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Module 15-05
Gas Turbine Engine
Combustion Section
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 05- Combustion section
Level 1 2 3
Table of contents
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 05- Combustion section
Level 1 2 3
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
1. CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES:
1.1. Location:
The combustion chamber is an engine element which connects the compressor outlet to the turbine inlet. It is located between stations 2 and 3 in a
single flow turbojet, as shown below:
1.2. Function:
The function of the combustion chamber is to increase the temperature of the gas stream which passes through it, in order to increase its heating
power. For that purpose, it mixes compressed and heated air coming from the compressor with fuel pulverized by the burners. This mixture has a
chemical potential energy.
The combustion, initiated by a spark in the igniter, makes it possible to transform this chemical energy into calorific energy.
This calorific energy, by thermal expansion, leads to an increase in the gas volume at constant pressure. This phenomenon is called isobaric
transformation.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 05- Combustion section
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Increase in volume at constant pressure = ISOBARIC Transformation
This is made possible because the chamber inlet and outlet sections are different. Then, the gases are tremendously accelerated and are ejected
towards the turbine.
Calorific energy is thus transformed into kinetic energy.
1.3. Description:
Although there are various types of combustion chambers, they are always composed of the same elements (which have identical functions).
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 05- Combustion section
Level 1 2 3
an internal housing which avoids the propagation of heat in the core of the engine.
Igniters start combustion which propagates into the other elements throughout crossover tubes.
The drainage system makes it possible to recover excess fuel during starting and flame-out.
1.4.2. Annulus:
Annuli are of particular constitution and represent the most successful evolution of combustion.
They are characterized by two housings: an internal one and another one external, the shape of which are concentric cylindrical.
These housings constitute the structural parts of the engine which connect the compressor casing to the turbine casing.
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Category A B1 B2 B3 05- Combustion section
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The flame tube, contrary to that of the separate chamber, is single and surrounds completely the longitudinal axis of the engine. This has the
advantage of offering a maximum volume to combustion.
Burners are laid out regularly on all the perimeter of the flame tube inlet. Because of their mutual proximity, they shape the flame into a circle of fire
The return flow combustion chamber is made almost the same way and is composed of the same type of elements.
Standards of pollution becoming increasingly severe, manufacturers centered their research on the reduction of these rejections.
With this intention, they have been studying and testing since the 80’s new concepts of combustion chambers.
Let us quote for example: double annular combustor,
catalytic combustion,
super/sub-stoechiometric combustion,
variable section injection.
Only the concept of double annular combustor is sufficiently advanced to be applied to series engines: CFM 56-5B/DAC, General Electric GE90.
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The system includes a double row of burners: a pilot row and a main one.
According to the required thrust, only the pilot row or both rows are fed.
Their staged functioning, makes it possible to reduce by 40% the rate of pollution fixed by standards.
In addition to respect of pollution standards, manufacturers, in their new developments, have also sometimes to reconcile opposite requirements such
as:
high temperature operation on which depends efficiency,
lifespan of the hot parts,
reduced weight and volume.
2.1. Injection:
Combustion requires the fuel injection in a fog of fine droplets. To obtain this vaporization, it is necessary to inject the fuel under very high pressure by
a gauged port of small diameter, whatever is the rating.
The pressurization is obtained by a mechanical pump driven by the engine and which thus depends upon its rating.
To cover a very broad range of flow, varying from engine idling (minimum) to takeoff rating (maximum), it is necessary to make evolve the flow in a
ratio from 1 to 30.
Now the flow depends on the burner section and on the square root of injection pressure.
This will thus lead us to a variation of pressure from 1 to 900 given a constant section.
This exponential increase represents a technical stress that manufacturers were able to circumvent by developing variable section burners.
Types of injectors
Duplex spray nozzles became essential as modern engines efficiency increased, include:
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 05- Combustion section
Level 1 2 3
a permanent circuit which called pilot, of small section. It ensures spraying from the very first low ratings for litle supply pressure.
a main circuit of large section which is added to the first and is fed via a setting valve when supply pressure increases with engine rating.
Gas pressure P
Temperature T
Speed V
Note:
Oxygen (O2), present in the air, represents 25% of air mass.
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So that this reaction is complete, i.e. the quantity of oxygen is sufficient to burn a defined quantity of fuel, one determines a relationship between fuel
mass and air mass.
This ratio is called theoretical proportioning or stoechiometric ratio.
It is 1 per 15 for a complete combustion on the level of the flame.
Oxygen 16
Hydrogen 1
Carbon 12
One can now calculate the mass of fuel and oxygen which makes it possible to obtain a total reaction.
Mass of heptane: C7 H16 (7 x 12) + (16 x 1) = 100 g
Mass of oxygen needed to burn 100 g of heptane: 11 O2 1116 x 2 = 352 g
For 100 grams of fuel one thus needs 352 grams of oxygen. The air being composed of 23.5 % of oxygen, one needs:
352 / 23.5 X 100 = 1500 g of air.
1500 grams of air to burn 100 grams of fuel.
The mass ratio, called theoretical proportioning, is thus 1 per 15:
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Note:
Considering the entirety of the chamber (primary and secondary flow, we obtain a proportioning known as total which is about 1/60.
2.3.2. Richness:
Theoretical proportioning allows a complete combustion of the mixture air-fuel.
In reality, in particular during changes of ratings it is not always possible to maintain this mixture at its optimum value of 1 per 15.
The richness (r) is thus defined as the relationship between the real proportioning of the mixture and theoretical proportioning.
If real proportioning is higher than theoretical proportioning, the mixture is known as rich: r > 1
Consequences: pollution by rejections of un-burnt fuel, increase in temperature, risks of low pressure extinction.
Combustion can only occur under certain conditions.
The combustion chamber is studied to satisfy these operating conditions which depend on the following parameters:
pressure of the mixture during combustion,
richness,
and air flow rate.
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The first two parameters, pressure and proportioning, define a possible field of combustion.
Combustion is not possible except above a minimal pressure with a given range of richness.
Note:
Pressure (proportional to gas temperature) corresponds here to the pressure in compressor outlet.
The range of richness is noted to reduce when pressure decreases; this implies getting more accuracy in proportioning. There is a minimal pressure
for which proportioning must correspond very exactly to theoretical proportioning. If not, extinction occurs.
The air flow rate in the given range of richness also represents a restrictive field of combustion.
If real proportioning is lower than theoretical proportioning, the mixture is known as poor: r< 1
Consequences: strong risk of extinction whatever pressure might be, slow starting.
A permanent drift of the richness indicates a dysfunction of the fuel/air mixing system and requires maintenance.
2.4. Limitations:
Whatever this proportioning, the rate of flow should not be lower than the minimal speed of operation, nor exceed the flame propagation velocity
otherwise it would involve the blowing of the flame and thus the extinction.
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Limitations
A permanent drift of the richness indicates a dysfunction of the fuel/air mixing system and requires maintenance.
2.5. Emissions:
The chemical reaction of combustion involves the recombination of certain chemical elements in other substances which are rejected into the
atmosphere by the turbojet.
Let us quote the main elements rejected by a turbojet:
water vapor,
unburnt residues, due to an insufficient mixing at low ratings,
sulphuretted elements,
carbon monoxide (CO): toxic substance which appears at low pressure,
carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrogen (N),
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 05- Combustion section
Level 1 2 3
nitrigen oxyde (NO)
nitrogen dioxide (NO2): toxic substance which is formed at high temperature.
Emission levels
These rejections can constitute a pollution which the manufacturers try to reduce.
It is noted that the carbon monoxide and unburnt residues content decreases when the engine rating increases. On the other hand the production of
nitrogen oxides increases with the rise in the temperature due to the increase in rating.
At the level of the current developments, manufacturers are not able to reduce the emissions of pollutants completely. They are induced to choose a
compromise of operation for the realization of the combustion chambers.
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