Kristin IB Math - Vectors

29/10/2017 Kristin IB Math - Vectors
Vectors
Table of Contents
4.1.1 Concept of a Vector
4.1.2 Representation of Vectors Using Directed Line Segments
4.1.3-4 Unit Vectors and Base Vectors
4.1.5 Algebraic and Geometric Vector Calculations
Sum and Difference of Two Vectors
Special Vectors
Scalar Multiplication
Magnitude of a Vector
Position Vectors
4.2.1 Scalar Product of Two Vectors
4.2.2 Properties of the Scalar Product
4.2.3 The angle between two vectors
4.2.4 Perpendicular and Parallel Vectors
4.3.1 Vector Equation of a Line
4.3.2 The Angle Between Two Lines
4.4.1 Distinguishing Between Geometric Cases of Lines Using Vectors
Coincident Lines
Parallel Lines
Intersecting Lines
Skew Lines
4.4.2 Points of Intersection
4.5.1 Vector Product of Two Vectors
4.5.2 Properties of the Vector Product
4.6.1 Vector Equation of a Plane
4.6.2 Vector Equation Normal Form
4.6.3 Cartesian Equation of a Plane
4.7.1 Intersections With Planes
4.7.1.1 A Line With a Plane
4.7.1.2 Two Planes
4.7.2 Angle of Intersections with Planes
4.7.2.1 Line and Plane
4.7.2.2 Plane and Plane
Vectors are commonly found in both physics and mathematics, and is used to represent movements in space. The
concept of 2D movement using vectors is easily handled as our methods of representing 2D are fairly developed.
However the concept of 3D movement is not so much.
The standard level course will focus more on the 2D vectors whereas the higher level course will also incorporate
complex 3D vectors
4.1.1 Concept of a Vector

The IB wants you to understand the concept of vectors and how they could apply in the real world. Vectors are essentially
arrows that show distance traveled and its heading, which can be represented in a simple notation, similar to the ones
used in permutations. Vectors are commonly used in physics to help in calculating the resultant force from several
different forces. In the real world, vectors are used to solve problems involving position location. Two suggested uses are
to locate and save a lost sailor and to destroy a building using a laser guided bomb.
https://kristinibmath.wikispaces.com/Vectors?f=print 1/16
The following website may be useful:

http://members.tripod.com/~Paul_Kirby/vector/VLintro.html
4.1.2 Representation of Vectors Using Directed Line Segments

A vector can be represented easily on a Cartesian plane using directed line segments, more commonly known as arrows.
Usually multiple vectors will be continuous, with one arrow leading into another.
Two vectors on a cartesian plane. O represents the origin.
4.1.3-4 Unit Vectors and Base Vectors

There are two ways of representing vectors in writing. One is as stated before, similar to how permutations and
combinations are written, instead involving x, y and z co-ordinates written vertically in brackets.
3D Cartesian Co-ordinate System
When writing vectors, we consider only one plane at a time, and the point's distance away from the origin, (0,0,0).
Alternatively, vectors can also be written like an equation in the form;

v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
With i representing x, j representing y and k representing z. If there is no z co-ordinate, k can be omitted.
A unit vector is defined as a vector that has a magnitude (length) of one.
4.1.5 Algebraic and Geometric Vector Calculations

Since there are two ways of writing vectors, there are two ways of doing vector calculations, just like solving equations
using either graphing or algebra.
Sum and Difference of Two Vectors

Vectors are added simpily, that is, the x component of one will be added with the other, the y added with y and the same
with z.
x i x+i
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
y + j = y+j
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
z k z+k
Geometrically, using arrow representation, we can put the two arrows together to end up with the same resulting vector. It
does not matter which arrow is placed first, the end result will be the same.
Geometric representation of vector addition
Example:
4
⎛ ⎞
a = −3
⎝ ⎠
2
5
⎛ ⎞
b = 7
⎝ ⎠
−1
What is the sum of a+b?
Solution:
4+5 9
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a+b = −3 + 7 = 4
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2−1 1
Special Vectors
There are two special vectors the IB wants you to know about. The zero vector is one, all of it's components are equal to
zero, and therefore has no length or direction.[1] It is represented by the symbol 0. The other is -v, a negative vector,
which is not really special, but travels in the opposite direction to positive vectors in the plane.
Scalar Multiplication
This is the multiplication of vectors by an arbitrary number. This is the same as normal multiplication, each component is
multiplied by the scalar.
x kx
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
k y = ky
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
z kz
The geometric representation gives a better idea of what is happening, the same vector is being added k times, resulting
in the multiplication of each component by k.
Example:
Solve:
2
⎛ ⎞
3 4
⎝ ⎠
6
Solution
2 3∗2 6
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
3 4 = 3∗4 = 12
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
6 3∗6 18
Magnitude of a Vector
If v represents a vector, then its magnitude is written as |v|, which is the same as the modulus symbol. Therefore the
modulus of a vector stands for its magnitude. Magnitude is a vector's travel distance, how far the end point of the vector is
away from the start point. The magnitude is found using the following equation:
− − −−−−−−−−
2 2 2
|v| = √ x + y + z
And the proof can be shown geometrically[2] :
Using Pythagoras:
2 2 2
w = x +y
2 2 2
a = z +w
2 2 2 2
a = x +y +z
Example:
2
⎛ ⎞
v = 3
⎝ ⎠
2
Find |v|.
Solution:
− − −−−−−−−− −−
2 2 2
|v| = √ 2 + 3 + 2 = √17
Position Vectors
Position vectors points to a point in space, or a co-ordinate, that is relative to the origin ((0,0,0) in 3D space). Position
vectors can be directly translated to a co-ordinate, the x component of the vector is the x co-ordinate, so on. Position
vectors are usually written with the letter O with another arbitrary letter following, indicating the point at which it points to.
The IB express this as:
→
OA = a
Geometrically it is represented like so:
Position vector showing location of a
4.2.1 Scalar Product of Two Vectors

The scalar product, also called dot product, is the multiplication equivalent of two vectors. Because vectors have a
direction associated with them, they cannot be multiplied in the normal sense. We must first change the vectors so that
they both point in the same direction, or have the same heading. This is done by taking the component of the vector,
which by trigonometric rules, result in the cosine of the angle that separates the two vectors.[3]
Component of a
To find the scalar product, there are two methods that can be used, both in the formula booklet.
You can either use the angle between the two vectors and their magnitude in this formula:
v ⋅ w = |v||w| cos θ
Or alternatively:
v1 w1
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
v ⋅ w = v 1 w1 + v 2 w2 + v 3 w3 , v = v2 ,w = w2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
v3 w3
4.2.2 Properties of the Scalar Product
If u,v and w are vectors, then:
v⋅u = u⋅v
u ⋅ (v + w) = u ⋅ v + u ⋅ w
(kv) ⋅ w = k(v ⋅ w)
2
v ⋅ v = |v|
These are actually just simple multiplication rules, except written with respect to vectors.
.
4.2.3 The angle between two vectors

A complex IB question could involve the use of both formulae stated in 4.2.1, which involves finding the angle between
two vectors:
Example:
5 3
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
v = 2 ,w = 4
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 3
Find the angle between the two vectors.
Solution:
v⋅w = 5∗3+2∗4+1∗3
− − −−−−−−−− − − −−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2 2 2
v ⋅ w = √ 5 + 2 + 1 ∗ √ 3 + 4 + 3 cos θ
26 = 31.9 cos θ
θ = 0.620(rad)
4.2.4 Perpendicular and Parallel Vectors

Perpendicular vectors can be found easily using the component formula, as vectors perpendicular to each other have no
component of the other vector. Cosine of the angle between the two vectors, 90 degrees, is zero. This means that if the
resultant dot product between two vectors equal zero, then the vectors are perpendicular.
v ⋅ w = |v||w| cos 90
v⋅w = 0
v ⊥ w
Parallel vectors can be found using the following relationship:
|v ⋅ w| = |v||w|
4.3.1 Vector Equation of a Line

Take this line for example:
Vector Line Example
What is the equation of this line (in black), in vector form?
Vector equation of a line is commonly found in the following form:
r = a + λb
Where a and b are vectors.
To find the equation of a line, two things must be known.[4] A position must first be given on the line, put into the equation
as a position vector. In this example, the red arrow is the position vector that points at a. Secondly the direction that the
line is traveling must be known, the vector b. Through vector addition, the position vector plus the direction vector of the
line gives us a point on the line. To get ANY point on the line, we multiply the direction vector by lambda. The resulting
vector equation for this line is:
4 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
r = 1 +λ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3 2
Alternatively there are two additional forms that must be known for this course, the parametric form which is very similar to
the previous:
x = x0 + λl, y = y + λm, z = z0 + λn
0
The example line shown before will have the following parametric vector equation:
x = 4 + λ2, y = 1 + λ2, z = 3 + λ2
And the Cartesian form which is a rearrangement of the parametric form into one single equation:
x−x0 y−y z−z0

0
= λ, = λ, = λ
l m n
x−x0 y−y z−z0

0
= =
l m n
Where the example shown will have the following Cartesian equation:
x−4 y−1 z−3

= =
2 2 2
4.3.2 The Angle Between Two Lines

This is a repeat of 4.2.3, the direction vectors of two lines are taken and the angle between the two direction vectors
equals the angle between the two lines.
4.4.1 Distinguishing Between Geometric Cases of Lines Using Vectors

Coincident Lines
Coincident lines are two lines that occupy the same space geometrically, overlapping each other. Their vector equations
will have direction vectors (b) that are multiples of each other, and from both equations, the position vector (a) of each line
can be found using the other's equation.
Example:
−1 1
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a = 6 +λ 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
0 1
2 3
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
b = 9 +α 3
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3 3
Parallel Lines
Parallel lines head in the same direction geometrically, but are in different locations. This means they will have
independent position vectors but have direction vectors that are multiples of each other.
Example:
2 1
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a = 5 +λ 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
7 1
2 3
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
b = 9 +α 3
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3 3
Intersecting Lines
See 4.4.2
Skew Lines
If the lines does not intersect and is not parallel, then the line is skew, meaning they will never meet in 3D space.
Example:
4 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a = −5 +λ 4
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 3
2 1
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
b = −1 +α 3
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
0 2
4.4.2 Points of Intersection

Finding points of intersection requires simple algebra, involving the solving of simultaneous equations with 2 unknowns.
The easiest way to do this is to have the two vector equations in parametric form, then solve the simultaneous equations
by equating x, y and z vector components of the line. Then the unknowns are substituted into ONE vector equation to give
co-ordinates. Only two components should be used in a simultaneous equation at a time, the unknowns found can be
substituted into the third component to verify the intersection. If the first two components produce unknowns that cannot
be verified in the third, then the line is skew or parallel.
Example:
Find the point of intersection between lines a and b with vector equations:
1 1
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a = 1 +λ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 3
4 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
b = 6 +α 3
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
5 1
Solution:
1 + λ1 = 4 + α2
1 + λ2 = 6 + α3
λ = 1, α = −1
1 + 1 ∗ 3 = 5 + (−1) ∗ 1
Lines confirmed to intersect, to find intersection:

1 1 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 +1 2 = 3
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 3 4
Intersection between lines at (2,3,4).
4.5.1 Vector Product of Two Vectors

The cross product of two vector produces another vector that is at right angles to the initial vector. It is important to note
that two vectors can only be crossed if they are both 3D vectors. [5]
The definition of this cross product is, if v and w are both 3D vectors:
v × w = |v||w| sin θn
The n is a unit normal vector, a vector that is at right angles to v and w but also of a length of one. This gives the vector
the direction, the other components gives the vector its length.
Most of the times however, we are not given n, so to quickly work out the vector product, we can use a 3 by 3 matrix as a
'cheat'[6] . This should be done as follows, using the notation of i, j and k:
∣ i j k ∣ i j
∣ ∣
v×w = vi vj vk vi vj
∣ ∣
∣ wi wj wk ∣ wi wj
Normally we would have a 3 by 3 matrix and then find the determinant for the cross product but this 'cheat' repeats the
first two columns for ease of calculation. To calculate the determinant and thereby the cross product, we multiply
diagonally to the right first, adding up all the results of the multiplication. Then we multiply diagonally to the left,
subtracting all the results of the multiplication.
Example:
Find the cross product between the two vectors:
1 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
v = 2 ,w = 3
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3 1
Solution:
Using the 'cheat' from before:
∣ i j k∣ i j
∣ ∣
v×w = 1 2 3 1 2
∣ ∣
∣2 3 1 ∣2 3
Using the diagonals:

v × w = (2 ∗ 1)i + (3 ∗ 2)j + (1 ∗ 3)k − (1 ∗ 1)j − (3 ∗ 3)i − (2 ∗ 2)k
v × w = 2i + 6j + k − j − 9i − 4k
v × w = −7i + 5j − 3k
4.5.2 Properties of the Vector Product

The vector product has the following properties. These are unique to the vector product, unlike the scalar product. Let v, w
and u be 3D vectors.
v × w = −w × v
u × (v + w) = u × v + u × w
(kv) × w = k(v × w)
v×v = 0
4.6.1 Vector Equation of a Plane

To find the vector equation of a plane, we need to know at least three points on the plane, or two points and the normal
vector of the plane. If we have three points, then the normal vector can be found using the cross product between any two
of those points. This is modeled in the diagram below:[7]
The vector equation takes the form of:
r = a + λb + μc
With the vector equation, a plane can be expressed as a combination of a position vector a, and two non parallel vectors
in the plane b and c. Any point on the plan can be changed by multiplying b and c by a certain numbers.
Example:
Find the vector equation for the plane with the point (2,3,2) and vectors v and w.
4 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
v = 2 ,w = −1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 1
Solution:
2 4 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
r = 3 +λ 2 +μ −1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 2 1
4.6.2 Vector Equation Normal Form

We can use a vector normal to the plane to express the vector equation in the following form:
r⋅n = a⋅n
Recall that from previously, we know that the dot product between perpendicular vectors is zero. This means that the
normal vector has a dot product of zero with any vector in the plane. Thus using the other vector equation for a plane, we
can conclude that (since vectors b and c are in the plane):
r ⋅ n = (a + λb + μc) ⋅ n
r ⋅ n = a ⋅ n + λb ⋅ n + μc ⋅ n
r⋅n = a⋅n
Note: To find this normal vector, use the cross product of two vectors on the plane.
Note: To find the unit vector for the normal vector, find it's magnitude and divide each component by the magnitude.
4.6.3 Cartesian Equation of a Plane

The Cartesian equation is expressed in the following form, and can be found through the vector equation normal form
should n be a unit vector:
ax + by + cz = d
To convert from vector equation normal form:
r ⋅ n = d, d = a ⋅ n
x a
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
y ⋅ b = d
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
z c
ax + by + cz = d
In this form, we can easily find the vector normal to the plane, n is expressed as, (a,b,c) so we can make this a vector.
4.7.1 Intersections With Planes

4.7.1.1 A Line With a Plane
Surprisingly easy to realize the solution when drawn. The easiest form of equation to work with is the Cartesian equation
or r.n form for the plane. The equation of line should be in vector form.
Should the equation of a line be:
a e
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
r = b +λ f
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
c g
And the equation of the plane:
hx + iy + jz = d
The line equation is substituted directly into the equation of the plane and solved to find lambda.
h(a + eλ) + i(b + f λ) + j(c + gλ) = d
Whatever lambda value is found must be substituted into the equation of a line to find co-ordinates of intersection.
Example:
Find the point of intersection between the line u and plane k.
1 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
u = 3 +λ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3 2
k = 3x + 6y + 5z = 8
Solution:
3(1 + 2λ) + 6(3 + 2λ) + 5(3 + 2λ) = 8
λ = −1
1 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
u = 3 + −1 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3 2
Intersection at (-1,1,1).
4.7.1.2 Two Planes
When two planes intersect, their intersection is not a point but a line, It is commonly asked that you find this line of
intersection from two planes given. The best form of equation for the two planes is again in Cartesian form or r.n form,
where the two normal vectors to the planes are apparent. This will allow you to find the direction vector of the line of
intersection. A point is also commonly given, but if not, there is another way to find the parametric equation of the line.
You will find the normal vector to be immensely useful in this section.
Previously, the cross product was explained. The normal vector gained from the cross product of two normal vectors of a
plane is the direction vector for the line of intersection. Combined with the point that is given, a full line of intersection is
already known.
However if no point is given, then this becomes a bit more difficult.
Example:
Find the intersection between the two planes u and v.
u = 2x − 5y + 3z = 12
v = 3x + 4y − 3z = 6
Solution:
Simultaneous equations are used after setting x, y or z to zero.
if x = 0
−5y + 3z = 12
4y − 3z = 6
−y = 18
y = −18
4 ∗ −18 − 3z = 6
z = −26
If...
a
⎛ ⎞
u×v = b
⎝ ⎠
c
Then the line of intersection is:
a 0
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
r = b +λ −18
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
c −26
But wait, there's more!
If the question does not explicitly state that the planes intersect, you must check it yourself. There are intersecting and
parallel planes. To recognize the difference, the normal vectors for the planes are used. A set of parallel planes will have
parallel normal vectors, and hence they will be scalar multiples of each other.
4.7.2 Angle of Intersections with Planes

4.7.2.1 Line and Plane
Again the normal vector comes into use here. If the problem is visualized...
We can see that the n vector can be dotted with the direction vector of the line to give the angle of intersection between
those two vectors. Using triangles, 90 degrees minus that angle gives us the remaining angle, which is what we are trying
to find.
Example:
Find the angle of intersection between line u and plane k.
1 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
u = 3 +λ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3 2
k = 3x + 6y + 5z = 8
Solution:
n⋅u = 2∗3+6∗2+5∗2
= 28
28 = |n||u| cos θ
28 = 28.98 cos θ
θ = 0.2612π/2 − 0.2612 = 1.31(rad)
Angle is 1.31.
4.7.2.2 Plane and Plane

With two planes, there are two normal vectors. Dotting these two together gives the angle between those two vectors.
Visualizing this...
Like with the angle between line and plane, to find the angle between two planes, 180 degrees minus theta will give you
the required angle. However, theta is still a valid answer to the angle between a plane and a plane as there are two
answers to this. The other angle is on the other side of one plane.
Example:
Find the angle of intersection between plane l and plane k.
l = 2x + 7y + −2z = 12k = 3x + 6y + 5z = 8
Solution:
nl ⋅ nk = 2 ∗ 3 + 7 ∗ 6 + −2 ∗ 5
= 38
38 = |nl ||nk | cos θ
28 = 28.98 cos θ
θ = 0.8563π − 0.8563 = 2.29(rad)
The angle of intersection is 2.29 or 0.856.
1. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Zero Vector." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ZeroVector.html
2. ^ Kirby, Paul. “3D Vectors.” 3D Vectors. http://members.tripod.com/~Paul_Kirby/vector/VLintro.html
3. ^ “Dot Product.”http://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/vectors-dot-product.html
4. ^ http://wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/metric/metric_public/vectors/vector_coordinate_geometry/vector_equation_of_line.html
5. ^ http://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/vectors-cross-product.html
6. ^ http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/CrossProduct.aspx
7. ^ http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcIII/EqnsOfPlanes.aspx
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4.1.1 Concept of a Vector

The following website may be useful:

4.1.2 Representation of Vectors Using Directed Line Segments

Two vectors on a cartesian plane. O represents the origin.

4.1.3-4 Unit Vectors and Base Vectors

3D Cartesian Co-ordinate System

Alternatively, vectors can also be written like an equation in the form;

With i representing x, j representing y and k representing z. If there is no z co-ordinate, k can be omitted.

A unit vector is defined as a vector that has a magnitude (length) of one.

4.1.5 Algebraic and Geometric Vector Calculations

Sum and Difference of Two Vectors

Geometric representation of vector addition

What is the sum of a+b?

And the proof can be shown geometrically[2] :

Geometrically it is represented like so:

Position vector showing location of a

4.2.1 Scalar Product of Two Vectors

4.2.2 Properties of the Scalar Product

If u,v and w are vectors, then:

4.2.3 The angle between two vectors

Find the angle between the two vectors.

4.2.4 Perpendicular and Parallel Vectors

Parallel vectors can be found using the following relationship:

4.3.1 Vector Equation of a Line

Vector Line Example

What is the equation of this line (in black), in vector form?

Vector equation of a line is commonly found in the following form:

Where a and b are vectors.

x−x0 y−y z−z0

x−x0 y−y z−z0

x−4 y−1 z−3

4.3.2 The Angle Between Two Lines

4.4.1 Distinguishing Between Geometric Cases of Lines Using Vectors

4.4.2 Points of Intersection

Lines confirmed to intersect, to find intersection:

Intersection between lines at (2,3,4).

4.5.1 Vector Product of Two Vectors

Using the diagonals:

4.5.2 Properties of the Vector Product

4.6.1 Vector Equation of a Plane

The vector equation takes the form of:

4.6.2 Vector Equation Normal Form

4.6.3 Cartesian Equation of a Plane

To convert from vector equation normal form:

4.7.1 Intersections With Planes

Should the equation of a line be:

And the equation of the plane:

h(a + eλ) + i(b + f λ) + j(c + gλ) = d

3(1 + 2λ) + 6(3 + 2λ) + 5(3 + 2λ) = 8

4.7.1.2 Two Planes

However if no point is given, then this becomes a bit more difficult.

Then the line of intersection is:

But wait, there's more!

4.7.2 Angle of Intersections with Planes

θ = 0.2612π/2 − 0.2612 = 1.31(rad)

4.7.2.2 Plane and Plane

38 = |nl ||nk | cos θ

θ = 0.8563π − 0.8563 = 2.29(rad)

The angle of intersection is 2.29 or 0.856.

1. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Zero Vector." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.

Contributions to https://kristinibmath.wikispaces.com/ are licensed under a GNU Free Documentation License.

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