, a shell (command line interpreter) with a list of actions and routines that produce and send the 
images. Underlying these activities are FTP server and client functions that load automatically and operate in the 
background. 
 
 
4. Spectrogram Production 
 
The scripts used to run Callisto‐Pi are relatively simple because the SunPy and MatPlotLib libraries do all the 
complicated work “under the hood”. The user needs to tell the Callisto PC where to send the FITS files and to tell 
Callisto‐Pi where to send the processed images (figure 4). A CallistoSpectrogram function in the SunPy library is 
called to calculate the background noise level for each new FITS file and then to subtract that level before the 
spectrogram is produced. Thus, the displayed intensities are relative to the calculated background. The 
 
 
81
displayed intensities follow a standard color map for solar imaging originally developed for the Reuven Ramaty 
High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI) spacecraft mission. 
 

 
 
Figure 4 ~ Callisto‐Pi flowchart. A launcher script collects data and controls production of the 
spectrogram images and then sends the images to a web server and archive storage. (Image © 
2014 W. Reeve) 
 
When there is considerable radio frequency interference in the data, the background calculation can limit the 
displayed intensity range and weak solar radio bursts or other natural phenomena in the data may be masked by 
the noise. However, each file is calculated separately. Therefore, the background calculation has no memory 
beyond the current spectrogram and there are no lingering effects beyond the 15 min data interval. 
 
 
5. Installation and Operation 
 
Callisto‐Pi uses stock RPi hardware with no modifications. The software image is contained on an 8 GB memory 
card. As mentioned earlier, a display, keyboard and mouse are not required. All setup can be performed from a 
Windows PC running a Secure Shell (SSH) terminal program such as PuTTY or Tera Term. Complete step‐by‐step 
instructions are included with the Callisto‐Pi Package. 
 
Before use, the launcher script in Callisto‐Pi needs to be setup for the user’s specific environment. This is done 
with a built‐in editor in Callisto‐Pi. Also, external devices need to be setup to send files to and receive files from 
Callisto‐Pi. In summary, it is necessary to 
• Setup the Windows PC running Callisto software to send FITS files to Callisto‐Pi 
• Edit the launcher for the user’s specific Callisto‐Pi environment including LAN and WAN addresses and 
login details.  
• Setup the external webserver to receive and display Portable Network Graphics (PNG) images from 
Callisto‐Pi (this typically is an internet web server) 
• Setup  a local NAS or USB‐drive for archive storage of PNG files 
 
 
 
82
 
6. Conclusions 
 
Callisto‐Pi is a small, inexpensive, maintenance‐free platform that produces near real‐time spectrogram images 
from Callisto FITS files. It has applications with any CALLISTO instrument where a user wishes to produce their 
own images for posting and display on a website. No programming is required. A built‐in editor is used to 
configure the Callisto‐Pi for the user’s specific environment, including LAN and web server addresses and archive 
storage. 
 
 
7. References and Web Links 
 
[RvLWATV]  Reeve, W., LWA TV on the Raspberry Pi, Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers, Radio 
Astronomy, September‐October 2014 
 
{CallistoData}  http://soleil.i4ds.ch/solarradio/callistoQuicklooks/ 
{FITS}  http://fits.gsfc.nasa.gov/fits_home.html 
{MatPlotLib}  http://matplotlib.org/ 
{Optipng}  http://optipng.sourceforge.net/ 
{Python}  https://www.python.org/ 
{Reeve}  http://www.reeve.com/e‐CALLISTO/Callisto_Spectrogram/CallistoSpectro_simple.html 
{Nelson}  http://www.roswellmeteor.com/e‐Callisto2/picture.png 
{RPi}  http://www.raspberrypi.org/ 
{SunPy}  http://sunpy.org/ 
 
 
Acknowledgements: I am grateful to two people in particular for their help developing Callisto‐Pi: Phil Costigan 
and my son Whitham Reeve II. Phil is a member of Astronomical Society of Victoria – Radio Astronomy Section 
(ASV‐RAS). He wrote the Python code that produces the Callisto spectrograms for the Leon Mow Radio 
Observatory (http://lmro.org.au/) and provided the script to me. My son is a Linux expert, and he adapted the 
code to Callisto‐Pi and developed the launcher shell routines. In addition, the automatic production of 
spectrograms from Callisto FITS files would have been quite difficult without the SunPy and MatPlotLib libraries. 
These libraries required the work of many people. In addition, the SunPy and MatPlotLib libraries depend on 
other code and libraries produced by many others in the Python user community {Python}.  
 
Ordering Callisto‐Pi: A Calllisto‐Pi Package may be ordered by sending an email 
inquiry to the address right; be sure to put something meaningful in the email 
Subject line or else the email will be automatically deleted by the server.  
 
The Callisto‐Pi Package includes the RPi model B+ in an aluminum enclosure, preprogrammed 8 GB memory card 
and 10 W power supply with interchangeable worldwide ac input plugs. The preprogrammed memory card also 
is available without the RPi hardware. The memory card is supplied as a micro‐SD memory card in a full‐size SD 
card carrier (adapter), so it will work in either the model B or B+. Instructions for the necessary user setup are 
provided with the Callisto‐Pi Package.  
 
Prices: 
Callisto‐Pi Package:   143 USD plus postage 
Callisto‐Pi memory card:   20 USD plus postage.  
 
 
 
 
83
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
SETI League executive director H. Paul Shuch, who has served on the SARA board and as Vice‐President, with the 
GBT...SETI League photo  http://www.setileague.org/  

 
 
84
 FIRST LIGHT of TLM‐18 Antenna System 
 

The TIROS Restoration Team would like to announce first light at 21cm for the TLM‐18 antenna system.   First 
light occurred on 19 January, 2015 at approximately 17:00 GMT. 
 
The TLM‐18 is a 60 foot prime focus parabolic antenna located in Wall Township, New Jersey, USA.  It was first 
used to support the TIROS I and TIROS II weather satellites and subsequently, the MINITRACK program.   It was 
decommissioned in the mid 1970s and later de‐militarized by the US Army prior to transfer of the property to 
InfoAge via Wall Township, New Jersey. 
 
The TIROS Restoration Team is composed of volunteers from the Information Age Learning Center (InfoAge), The 
Ocean‐Monmouth Amateur Radio Club (OMARC), and Princeton University. 
 

 
Signal peak riding on top of the noise 
background at 0.4 MHz (actually 
TLM‐18 Antenna with 21cm feed  Post processed drift plot 
1420.4 MHz), which is the 
in place  at 45 degree elevation 
 well‐known 21 cm radiation from the 
Milky Way.     
 
 
Higher resolution images are available upon request, all rights reserved. 
 
Media Contact:  Dan Marlow, K2QM at  marlow@princeton.edu

Martin A Flynn / W2RWJ

Ocean-Monmouth Amateur Radio Club, Inc
2300 Marconi Road
Wall Township, NJ 07719
Tel: +01 732-428-7373
Email: mflynn@n2mo.org
Visit us online at: www.n2mo.org 
 
 
 
 

 
 
85
Book Review 
 
Title: Radio Propagation ~ Principles and Practice 
Author: I. Poole 
Publisher: Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB) 
ISBN:978‐1872‐309972 
Date published: 2004 
Length: 102 pages, 2 page index 
Status: In print 
Availability: Paperbound from ARRL for US$30 or RSGB for £9.99 (about US$17) (see text) 
Reviewer: Whitham D. Reeve 
 
Radio propagation is an important subject for radio astronomers and radio operators, among others. Radio 
Propagation ~ Principles and Practice was written from the perspective of high frequency terrestrial 
communications as are almost all amateur radio books on this subject. Someone new to radio astronomy could 
usethis book to learn the fundamentals of radio propagation from the bottom up. They could then move to 
more advanced books or professionally written online materials that discuss propagation through the 
ionosphere from the top down.  
 
As printed on the back cover, the author is “an electronics and engineering consultant and journalist at Adrio 
Communications”. He also publishes the Radio Electronics website at http://www.radio‐electronics.com/, 
“Resources and analysis for electronics engineers”, which is a source of numerous highly simplified electronics 
tutorials. His writing style is British English (not unexpectedly). 
 
Radio Propagation ~ Principles and Practice has 10 chapters: Electromagnetic waves; The atmosphere; The 
Sun; Propagation near the ground; Ionospheric propagation; Ionospheric disturbances, storms and auroras; 
Predicting, assessing and using ionospheric propagation; Tropospheric propagation; Meteor scatter; and Space 
communications. The chapters are compact, fairly well‐illustrated and easy to read but readers should not 
expect a lot of depth. Even though the processes that form the ionosphere are very complex, and even today are 
not completely understood, this book shows that it is possible to skirt the math and provide relatively simple 
explanations. I spotted only a few simple equations. 
 
The book starts out by describing electromagnetic waves, the atmosphere (and ionosphere) and the Sun. These 
set the stage for discussions of the various types of high frequency propagation discussed later. I noted some 
discussions that were either too simplified or only partially correct. For example, in chapter 3 – The Sun, the 
author first states that the Sun rotates faster at its equator and low latitudes than high latitudes and then on the 
next page says the Sun’s equator rotates slower (the former is correct).  
 
The next two chapters cover ground wave and sky wave propagation and include a little history on how the 
ionosphere was discovered (readers wanting more historical detail should see Probing the Sky with Radio 
Waves ~ From Wireless Technology to the Development of Atmospheric Science by Chen‐Pang Yeang, which I 
will review in the near future). Chapter 4 – Ionospheric Propagation describes refraction and reflection of radio 
waves in Earth’s upper atmosphere, which is ionized by the Sun’s radiation. Refraction, or bending, through the 
ionized medium at altitudes of a few hundred kilometers allows radio waves to travel far beyond the visible 
horizon. However, the ionosphere is quite variable throughout the day and changes drastically at night, which 
 
 
86
affects the maximum and minimum usable frequencies for any given path. The author’s discussions of the 
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) and Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF) could have been better written. A 
reader unfamiliar with these terms, in other words, the target audience for this book, might find the discussion 
confusing. 
 
Many radio astronomers are interested in detecting meteor trail reflections, the subject of chapter 9 – Meteor 
scatter. When a meteor encounters the resistance of Earth’s atmosphere, heat from friction ionizes the thin air 
and the molecules in the meteor body and leaves an ionized trail that refracts or reflects terrestrial radio waves. 
The electron density in these trails can exceed the density of the normal ionosphere. The trails usually last only a 
short time before they dissipate, but they may be used for terrestrial communications (meteor 
communications), which is the focus of this chapter.  
 
I was a little disappointed in the last chapter on Space Communications. While the primary purpose of the book 
is terrestrial radio propagation, as a radio astronomer I am interested in reception of radio waves from celestial 
sources through Earth’s ionosphere, the equivalent of receiving from a spacecraft or satellite. I was hoping for 
more details than provided in this chapter. Faraday rotation and scintillation are very briefly discussed in terms 
of Earth‐Moon‐Earth (EME) communications (but too briefly to be of any use). This chapter yielded little else 
besides what seemed to be a focus on satellite orbits. Of course, in a small book like this, there is little 
opportunity to provide very many technical details, but I still think it should have been more to the point. 
 
I found some passages repetitious, but the discussions are adequate for purposes of amateur radio. The book 
provides many rules of thumb that could provide a stepping stone for further study. Unfortunately, like almost 
all books written for the radio amateur market, there are no references or even a list of books for further study. 
This is a serious impediment to someone wanting to learn more and makes this book easily disposable. 
 
This small book may be purchased directly from RSGB. The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) also sells the 
book but their price is far too high. Interestingly, when I started writing this review (June 2014), used copies 
were selling for a shocking US$300. The book is not a so‐called classic and that price is off by a factor of at least 
30. More recently (January 2015) I have seen used prices from 14 to US$35, still too high for a used book of this 
type. 
 
In conclusion, Radio Propagation ~ Principles and Practice provides an adequate introduction but it lacks depth. 
Although the book has little direct applicability to radio astronomy, it would help a newcomer to amateur radio 
astronomy to understand some of the characteristics of high frequency propagation and contribute to their 
overall knowledge. The inconsistencies that I mentioned along with several editing mistakes are minor flaws. 
However, at US$30 plus shipping, the book is overpriced for US buyers unless they order directly from RSGB at a 
lower price or are able to find an inexpensive used copy. 
 
Reviewer ‐ Whitham Reeve presently is a contributing editor for the SARA journal, Radio 
Astronomy. He worked as an engineer and engineering firm owner/operator in the airline and 
telecommunications industries for more than 40 years and has lived in Anchorage, Alaska his 
entire life. 
 
 
 
 
87
 
Membership 
New Members 
 
Please  welcome  our  new  or  returning  SARA  members  who  have  joined  since  the  last  journal.  If  your  name  is 
missing  or  misspelled,  please  send  an  email  to  treasurer@radio‐astronomy.org.  We  will  make  sure  it  appears 
correctly in the next Journal issue. As of February 26, 2015: 
 
First Name  Last Name  City  State  Country  Ham ID 
Walter “Sandy”  Bettilyon  Villa Rica  GA  USA  KK4PZS 
Myron  China  Centennial  CO  USA  KB0LMQ 
John  Chmielewski  Franklin  NC  USA  N2XD
Patrick  Davis  Orlando  FL  USA  KY3I 
Larry  Dodd  Jasper  GA  USA   
Geof  Franklin  Maysville  GA  USA  KE4IGD 
Devoyon  Guillaume  Canejan  Gironde  France  F8ARR 
Justine  Haupt  Rocky Point  NY  USA  W2GFO 
Carl  Herbert  Inverness  FL  USA  AA2JZ 
Robert   Hoffmaster  Port Hadlock  WA  USA  KE6YMJ 
Eve  Klopf  Klamath Falls  OR  USA  AD5FP
Michael T  McEwen  Medicine Park  OK  USA  K5OSA 
Michael  Miciukiewicz  Trumbull  CT  USA  K1MJM
Andrew  Stern  Eugene  OR  USA  N7UL 
William  Wachspress  Lawrence  KS  USA   
William   West  Wellington  CO  USA  W0WST 
Christopher  Wilkin  Okoboji  IA  USA   
 
 
SARA Membership Dues and Promotions 
 
Membership dues are $20.00 US per year and all dues expire in June. Student memberships are $5.00 US per 
year. Members joining from June to December of 2014 will renew their membership June 2015. Members 
joining January to June 2015 will renew June 2016. Or pay once and never worry about missing your dues again 
with the SARA Life Membership. SARA Life Memberships are now offered for a one‐time payment of twenty 
times the basic annual membership fee (currently $400 US). 
 
Journal Archives & Other CDs Promotion 
 
The entire set of The Journal of The Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers is available on CD. It goes from the 
beginning of 1981 to the end of 2014 (over 5000 Tor of SARA history!) Or you can choose one of the following 
CD’s or DVD:* (Prices are US dollars and include postage.) 
 
  SARA Journals from 1981 through 2014 
  SARA Mentor CD, compiled by Jim Brown 
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Prices, US dollars, including postage 
 
 
88
Members  Each disk  $15.00  
  Disk + 1 year membership extension  $30.00 
Non‐members  Each disk  $25.00 
  Disk + 1 year membership  $30.00 
Non‐USA members  Each disk  $20.00 (airmail) 
  Disk + 1 year members extension  $35.00 
 
*Already a member and want any or all of these CD’s or DVD’s? Buy any one for $15.00 or get any three for 
$35.00. 
 
SARA Store(http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/e‐store) 
 
SARA offers the above CDs, DVDs, printed Proceedings and Proceedings on CD and other items at the SARA 
Store: http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/e‐store. Proceeds from sales go to support the student grant program. 
Members receive an additional 10% discount on orders over $50 US. Payments can be made by sending 
payment by PayPal to treasurer@radio‐astornomy.org or by mailing a check or money order to SARA, c/o 
Melinda Lord, 2189 Redwood Ave, Washington, IA 52353 
 
 
 
 
SARA Online Discussion Group 
 
SARA members participate in the online forum at http://groups.google.com/group/sara‐list. This is an invaluable 
resource for any amateur radio astronomer. 
 
 
SARA Conferences 
 
SARA organizes multiple conferences each year. Participants give talks, share ideas, attend seminars, and get 
hands‐on experience. For more information, visit http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/meetings. 
 
 
Facebook 
 
Like SARA on Facebookhttp://www.facebook.com/pages/Society‐of‐Amateur‐Radio‐
Astronomers/128085007262843 
 
 
Twitter 
 
Follow SARA on Twitter #radio astronomy1 
 
 
What is Radio Astronomy? 
 
This link is for a booklet explaining the basics of radio astronomy.  
http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/pdf/sara‐beginner‐booklet.pdf 

 
 
89
Administrative 
 
Officers, directors, and additional SARA contacts 
 
The Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers is an all‐volunteer organization. The best way to reach people on this 
page is by email with SARA in the subject line SARA Officers 
 
President: Ken Redcap, president@radio‐astronomy.org, +1 248‐630‐6810 
 
Vice President: Tom Hagen, vicepres@radio‐astronomy.org, +1 248‐650‐8951 
 
Secretary: Bruce Randall, secretary@radio‐astronomy.org, +1 803‐327‐3325 
 
Treasurer: Melinda Lord, treasurer@radio‐astronomy.org, +1 319‐591‐1130 
 
Past President: William Lord, tbd@radio‐astronomy.org, +1 319‐591‐1131 
 
Founder Emeritus & Director: Jeffrey M. Lichtman, Jeff@radioastronomysupplies.com, +1 954‐554‐3739 
 
Board of Directors 
Name  Term expires  Email 
Jim Brown  2015  starmanjb@comcast.net 
Chip Sufitchi   2015  ciprian@sufitchi.com 
Carl Lyster  2016  ctlyster@bellsouth.net 
Stephen Tzikas  2016  Tzikas@alum.rpi.edu 
David James  2016  dave@greenover.net 
Curt Kinghorn  2015  curtkinghorn@gmail.com 
Keith Payea  2016  kbpayea@bryantlabs.net 
Stan Nelson  2015  stannelson@cableone.net 
 
Other SARA Contacts 
All Officers  ‐‐‐‐  officers@radio‐astronomy.org 
Annual Meeting Coordinator  Vice President  vicepres@radio‐astronomy.org 
All Radio Astronomy Editors  ‐‐‐  editor@radio‐astronomy.org 
Radio Astronomy Editor  Kathryn Hagen  kathryn.hagen@gmail.com 
Radio Astronomy Contributing Editor  Christian Monstein  monstein@astro.phys.ethz.ch 
Radio Astronomy Contributing Editor  Whitham D. Reeve  whitreeve@gmail.com 
Radio Astronomy Contributing Editor  Stan Nelson  stannelson@cableone.net 
Educational Outreach  Jon  Wallace  education@radio‐astronomy.org 
Grant Committee  ‐‐‐‐  grants@radio‐astronomy.org 
International Ambassador      
Librarian     
Membership Chair  Tom Crowley  membership@radio‐astronomy.org 
Mentor Program  Jon Wallace  mentor@radio‐astronomy.org 
Navigators  Tom Crowley  tomcrowley@mindspring.com 
Technical Queries  David Westman  technical@radio‐astronomy.org 
Webmaster  Ciprian (Chip) Sufitchi  webmaster@radio‐astronomy.org 

 
 
90
 
Resources 
 
Great Projects to Get Started in Radio Astronomy 
 
Radio Observing Program 
 
The Astronomical League (AL) is starting a radio astronomy observing program.  If you observe one 
category, you get a Bronze certificate.  Silver pin is two categories with one being personally built.  
Gold pin level is at least four categories.  (Silver and Gold level require AL membership which many 
clubs have membership.  For the bronze level, you need not be a member of AL.)  
 
Categories include 
  1) SID 
  2) Sun (aka IBT) 
  3) Jupiter (aka Radio Jove) 
  4) Meteor back‐scatter 
  5) Galactic radio sources 
 
This program is collaboration between NRAO and AL. William F Bogardus is the Lead Coordinator and a 
SARA member. 
 
For more information: 
http://www.astroleague.org/programs/radio‐astronomy‐observing‐program 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
The Radio Jove Project monitors the storms of Jupiter, solar activity and the galactic background. The radio 
telescope can be purchased as a kit or you can order it assembled. They have a terrific user group you can join. 
http://radiojove.gsfc.nasa.gov/ 
 
 
 
 

 
 
91
  
 
The INSPIRE program uses build‐it‐yourself radio telescope kits to measure and record VLF emissions such as 
tweeks, whistlers, sferics, and chorus along with man‐made emissions. This is a very portable unit that can be 
easily transported to remote sites for observations. http://theinspireproject.org/default.asp?contentID=27 
 
 
Sky Scan Awareness Project 
 
When a meteor passes through the Earth's atmosphere, it ionizes the 
atmosphere which improves its ability to reflect radio waves. This allows you 
to briefly hear a far away radio station that you normally couldn't detect. In 
this project, you can install an antenna, use an FM radio receiver, computer 
software, and learn to observe meteor showers using this very simple radio 
telescope. For more information about this project, please visit 
http://www.skyscan.ca/getting_started.htm . 
 
 
 
 
SARA/Stanford SuperSID 
 
Stanford Solar Center and the Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers have teamed up to 
produce and distribute the SuperSID (Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance) monitor. The monitor 
utilizes a simple pre‐amp to magnify the VLF 
radio signals which are then fed into a high 
definition sound card. This design allows the 
user to monitor and record multiple 
frequencies simultaneously. The unit uses a 
compact 1 meter loop antenna that can be used 
indoors or outside. This is an ideal project for 
the radio astronomer that has limited space. To request a unit, 
send an e‐mail to supersid_at_radio‐astronomy_dot_org 
 
 
 
 
At Right‐ Mr Potato Head checks out the Itty Bitty Telescope (IBT) 
Photo courtesy Mark Gibson. More information on making your 
own IBT go to http://www.gb.nrao.edu/epo/ibt.shtml 

 
 
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Education Links 
 
Free online Introductory Astronomy course: http://www.davidiadevaia.com/ASTRO/index1.html 
 
American Geophysical Union Launches Free Science News Website ~ Eos, Newspaper of the Earth and 
Space Sciences: https://eos.org/ 
 
STAFF is a dynamic online timeline viewer that allows you to plot and compare solar data. The data 
includes x‐ray, sunspots, radio measurements, proton and electron flux near Earth, solar wind and 
interplanetary magnetic field parameters, geomagnetic and ionospheric data, and readings from EUV 
solar images. You can increase the number of data points if you want higher time resolution. You can 
zoom in or you can let the program choose the optimal sample interval for your desired timespan: 
http://www.staff.oma.be/ 
 
Exact Solution to Model Big Bang, Quark Gluon Plasma Published: 
http://www.scientificcomputing.com/news/2014/12/exact‐solution‐model‐big‐bang‐quark‐gluon‐
plasma‐published?et_cid=4335411&et_rid=210447177&location=top 
 
Compilation of memorable solar events in 2014 (put on your seatbelt): 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dnTMtpNvlyc 
 
Eos, Earth & Space Science News – Magnetic Storms and Induction Hazards ~ Electric fields induced in 
the Earth’s lithosphere during magnetic storms can interfere with the operation of electric power grids: 
https://eos.org/features/magnetic‐storms‐induction‐hazards 
 
Everyone loves a conspiracy especially one involving the US government and 
Earth’s magnetic field ~ Guilty Knowledge: What the US Government Knows 
about the Vulnerability of the Electric Grid, But Refuses to Fix: 
http://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/2014/03/12/guilty‐knowledge/ 
 
And here’s another one: Comet Conspiracy! Here's Why We Haven't Seen Color Photos of 67P: 
http://motherboard.vice.com/en_uk/read/comet‐conspiracy‐heres‐why‐we‐havent‐seen‐colour‐photos‐
of‐67p?trk_source=recommended 
 
Any landing you can walk away from is a good one ~ Rosetta's Comet Lander Will Revive After Bumpy 
Touchdown, Scientists Say: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/12/141217‐rosetta‐philae‐
comet‐wake‐science‐space/ 
 
Rosetta Reignites Debate on Earth's Oceans (or, We have one data point, so let us now extrapolate the 
daylights out of it): http://science.nasa.gov/science‐news/science‐at‐nasa/2014/14dec_cometwater/ 
 
STEREO Science Center, Search for STEREO images: http://stereo‐
ssc.nascom.nasa.gov/cgi‐bin/images 
 
Probing Jovian Decametric Emission with the Long Wavelength Array Station 1 (Submitted 23 Dec 2014): 
http://arxiv.org/abs/1412.7237 
 

 
 
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Physics Today ~ A geometrically determined distance to a far‐off black hole: 
http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/magazine/physicstoday/news/10.1063/PT.5.7130?utm_medium=e
mail&utm_source=Physics+Today&utm_campaign=5111820_Physics+Today%3a+The+week+in+Physics+
8‐12+December&dm_i=1Y69,31KB0,HPI212,AXR6J,1 
 
Physics Today ~ Emphasis on short‐term gains worries Australia’s science community: 
http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/magazine/physicstoday/article/67/12/10.1063/PT.3.2615?utm_me
dium=email&utm_source=Physics+Today&utm_campaign=5111820_Physics+Today%3a+The+week+in+
Physics+8‐12+December&dm_i=1Y69,31KB0,HPI212,AXR6J,1 
 
Physics Today ~ The Deep Space Network at 50: 
http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/magazine/physicstoday/article/67/12/10.1063/PT.3.2619?utm_me
dium=email&utm_source=Physics+Today&utm_campaign=5143729_Physics+Today%3a+The+week+in+
Physics+15‐19+December&dm_i=1Y69,328XD,HPI212,AZYIB,1 
 
Nobeyama Radio Observatory: Solar: http://solar.nro.nao.ac.jp/ 
 
Keysight Technologies (Agilent, HP) Spectrum Analysis Basics ‐ A Resource Toolkit, a 
compilation of approximately 40 application notes, videos, mobile apps and web 
resources: 
https://www.keysight.com/main/editorial.jspx?cc=US&lc=eng&ckey=2441692&id=2441692&cmpid=473
63 
 
Free online courses through collaboration of Coursera and universities worldwide: 
https://www.coursera.org/courses 
 
Electronics and Electrical Engineering Tools & Calculators: http://www.eeweb.com/toolbox 
 
Tektronix ~ Fundamentals of Real‐Time Spectrum Analysis: http://info.tek.com/www‐fundamentals‐of‐
real‐time‐spectrum‐analysis.html 
 
 
 

 
 
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Online Resources 
 
 
British Astronomical Association – Radio Astronomy Group  Radio Astronomy Supplies 
http://www.britastro.org/baa/  http://www.radioastronomysupplies.com 
   
 
Radio Sky Publishing 
CALLISTO Receiver & e‐CALLISTO  
http://radiosky.com 
http://www.reeve.com/Solar/e‐CALLISTO/e‐callisto.htm 
 
CALLISTO data archive: www.e‐callisto.org 
 
 
Deep Space Exploration Society  RF Associates 
http://dses.org/index.shtml  Richard Flagg, rf@hawaii.rr.com 
  1721‐I Young Street, Honolulu, HI 96826 
   
European Radio Astronomy Club  RFSpace, Inc 
http://www.eracnet.org   http://www.rfspace.com  
   
GNU Radio  Shirleys Bay Radio Astronomy Consortium 
http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html   marcus@propulsionpolymers.com  
   
Inspire Project  Simple Aurora Monitor Magnetometer 
http://theinspireproject.org   http://www.reeve.com/SAMDescription.htm  
   
NASA Radio JOVE Project  SETI League  
http://radiojove.gsfc.nasa.gov   http://www.setileague.org  
Archive:    
http://radiojove.org/archive.html   SkyScan Science Awareness (Meteor Detection) 
http://www.skyscan.ca/getting_started.htm  
   
National Radio Astronomy Observatory  Stanford Solar Center 
http://www.nrao.edu   http://solar‐center.stanford.edu/SID/  
   
NRAO Essential Radio Astronomy Course  UK Radio Astronomy Association 
http://www.cv.nrao.edu/course/astr534/ERA.shtml    http://www.ukraa.com/www/  
   
Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute  SARA Facebook page 
http://www.pari.edu     https://www.facebook.com/pages/Society‐of‐Amateur‐Radio‐
Astronomers/128085007262843 
   
SARA Web Site  SARA Twitter feed 
http://radio‐astronomy.org   https://twitter.com/RadioAstronomy1  
   
SARA Email Forum and Discussion Group  
http://groups.google.com/group/sara‐list  
 
 
 
 

 
 
95
For Sale, Trade, and Wanted 
Sara Polo Shirts 
 
SARA has polo shirts with the new SARA logo embroidered.  (No pocket) These are 50% cotton and 50% 
polyester, machine washable.  Currently in stock:      
 
Size  Color 
Small  Navy, Royal Blue 
Medium  Navy, Dark Green, Royal Blue 
Large  Maroon, Black, Navy,  Royal Blue 
X‐Large  Maroon, Black, Navy,  Royal Blue 
XX‐Large  Maroon, Black, Navy, Dark Green,  Royal Blue 
XXX‐Large  Black, Navy, Dark Green,  Royal Blue 
 
 
 
Price is $15 with free shipping in the USA.  Additional cost for 
shipping outside the USA. Other colors and sizes available, contact 
SARA Treasurer, Melinda Lord, at treasurer@radio‐astronomy.org. 
 
There is no charge to place an ad in Radio Astronomy; but, you must be a current SARA member. Ads must be 
pertinent to radio astronomy and are subject to the editor’s approval and alteration for brevity. Please send 
your “For Sale,” “Trade,” or “Wanted” ads to editor@radio‐astronomy.org. Please include email and/or 
telephone contact information. Please keep your ad text to a reasonable length. Ads run for one bimonthly 
issue unless you request otherwise.  
 
 
For sale 
Items listed below. Send request to SARA by email to supersid@radio‐astronomy.org.  
For more information: http://www.radio‐astronomy.org/pdf/sid‐brochure.pdf.  
Description, items for sale by SARA  Price (US$) 
SuperSID VLF receiver (assembled)          $48.00  
PCI soundcard, 96 kHz sample rate          $40.00  
Antenna wire 24 AWG (120 m)                 $23.00  
Coaxial cable, Belden RG58U (9 m)          $14.00  
Shipping (United States)                            $10.00  
Shipping (Canada, Mexico)                        $25.00  
Shipping (all other)                                      $40.00  
 
 

 
 
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