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Document No.

HRTTMECH00031 00

Revision Date 26 July 2004

Replace
Human Resources
Approval Manager SMA
Effective Date 18 July 2002

Document status Registered

HYDRAULICS AH007

REASON FOR REVISION

DESTINATION GROUP

HYDRAULICS

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Designed by Compiled by

Name: HS Prinsloo Name: HS Prinsloo

Date: 2002-07-18 Date: 1993-08-06

Revised by Date

Sources consulted

Basic hydraulics HP Busherhm

Hydraulics Mannesman Rexroth

Copyright ©

Copyright in this manual is reserve under the Berne Convention.


In terms of the Copyright Act NO. 1978, no part of this manual
may be reprinted, or reproduced or utilized in any from or by any
electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the relevant authority.

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INDEX
No Topics Page

Objective 3
Preface 4
1 Principles of hydraulics 5
2 Flow rate or volume of fluid 14
3 Directional control 17
4 Basic control functions in a hydraulic system 18
5 Flow paths 18
6 Hydraulic fluids 23
7 Hydraulic seals and pipes 27
8 Basic symbols 36
9 Reservoirs 42
10 Fluid contamination (Hygiene) 46
11 Filters and strainers 47
12 Pumps 52
13 Hydraulic motors 62
14 Hydraulic cylinders 67
15 Check valves 76
16 Directional control valves 83
17 Pressure control valves 95
18 Volume control valves 104
19 Servo valves 109
20 Accumulators 113
21 Accumulator systems 119
22 Hydraulic systems 124
23 Safety procedure for shutting down systems 138
24 Trouble shooting 139

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OBJECTIVE

WHAT IS EXPECTED FROM YOU?

To become familiar with the contents of this module and to obtain the necessary
knowledge and insight of this module.

After the completion of the module, you must be able to pass a criterion test without
any reference of assistance.

Given

A training module and practical examples.

CRITERION

Reference books and notes are not allowed.

Help or assistance from fellow students is not allowed

Pass mark: 60%.

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PREFACE

Hydraulic systems are used in most industries.

It is important to know how these systems operate, which components are used and
how to do fault finding on the system.

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HYDRAULICS

1. PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS

Fluid power systems are power transmitting assembles employing pressurized liquid to
transmit energy from an energy generating source to an energy use area.

All hydraulic systems depend on Pascal's law, named after Blaise Pascal who discovered
the law. The law states that pressurized fluid within a closed container - such as a cylinder
or pipe, exerts equal force on all the surfaces of the container.

1.1 Pascal's law

20 cm² x 10 kg/cm= 200 kg


If we put a load of 10 kg on top of the stopper which has an area of 1 square centimeter, this
load of 10 k/square cm will be transmitted to every square centimeter to the entire bottom,
which receives a force of 200 kg if the bottom area is 20 square centimeters.

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1.2 Application of Pascal's law

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1.3 HOW IS PRESSURE CREATED?

Pressure is created whenever the flow of a fluid is resisted.

Resistance from a load on an actuator

The size of the load will determine the pressure in this system. In the International Standard
System (ISO), pressure is measured in Pascal (Pa), but pascal is a very small unit. The
pressure gauges are therefore in kPa or Mpa.

1 000 Pa = 1 kPa and 1 000 kPa = 1 Mpa

The figure above the weight of 9 000 kg resists the flow of oil under the piston and creates
pressure in the oil. The piston area is one square meter and the weight of 9 000 kg create a
pressure of 9 000 Pa. If the size of a load and the area of the piston is know one can determine
the pressure required to lift the load.

Basic formula is :

P =F/A

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Where P = Pressure in Pascal (Pa)


F = Force in Newton (N)
A = Area of Piston in square meter

If the load is given in kg one must bring it to:


Newton x kg x 10 =Newton

Example

In the figure above the piston with an area of 1 square meter must lift a load of 15 000 kg.
15 000 x 10 = 150 000 Newton

.'. P = F
A

= 150 000 N
1

= 150 000 Pa

or 150 kPa or 0.15 Mpa

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If the piston area stays constant and the weight increases so does the pressure.

Therefore one can say that basically the pressure gives us the force to lift a load.

Question 1

2
Piston Area = 0,5 m
Load = 7 500 kg

Determine the pressure required to lift the load.

Formula

P= F
A

P= 7 500 kg
2
0,5 m

P= 75 000 N
2
0,5 m

P= 150 000 Pa

= 150 kPa

= 0,15 MPa

Question 2

2
Piston Area = 0.25 m
Load = 9.125 ton

Determine the pressure required to lift the load.

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Formula

P= F
A

P= 9.125 ton
2
0.25 m

P= 91250 N
2
0.25 m

P= 365 000 Pa

= 365 kPa

= 0.365 MPa

Question 3

Piston diameter = 200mm


Load = 4 000 kg

Determine the pressure required to lift the load.

.'. Piston area =

Formula

A= d2
4

A= (0.2 m)
2

A= 0.0314 m2

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P= F
A

P= 4000 kg
2
0.0314 m

P= 40000 N
2
0.0314 m

P= 1273885.3 Pa

P= 1273.8 kPa

P= 1.2 MPa

Question 4

Load =15 000 kg


Pressure = 300 000 Pa
Determine the area of the Piston

Formula

A= F

A= 15000 Kg
300 000 Pa

2
A= 0.05 m

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1.4 RESISTANCE BY MEANS OF AN ORIFICE

When the gate valve is wide open, all the flow from the pump passes through unrestricted.
There is no pressure in the system (ignoring friction losses).

If we start closing gate Valve A the flow is restricted and pressure builds up.

The pump delivers 10 liter/min and gate Valve A is set to allow 2 liter/min through. 8 Liter/min
have to pass over the relief valve back to the reservoir.

If there were no relief valve in the system, the pump or a pipe would burst.

The spring force of the relief valve determines the pressure in the system. A pressure of 5 Mpa
is needed to open the relief valve; therefore the reading on the pressure gauge will be 5 MPa.

The maximum pressure in a system is determined by the setting of the relief valve.

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2 FLOW RATE OR VOLUME OF FLUID

2.1

T = Time in seconds (s)


Q = Pump displacement in L/min
V = Volume fluid in liter

The pump delivery is 10 liter / min and the cylinder volume is also 10 liter. Therefore it will take
the pump 60 seconds to fill the cylinder and piston takes 60 seconds to travel from A to B.

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2.2

We have a cylinder with the same volume as the previous one. That is 10 liter. The pump
delivers 20 liter/ minute and will fill the cylinder faster than in. It will only take the piston 30
seconds to move from A to B.

The speed of the piston or actuator is determined by the flow rate of the fluid.
Therefore the volume or the flow rate generates speed.

Question 1

If the delivery is 20 liter / min, determine the time it will take the piston to move from A to B.

t= V

= 5L
20 l/min

= 0.25 min

= 15 sec

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Question 2

t= V
Q

= 30 L
5l / min

= 6 min

= 360 sec

If the pump delivers 5 liter / min, determine the time it will take to move the piston from A to B.

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3 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL

Cylinders are the most commonly used actuators in a hydraulic system. We use a
directional control valve for reversing the stroke of a cylinder.

The pump delivers the fluid to move the piston from A to B. At the end of the stroke
the piston cannot move any further and the pump delivery passes over the relief valve
back to reservoir. To bring the piston back again from B to A, the position of the
directional control valve is changed to direct the pump delivery to the rod end of the
cylinder. This will move the piston back from B to A.

When the piston reaches Point A the relief valve again protects the system.

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4 BASIC CONTROL FUNCTIONS IN A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Fluid Pressure

This gives us the force to do the work and we must control it to protect our system components.
The spring force of a relief valve will determine the maximum pressure in the system.

Flow Rate or Volume

This gives us the speed of an actuator.

Direction

This is to move the load in both directions.

In most hydraulic systems we will find all of the above mentioned control functions.

5 FLOW PATHS
5.1 PARALLEL FLOW PATH

The two pressure control valves function parallel with each other and are set at 4Mpa. The only
pressure required to open both valves is 4 MPa

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5.2 SERIES FLOW PATH

When resistances to flow are connected in series, the pressure increases.

Valve A opens at 2 Mpa .


Valve B opens at 3 Mpa .
Valve C opens at 4 Mpa .

The pressure required to open all three valves = A + B + C i.e. 2 + 3 + 4 = 9 Mpa.

From these two flow paths i.e. parallel or series, we can see that when designing a hydraulic
system, it is very important that there is enough pressure available to open the valves.

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5.3 PRINCIPLE OF FLOW IN PIPE LINES

Laminar Flow

Laminar flow is the ideal flow in a pipeline. It will flow in a straight, parallel path. This
condition occurs at low velocity in straight piping. With laminar flow, friction is minimized.
Turbulent flow

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A turbulent flow is caused by abrupt changes in direction or cross section, or where the flow
velocity is too high. Turbulence is the condition where the particles do not move smoothly
parallel to the flow direction. The result is greatly increased friction, which generates heat,
increases operating pressure and wastes power.

NB : One 90° elbow = 9 meter of straight pipe.

5.4 BERNOULLI's PRINCIPLE

According to Bernoulli's principle the sum of the pressure and kinetic energy at
various points in a system must be constant if the flow rate is constant. When the
pipe diameter changes, the velocity changes. If the velocity changes, the pressure
increases or decreases (since energy cannot be destroyed).

The pressure and velocity at A and C are equal because the pipe diameters are the same. At B
the velocity decreases in the larger diameter pipe and the pressure increases.

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5.5 TYPICAL FITTING LOSSES

FITTING EQUIVALENT LENGTH


OF STRAIGHT PIPE

Flow Divider 10 - 21 meter

Tee flow to main 29 - 31 meter

Tee flow to branch 18 - 21 meter

Elbow W 45° 6 meter

Elbow W 90° 9 meter

90° medium sweep 7,6 meter

90° long sweep 6 meter

90° square 19 - 21 meter

180° Bend, close return 21 meter

180° Bend medium radius 15 - 16,7 meter

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6 HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

6.1 Purpose of the fluid

a. To Transmit Power

The fluid should not compressible in order to obtain instantaneous action when valve
is moved.

b. Lubrication

The fluid in a hydraulic system provides lubrication to the components. In most


hydraulic components this is done by means of internal leakage. Pump elements and
other parts of valves, etc are made of metal and move against each other on a film of
fluid. For a longer component life it is necessary that the fluid lubricate all
components.

c. Sealing

In many instances, the fluid is the only seal against pressure inside a hydraulic component.

In the drawing above of a valve spool, there is no seal ring between the valve spool
and body to minimize leakage from the high-pressure passage to the low-pressure
passages. The fluid forms a seal between these two passages.

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d. Cooling

Circulation of the fluid through pipelines and around the walls of the reservoir gives up
heat that is generated in the system.

6.2 A NUMBER OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS ARE USED IN INDUSTRIAL HYDRAULIC


SYSTEMS.

These fluids include:

a) Mineral oil
b) Water
c) Oil in water
d) Compressed air
e) Synthetic Oil

Mineral oil

Mineral based oil is perhaps the most widely used hydraulic fluid. It does not cause rust,
dissipates heat rapidly and can be cleaned easily by mechanical filtration and gravity
separation. It will also form a seal and lubricate the components.

Water or water and oil

Oil in water emulsions contain tiny droplets of specially refined oil dispersed in water. The
fluid characteristics are more like water than oil. It is highly fire resistant, is low in viscosity
and has excellent cooling characteristics. Additives can be incorporated to improve the
relatively poor lubricity and to project against rust.

Compressed Air

Compressed air or gas is used in many fluid power systems. Cleanliness is not too much of
a problem with compressed air and the lubrication is usually easy to arrange. Compressed
air systems may be noisy.
Synthetic Oil

Synthetic oil is a substantially non-inflammable oil. The main disadvantage of synthetic oil is
its very high cost.

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If there is a fire danger area where hydraulics must be used, the high cost for the synthetic
oil would be worth while.

NB: If a hydraulic system is designed for mineral based oil we cannot change to synthetic oil
unless we change all the seals in the system, or we are sure the seals are also suitable for
synthetic oil.

6.3 WHEN CHOOSING A HYDRAULIC FLUID, THE FOLLOWING FACTORS MUST BE


CONSIDERED

a) Speed of operation.
b) Surrounding atmospheric conditions.
c) Heat.
d) Economic conditions.
e) Required pressure level.
f) Temperature range.
g) Safety for operators.

6.4 FLUID VISCOSITY

Viscosity is the resistance a fluid offers to flow. As the temperature of a fluid


decreases, the viscosity increases. Cold fluids always flow less easily than hot fluids.

A satisfactory fluid for a given hydraulic system must have enough body to give a
good seal at pumps, valves and pistons, but must not be so thick that it offers
excessive resistance to flow. On the other hand, fluid that is too thin cannot
lubricate properly and will also lead to wear.

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6.5 SYSTEM TEST FOR VISCOSITY AND FLUID.

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7 HYDRAULIC SEALS AND PIPES

Seals

Seals and packing play a very important role in fluid power systems. It was not until
effective packing were developed for hydraulic pistons in cylinders that the power
application to industry was made possible.

7.1 THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF SEAL APPLICATION IN HYDRAULIC SYSTEM:

Positive (Static)

No movement, no leakage and no lubrication

Non- Positive ( Dynamic)

Movement, minimum leakage for lubrication

7.2 THE TYPE OF SEALS TO BE USED IN SYSTEMS DEPEND ON FOUR PRIMARY


FACTORS.

a) Temperature.
b) Type of motion (rotary or slide movement).
c) Pressure.
d) The fluid medium used.

7.3 THE FOLLOWING ARE GENERAL TYPES OF PACKING AND SEALS MOST
OFTEN USED IN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS TODAY.

a) O-ring.
b) Quad - ring.
c) V- packing.
d) Cup - packing
e) U - packing.
f) Common oil seal.
g) Metallic seal
h) Bonded seal (Dowty seal).

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a. O - ring

This is one of the most commonly used seals in hydraulic systems today. It is used
where there is either rotary motion or static sealing. On rotary shafts the seals are
limited to low pressure but on static sealing the pressure can be high.

Dynamic application “O”–RING Static application

b. Quad - ring

Static application

The quad - ring is similar to the O - ring. It may be applied over a wide range of
pressures. It is especially useful where lubrication is difficult.

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c. V - packing

V- packing seals are commonly found on hydraulic cylinders and are generally finished in sets.

d. Cup - packing

Cup - packing are used in many areas of high-pressure service. They are generally
used on pistons. They form part of the piston

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e. U - packing

U - packing seals are used as single unit seals, whereas V-packing seals are used in sets.

f. Common oil seal

This seal is mostly used for rotary shaft seals.

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g. Metallic seal

The most common example of a metallic seal is the piston rings in an internal
combustion gasoline engine. The metallic seal is useful where the seal is subjected to
extreme heat that would cause even the most exotic rubber or thermoplastic
compounds to fail.

h. Bonded seal ( Dowty seal )

This seal is only used as a static seal. When a hydraulic component is equipped with
straight thread parts and we use a straight thread connector, we can use this seal
between the two surface areas. It becomes tighter as pressure increases.

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7.4 PIPES

Pipes that are used in a hydraulic system consist mainly of two types:

a. Steel pipe

Steel pipes that are used do not have a seam like a water pipe has. For this reason it
can withstand a very high pressure. It can also be bent to any angle and be used
over and over without suffering any leaks

b. RUBBER PIPE

Rubber pipes are used where movement exists on cylinders or other parts. This type
of pipe consists of layers of rubber reinforced by layers of wire mesh. The more
layers of wire, the more pressure it can withstand.

c. Drawing of rubber pipe with layers of wire

Symbol

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Under the term 'piping', connections are also dealt with. The next sketch shows how
the screw thread on the ends of piping and inside components are cut to give strength
and good sealing. The thread tapers to the front and a space can be left between the
crown and base of the thread or it can be made so that the crown of the male thread
cuts in on the base of the female thread to give excellent sealing.

d. Drawing of thread on pipes and components

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Next we look at some connections used to link pipes and components in a hydraulic system.

e. Drawing of connections and connecting components

We also make use of components and connections that do not use thread for sealing,
as shown in the next sketch.

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f. Drawing of connections not using thread to seal

When a system uses pipes thicker than 90 mm we join them by means of flanges, as
shown in the following sketch.

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g. Drawing of flanges to join pipes thicker than 90 mm

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8 BASIC SYMBOLS

Although we are only going to discuss the operation of equipment, it includes basic
hydraulics and all types of pumps, motors and controls.

To do any maintenance on a hydraulic system you must be able to read graphical


circuits of any hydraulic system therefore we shall start off with Hydraulic system
graphical symbols.

8.1 PIPE LINES

Hydraulic pipes, tubes and fluid passages are drawn as single lines. There are three
basic classifications.

a) A working line (solid) carries the main stream of flow in the system.

b) A pilot line (long dashes) carries fluid that is used to control the operation of a
valve or other component.

c) A drain line (short dashes) carries leakage oil back to the reservoir.

d) Rubber pipe.

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8.2 THE COLOR KEY USED IN PICTORIALS OF COMPONENTS AND IN


HYDRAULIC LINES IS AS FOLLOWS:

Red - Operating or system pressure.


Blue - Exhaust flow.
Green - Intake or drain.
Yellow - Measured (metered) flow.
Orange - Reduced pressure or pilot pressure.
Violet - Intensified pressure.

8.3 Standard pipe crossings and connections

Crossings Connections

8.4 ROTATING COMPONENTS

A circle is the basic symbol for rotating components. Energy triangles in the circle
indicate whether it is a pump or a motor. When the energy triangle points to the
outside, it indicates a pump. That displaces fluid. When it points to the inside, it
indicates a hydraulic motor that receives fluid.

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Hydraulic pumps

Uni- directional Uni- directional Bi- directional with Bi- directional


adjustable external drain with internal n
drain

Hydraulic motors

8.5 CYLINDERS

A cylinder is drawn as a rectangle with indications of a piston, piston rod and port
connection. A single acting cylinder is shown open at the rod end with a cap end port
connection. A double acting cylinder appears closed with two ports.

Single acting Single acting


spring loaded

Double acting Double acting


With double rod

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8.6 VALVES

The basic symbol for a valve is square. Arrows are added to the squares to show
paths and direction of flow.

a) Infinite position valves, such as relief valves, have a single square


block. They are assumed to be able to take any number of positions
between fully open and fully closed, depending on the volume fluid
passing through them.

b) Finite positioning valves are directional valves. Their symbols


contain an individual square for each position the valve can be shifted
to.

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8.7 RESERVOIR /TANK SYMBOL

The reservoir is drawn as a rectangle. It is open at the top for a vented reservoir and
closed for a pressurized reservoir.

Connecting lines are drawn to the bottom when the lines terminate below the fluid
level in the tank. If a line terminates above the fluid level, it is drawn to the top of the
symbol.

We can combine the symbols for a simple hydraulic circuit.

8.8 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

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9 RESERVOIRS

9.1 Reservoir

A typical industrial reservoir, conforming to standards, is shown in the drawing. The


tank is constructed of welded steel plate with extensions of the end plates supporting
the unit on the floor. The entire inside of the tank is painted with a sealer to reduce
rust which can result from condensed plug moisture. The bottom of the tank is dished
and has a drain plug at the lowest point at the lowest point, thus the tank can be
drained completely.

The filler hole is provided with a fine mesh screen to keep out dirt. A vented breather
cap is used on most reservoirs and should also contain an air filter screen. The filter in
the filler hole must be able to filtrate the same size particles as the filters in the
system.

A baffle plate extends length ways through the center of the tank. It is usually about
2/3 the height of the oil level and is used to separate inlet line from the return line so
that the same fluid cannot re-circulate continuously but must take a route through the
tank.

9.2 Purpose of the baffle plate

1) Allows foreign material to settle to the bottom of the tank.


2) Gives the fluid an opportunity to get rid of entrapped air.
3) Prevents local turbulence in the tank.
4) Helps to lower temperature of the fluid using the tank walls

Pump inlet and return lines must be well below the fluid level, otherwise the oil may
become aerated and foam.

Lines that terminate near the tank bottom and are not equipped with strainers should
be cut at a 45 degree angle.
This prevents the line opening from resting on the bottom of the tank and cutting off
the flow.

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9.3 RESERVOIR

A large tank is always desirable to promote cooling and separation of


contaminants. At a minimum the tank must store all the fluid the system
will require and maintain a level high enough to prevent a 'whirlpool'.
(Three times the pump delivery).

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9.4 Sealed reservoirs (Under pressure)

With a pressurized type of sealed reservoir, direct pressurization of air above the fluid
in a simple tank can lead to super-saturation of the fluid with dissolved air, which is
subsequently released in some other part of the system.

An alternative solution, now generally preferred, is to fit a sealed reservoir with a


pressurized bag.

The reason for pressurized reservoirs is to exercise a higher pressure on the fluid at
the pump inlet.

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10 Fluid contamination (Hygiene)

Contamination of hydraulic fluid is a common source of trouble, particularly in systems


that are not adequately protected by filters. The provision of adequate filters and their
regular cleaning or replacement of elements as necessary, is a part of preventative
maintenance. This does not, however, provide complete protection. All full flow filters
are normally provided with a by-pass that opens as the elements become clogged.
The life of a filter element depends primarily on the system itself and the degree of
contamination inherent in the working of the system. It is of importance that
preventative maintenance for filter checking is established on regular basis.

Fluid samples can be withdrawn from the system to check the amount of
contamination. These samples must be taken while the system is working. In case of
doubt, separate samples can be withdrawn from different parts of the system.

Fluid samples may be submitted to a laboratory for testing. The laboratory must know
the original specification of the oil in order to interpret the test data.

A 'workshop' examination of an oil sample is not a very accurate method of


assessment. Any oil removed from a filtered system should be clear at any stage of
its life. Cloudiness on the other hand will indicate possible water contamination. One
can test for water contamination by placing a drop of oil on a hot plate. Normal oil will
smoke or burn. An oil drop contaminated with water in suspension will 'hiss''. Color
and smell of the oil sample are good general checks. If the sample is clear and of
similar color to the original oil, there should be little if anything wrong with the oil. The
best way of examination is to send the sample the laboratory.

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11. FILTERS AND STRAINERS

Introduction

Here are some of the methods currently used in selecting the size, location and rating
of a filter in a hydraulic system. Experience has shown that many of these filtration
systems do not achieve the desired results and increasing demands for systems with
higher efficiently and longer component life that are demanded.

When a system is designed there must be decided on the location of the filter and the
choice may well be influenced by a filter supplier who claims that their particular line
filter, bent inlet pressure or return will provide the best solution. This is indeed
unfortunate as most of the manufactures data is extracted from test data which bears
little resemblance to the operating conditions found in actual practice.

11.1 Filtration requirements

The requirements of any filtration system are:

a) It must be capable of reducing the initial contamination level to the desired


level within an acceptable period of time without causing premature wear or
damage to the hydraulic components
b) It must be capable of achieving and maintaining the desired contamination
level including a suitable factor of safety for example, when a system is being
'topped up'.
c) The quality of maintenance available at the end user location must be
acknowledged.
d) Filters must be easily accessible for maintenance purposes.
e) Indications of filter conditions to suit the users requirements must be provided.
f) In continuous process plants, facilities must be provided to allow changing of
elements without interfering with plant operation.
g) The filters must provide sufficient dirt holding capacity for an acceptable
interval between element changes.
h) The inclusion of a filter in the system must not produce undesirable effects on
the operation of components such as high backpressure on seal drains.

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11.2 Filter racing

The filter must keep the hydraulic fluid in the system clean, but must have no
influence on the flow rate of the fluid.

Filters, which could be made of many materials other than wire screen, are rated by
micron size (one micron 0,001 mm).

For comparison, a grain of salt is about 70 micron across. The smallest particle a
sharp eye can see is about 40 microns.

11.3 Filtering materials

Filtering materials are classified as mechanical or absorbent.

a) Mechanical filters operate by trapping particles between closely woven metal


screens or discs. Most mechanical filters are relatively coarse.
b) Absorbent filters are used for most minute particle filtration in hydraulic
systems. They are made of a wide range of purpose materials, including
paper, wood pulp, cotton, yarn and cellulose.
c) Felt 30 - 50 microns.
d) Paper down to 10 microns.
e) Wire cloth down to 10 microns.
11.4 Inlet filtration or strainers

Inlet line filtration protects the circuit from all contamination returned from the system,
present in the tank, or added to the tank with make-up fluid but it does not protect
valves from pump generated contaminants.

Cavitation damage and excessive noise can result from an inadequate pressure at the
pump inlet. Some types of pumps are more sensitive to inlet conditions than others
but all pumps become more critical as the speed increases.

It is important that any filter and it's associated pipe work in the Suction Line is large
enough to pass the full pump demand within the inlet depression permitted for that
pump and this pressure drop must not be exceeded when the filter is partially blocked
and bye-passing.

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Some inlet filters can be easily serviced. However, incorrect reassembly of the
access cover can sometimes result in air ingress which often goes undetected and
which can be harmful to the pump and cause erratic system operation.

In the case of the filter shown in the sketch, readings can only be taken while system
is in operation.

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11.5 Pressure Line filtration

Because Pressure Line filters have to withstand the full system pressure with an
adequate margin of safety, there is a tendency to make these small, thus reducing
their contaminant holding capacity. Unless bye-passing arrangements have been
made, cleaning them involves stopping the system and this operation often allows free
air into the system, which must be cleared out before the system can be put back into
operation. The use of Pressure Line filters should normally be confined to giving
special protection to a single unit where failure of such a unit, for example a servo
valve, may be extremely expensive. In this case it is essential to provide the filter with
an indicator that will give adequate warning of a partially blocked filter element as a
bye pass cannot be tolerated.

One often overlooked factor is that a filter fitted in the inlet line to a servo valve does
not protect the unit from contaminants engrossed by a controlled cylinder and the
protection of a valve from this contaminant source involves the use of complex bi-
directional filters.

In many applications, Pressure Line filters are subject to mechanical vibration and to
abrupt changes of flow rate which reduces their performance.

11.6 Return line filtration

For practical reasons, a low, pressure return filter is often the most economic
arrangement that can provide a satisfactory solution but it must be noted that a Return
Line filter does not protect the system from environmental dirt which enters the
reservoir via breathers or during topping up. Installing filters in return lines where high
surges are anticipated should be avoided.

The flow capacity of Return Line filters must take into account flows in excess of pump
output such as the exhaust from the head end of differential cylinders.

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11.7 Full flow filters

The term full flow applied to a filter means that all the flow into the filter inlet port
passes through the filtering element. In most full flow filters however, there is bypass
valves present to open at a given pressure drop and divert flow past the filter element.
This prevents a dirty element from restricting flow.

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11.8 Proportional flow filters

A proportional flow filter may utilize the Ventury effect to filter a portion of the fluid
flow. The oil can flow in either direction. As it passes through the filter body, a venturi
throat causes an increase in velocity and a decrease in pressure. The pressure
difference forces some of the oil through the element to rejoin the main stream at the
venturi.

11.9 Two directional filter.

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12. PUMPS

The pump is the heart of the hydraulic system. It converts work applied to its drive
shaft into energy in the fluid. This energy is converted back into useful work on an
object or load when transmitted to the working element of the system. Pumps are
either of the positive displacement or the non-positive displacement type.

12.1 NON- POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS (HYDRODYNAMIC)

The volume of a hydrodynamic pump does not change during the pumping cycle.
They rely on other means of imparting energy to the fluid. Most common of these are
centrifugal pumps.

The advantages of this kind of pump are:

1. Maintenance cost is low.


2. They can be opened quietly.
3. They are capable of handling almost any type of fluid - for example, sludge and
slurries.

This type of pump cannot generate the high pressure needed in hydraulic systems. A
seal cannot be formed between the housing and the impeller in the pump. As soon as
pressure starts to build up at the outlet of the pump, the fluid will just mill around in the
housing.

12.2 Cavitation

When any type of pump starts to rotate, a "vacuum" is created at the inlet side. Liquid
vaporizes in a "vacuum". This puts "gas bubbles" in the fluid. The bubbles are
carried through the pump. When exposed to load pressure at the outlet, the bubbles
collapse with considerable force causing damage to the pump.

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12.3 Partial Vacuum

A partial vacuum is created at the inlet of the pump. A partial vacuum means any
pressure lower than atmospheric pressure.

12.4 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS - (HYDROSTATIC)

A positive displacement - or hydrostatic pump displaces the full (95%) volume of fluid
in the pump with every stroke, revolution or cycle and can maintain a constant
pressure.

In this type of pump the gears, valves or pistons fit tightly against the case or cylinder
block. This will help the oil to form a seal and we get a positive displacement.

12.5 These pumps have the following advantages:

They can generate high pressure.


They are relatively small in comparison with non-positive pumps
They are highly efficient.
There is a relatively small change in efficiencies throughout the pressure range.
They have great flexibility of performance. (Range of speeds and under varying
pressure requirements).

Nearly all pumps used in fluid power units are positive displacement pumps.

The three types of positive displacement pumps we shall discuss are:

a. Gear pumps.

b. Vane pumps.

c. Piston pumps.

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12.6 GEAR PUMP

The basic gear pump consists of two meshed gears, a case or housing surrounding
the gears and two covering plates that enclose the ends of the gears. Each gear is
mounted on a shaft, which is supported on bearings in the covers. One of these
shafts, the drive shaft, extends out through one of the covers and is coupled to a
driver like an electrical motor.

The pumping action occurs as follows: The space between the teeth of two of the gear
teeth of one gear is filled by a tooth of the other gear. As the meshed gears rotate,
one tooth space after another is left open. Atmospheric pressure forces oil through
the port located at that point into the tooth space. This tooth space full of oil is carried
around the periphery of the gear until the teeth again mesh. At this time the oil is
forced out of the space by the meshing tooth and flows out of the port located at that
side of the mesh points. The elimination of the space prevents oil from crossing over
to the intake side and thus the pump dispels one toothful of oil per tooth per

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revolution. Without a downstream restriction it can be seen that the pump would
merely transfer fluid from one side to the other at zero pressure.
Positive pressure is created only when a restriction is encountered

Of all hydraulic pumps, gear pumps are by far the most common. This is probably
because they are simple to design and the least sensitive to dirt and are also the
easiest to manufacture.

12.7 VANE PUMP

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The main parts of a vane pump are the rotor, the vanes and the cam ring. These
pieces are surrounded by a front and rear cover casting, which contains the inlet and
discharge parts.

The rotor as its names implies, is the rotating element. A short cylindrical piece with
radial slots cut in it; the rotor is usually driven by driver shaft. The radial slots vary
according to the size of the rotor. The most common number of slots seems to be 10
and 12.

The vane is a flat rectangular piece as long as the rotor is wide. It is thick enough to
fit closely in the slot provided, yet is able to slide freely. Each radial slot carries a
vane.

The cam ring is the surrounding housing for the rotor and vanes. The word 'cam' is
derived for the action of the interior surface of the piece, which performs a camming
function on the vanes. Broadly described the cam surface is an oval-shaped hole in
the center of the rotor.

With the rotor set on the drive shaft, the vanes in the slots of the rotor and the cam
ring surrounding the shaft is rotated. Rotation imparts centrifugal force to the vanes,
moving them radially outward in their slots until their tips (or edges) contact the cam
surface. As the rotor turns the vane tips will traverse the curve of the cam surface.
As each vane makes this traverse it slides partially out of the slot in the rotor and back
in again.

It will be noted that like the vanes, following the cam surface, the volume enclosed by
the cam surface, the two vanes and the rotor starts essentially on zero and grows
larger. Atmospheric pressure forces oil into the vacated area as the cam surface
recedes from the rotor.

The pressure also acts at the bottom of the vane and helps the vane and oil to from a
seal against the cam ring.

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12.8 PISTON PUMPS

a. AXIAL PISTON PUMP

In axial piston pumps, the cylinder block and drive shaft are on the same center line
and the pistons reciprocate parallel to the drive shaft.

The cylinder block in this pump is turned by the drive shaft. Pistons fitted to bores in
the cylinder are connected through piston shoes and a retracting ring, so that the
shoes bear against an angled swash plate.

As the block turns the piston shoes follow the swash plate causing the pistons to
reciprocate. The ports are arranged in the valve plate so that the pistons pas the inlet
as they are pulled out and pas the outlet as they are forced in.

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Displacement

In these pumps the displacement is determined by the size and the number of pistons
X length of the stroke RPM

This applies to a fixed displacement as shown in the above figure.

b. VARIABLE AXIAL PISTON PUMP

In the variable displacement inline piston pump, the swash plate is installed in a
movable yoke. The yoke on pintles changes the swash plate angle to increase or
decrease the piston stroke. The yoke can be operated:

a. Manually;
b. With a compensator control; or
c. By several other means.

Compensator control

Symbol

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The control consists of a compensator valve balanced between load pressure and the
force of a spring, a piston controlled by a valve to move the yoke and a yoke return
spring. With no outlet pressure, the yoke return spring moves the yoke to the full
delivery position. As pressure builds up it acts against the end of the valve spool.
When the pressure is high enough to overcome the valve spring, the spool is
displaced and oil enters the yoke piston. The oil under pressure forces the piston to
decrease the pump displacement. If the pressure decreases, the spool moves back,
oil is discharged from the inside of the pump case and the spring returns to the yoke
to a greater angle.

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The compensator this adjusts the pump outlet to whatever is required to develop and
maintain present pressure. This prevents power loss by avoiding relief valve
operation at full pump volume during holding or clamping.

c. RADIAL PISTON PUMP

In a radial pump the cylinder block rotates on a stationary pintle in which the inlet and
outlet ports are. The piston fits in the cylinder block and can slide or and move in and
out. The top part of the piston is connected to a reaction ring and slides in the
reaction ring.

The cylinder block is offset from the case. As the cylinder block rotates the pistons will
move in and out (because the block is offset from the case). As the pistons
reciprocate in their bores, porting in the pintle permits them to take in fluid as they
move outward and discharge it as they move in.

The size, number of pistons and the length of their stroke X RPM also determine
displacement.

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13 HYDRAULIC MOTORS

Hydraulic motors closely resemble the construction of a pump. Instead of exercising


pressure on the fluid as the pump does, they are forced by the fluid and develop
torque and a continuous rotating movement. Since both inlet and outlet ports may at
times be pressurized, most hydraulic motors are externally drained.

The pressure of the fluid will determine the torque of the motor and the volume supply
(liters/minute) will determine the speed (RPM).

If the pressure remains constant and the volume changes, the speed of the motor will
change but the torque will remain constant.

Symbols for Hydraulic Motors

Uni- directional Bi- directional Adjustable with external drain

With internal drain Electrical motor Internal combustion machine

NB. The energy triangle points inwards, which means the motor is receiving energy to rotate.

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SYSTEMS TEST FOR PISTON PUMPS

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SYSTEM TEST FOR AIR LEAKS

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SYSTEMS TEST FOR HYDRAULIC MOTORS

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FAULTS AND REMEDIES FOR PUMP CAVITATION

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14. HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

Motors and pumps provide the torque force in fluid power. Hydraulic cylinders
produce the linear force. These are the two principle methods used to produce useful
work.

Cylinders are constructed in a wide variety to meet the needs of various fluid power
systems. Special sizes and designs are manufactured to meet specific requirements
of a machine or a circuit.

TYPES

Basic cylinder design consists of a piston and rod, which are forced by fluid to travel in
the cylinder. Five basic types are available.

1. Single acting.

2. Double acting.

3. Double rod end double acting.

4. Telescopic.

5. Double acting with single cushion action.

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14.1 SINGLE ACTING

In single acting cylinders the load moves the cylinder piston in one direction while the
fluid from the pump is used to actuate movement in the other direction. These
cylinders may by operated horizontally if a spring is installed either in the rod end of
the cylinder or externally.

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14.2 DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

They are the type most commonly used. The piston and rod are moved by the fluid,
which is either directed to the cover or to the rod end. During one direction of travel
the fluid from the opposite end is returned to the tank.

14.3 DOUBLE ROD END CYLINDER

They are used when work must be performed at both ends of the cylinder. The
cylinder is the same as the double acting cylinder except that two rod ends are used.
These cylinders have the same speed of piston travel in both directions as well as
similar maximum force capacity in both directions.

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14.4 TELESCOPIC CYLINDER

They are used where initial length is limited and long rod travel is required.

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14.5 DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER WITH SINGLE CUSHION ACTION

Cylinder cushions are often attached to a piston rod to decrease the speed near the
end of the stroke and prevent the piston from hammering against the end cap.

Deceleration begins when the tapered cushion plunger enters the cap and begins to
restrict exhaust flow from the barrel port. During the final fraction of the stroke, the
exhaust oil must discharge through and adjustable orifice. The cushion feature also
includes a check value to bypass the orifice on the return stroke.

Symbol for single acting cushion - adjustable(Rod End)

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Symbol for single cushion action - adjustable (Cover End)

Symbol for double cushion action - adjustable.

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14.6 SYSTEM TEST FOR CYLINDERS

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14.7 PRESSURE INTENSIFIERS

Single acting

Double acting

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14.8 COOLER

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15 CHECK VALVES

Valves of this kind permit flow in only one direction. They close against reverse flow
ceases. The force of the liquid in motion opens the valve, and it is closed by back
flow. It may be closed by the action of a spring or by gravity. If no spring is installed,
this valve should be installed so that gravity assists closure.

a. Gravity non-spring loaded swing type, check valve

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b. Vertical flow check valve

c. Horizontal flow check valve

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d. Spring loaded check valve


This type of check valve can be installed in any position because a spring keeps the
valve closed.

e. Adjustable spring loaded check valve

Sometimes it may be necessary to have flow in a certain direction at a certain


pressure. This is obtained by means of the adjustable spring loaded check valve.
This type of valve is not suitable for high pressures.

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f. Pilot operated check valve

Pilot operated check valves are designed to permit free flow in one direction and to
block return flow, until opened by a pilot pressure signal.

They can be used to support vertical pistons which otherwise might drift downward
(due to leakage) past the directional valve spool.

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G Installation of the pilot operated check valve in a diagram

h. Double throttle/check valve


(Double pilot operated check valve)

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Symbol

i. 2/2 Way Cartridge Valves (logic elements)

2/2 way cartridge valves, often called 'logic elements' comprise a cartridge assembly
with a cover (1) and the control bores. the cartridge assembly is made up of a bush
(2) with a poppet surface and an opening or closing port (3) (called hereafter 'valve
poppet' )'which is generally held on its seat by a spring.

Oil can flow through the valve from port A (on bottom) to port B (on the side) or from B
to A. According to the control, the cartridge valve is either open or blocked for the flow
direction, ie the switching position is dependent only on the pressure conditions at this
element.

The 2/2 way cartridge valve is, therefore, pressure dependent.

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The valve poppet is graded, so that there are three important surfaces for the function.
The connection can be clearly explained using the sectional diagram.

Surface A/1(at the seat) is regarded as 100%. The annulus area A/2 occurring due to
the grading, is 7% or 50% of the surface A/1, depending on the model.

This valve has four functions:

Volume control
Directional control
Pressure control
Check valve

Symbol

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16 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

Directional valves, as the name implies, are used to control the direction of flow.
Though sharing this common function, directional valves vary considerably in
construction and operation. They are classified according to their principle
characteristics, such as:

16.1 TYPE OF INTERNAL DESIGN

a. Rotary spool or sliding spool.


The sliding spool has grooves for lubrication and sealing. By moving the
sliding spool (linear motion) we can change the flow path of the fluid.

The rotary spool can be turned clock or anti-clock wise (rotary motion) to
change the flow path.

b. Methods of operation
i.e. what methods do we use to move the spool.

A Manual.
B Mechanical.
C Electric solenoid
D Hydraulic pressure (Pilot operated).

c. Number of flow paths


One way, two- way, three- way, etc.

d. Size
Size of pipe connections to valve or its mounting place and/or rate 6 liter/min
or g/pm.

e. Number or ports
Some manufacturers classify their valves according to the number of ports
and not according to the number of flow paths.

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16.2 GRAPHICAL SYMBOL FOR A DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE.

a. TWO POSITION VALVE

Each square block indicates a position; there are two squares which indicate
positions.

b. THREE POSITION VALVE

There are three square blocks i.e. three positions.


Each square block is also a finite position of the valve.

c. TWO- WAY AND FOUR- WAY VALVES

4/2, way

The pump inlet port "P" can be directed to either outlet port "A" or "B".

In the four-way valve the alternate port is open to the tank port permitting return flow
to the reservoir. In two-way valves the alternate port is blocked and the tank port
serves only to drain leakage from within the valve.

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Most of these valves are the sliding port type, although there are rotary valves used
principally for pilot control.

From this outside view we cannot say if this valve is a two way or four valve.

d. TWO POSITION, TWO WAY VALVE OR 3/2 WAY

The two-way version permits selection of two flow paths. In one position, flow is
permitted from the "P" port to the "A" port, in the other position from "P" to "B". The
spool lands block all other ports and passages.

The number of arrows inside the square block show is the number of flow paths inside
the valve.

NB: Some manufacturer will say that this is a two position, four port valve.
e. TWO POSITION FOUR WAY 4/2 WAY

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The spool type four way valve as shown is identical to the two-way valve, except for
the machining of the spool lands. The land width is reduced to uncover the "T" port
(tank) in the extreme position and allow return flow to tank.

In a hydraulic diagram one never draws the outside view of a valve because from that
view we cannot say how many flow paths there are. It is much easier to draw the
graphical symbol.

f. SLIDING SPOOL TYPE VALVES

Two position, one way, directional control valve

3/2 Way DCV

Also known as a two position, three port valve.


Flow is from P to A, if we move the spool it will block the A port.

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g. TWO POSITION, TWO WAY, DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

4/2 WAY DCV

Flow can be from P to A or from P to B.

This valve is also known as two position, four port directional Control valve.

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h. TWO POSITION, FOUR WAY DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

5/2 WAY DCV

In the one position flow is from P to A and form B to T. In the other position flow will be from P
and B and A to T.

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16.3 OPERATING CONTROLS TO SHIFT THE SPOOL.

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16.3.1 DETENT CONTROL (NO SPRING)

The spool is shifted by hand to both positions and it held in position by spring-loaded
detents.

16.3.2 SPRING CONTROLLED ON ONE SIDE (Spring off set)

A spring-offset valve is a two-position valve returned to one extreme position by a


spring whenever the actuation effort is released. It is shifted to the opposite position
by one of the methods in 8.5.

16.3.3 SPRING CENTERED

A spring-centered valve is returned to the center position by spring force whenever


the actuating effort is released.

16.3.4 SPOOL CENTER CONDITIONS

Most three-position valves are available with a variety of interchangeable spools. All of
the four way spools provide identical flow patterns in the shifted positions, with
different centered conditions as illustrated.

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The open center type interconnects all ports and the pump delivery can flow to tank at
low pressure.

The closed circuit has all ports blocked, so that the pump delivery may be used for
other operations within the circuit, otherwise it is forced over the relief valve.

Other center conditions permit blocking of selected ports with others open. The
tandem type has both cylinder ports blocked in neutral, but the pressure port is open
to tank.

We can use the same valve body to obtain another center condition by merely
changing the sliding spool.

If we do maintenance on two directional control valves at the same time we must be


very careful not to change the spools. By changing the spools we might set different
center conditions for the valves which could cause incorrect working of our hydraulic
system.

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16.4 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES FOR LARGE VOLUMES

a. Pilot operated solenoid directional control valve

For large fluid volumes we need large valves and valve spools. These large valve
spools are too big to be shifted by solenoid though they could be shifted hydraulically.

We then need a pilot spool to direct pilot pressure to shift the large spool. This pilot
spool is small and can be shifted by solenoid.

The pilot spool gets its pressure through an internal passage from the 'P' port of the
main valve. Normally we only draw the symbol for a pilot operated, solenoid control
valve as follows.

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b. Pilot choke

A pilot choke may be incorporated to slow the spool travel for smoother reversals or
provide a brief time delay or dwell period before the actuator is reversed. The pilot
choke in effect functions as a meter out restriction valve.

c. Symbol

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17 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

Pressure control valves perform functions such as limiting maximum system pressure
or regulating reduced pressure in certain portions of a circuit.

Their operation is based on a balance between pressure and spring force. Most are
infinite positioning, that is, the valves can assume various positions between closed
and fully open.

Pressure controls are usually names for their primary function, such as relief valve,
brake valve, etc. They are classified according to type of connections. Size and
pressure operation range.

17.1 Relief valve

The relief valve is found in virtually every hydraulic system. They are normally closed
valves connected between the pressure line (pump outlet) and the reservoir tank. Its
purpose is to limit pressure in the system to a pre-set maximum by diverting some or
all of the pumps output to tank when the pressure setting is reached.
A simple or direct acting relief valve as shown, may consist of nothing but a ball or
poppet held seated in the valve body by a heavy spring. When pressure at the inlet is
insufficient to overcome the force of the spring, the valve remains closed. When the
preset pressure is reached, the ball or poppet is forced off its seat and allows flow
through the outlet to tank for as long as pressure is maintained.

In most of these valves, an adjusting screw is provided to vary the spring force. Thus
the valve can be set to open at any pressure within the specified range.

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a. Common relief valve

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b Compound relief valve

A compound relief valve as shown operates in two stages. The pilot stage in the
upper valve body contains the pressure-limiting valve, a poppet held against a seat by
an adjustable spring. The port connections are made to the lower body and the
balanced piston in the lower body accomplishes diversion of the full flow volume.

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The balanced piston is so named because in normal operation it is in hydraulic


balance. Pressure at the inlet port acting under the piston is also sensed on its top by
means of an orifice drilled through the large land. At any pressure less that the valve
setting, the piston is held on its seat by a light spring.

When pressure reaches the setting of the adjustable spring, the poppet is forced off its
seat, limiting pressure in the upper chamber.

The restricted flow through the orifice into the upper chamber results in an increase in
pressure in the lower chamber. This unbalances the hydraulic forces and tends to
raise the piston off its seat. Increased flow through the valve causes the piston to lift
further off it seat but since this compresses only the light spring very little over ride is
encountered.

c Relief/ unloading valve

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Compound relief valves may be remotely controlled by means of an outlet port from
the chamber above the piston. When this chamber is 'vented' to tank, the only force
holding the piston its seat is that of the light spring and the valve will open fully on a
very low pressure (unloading).

17.2 Counter balance valve

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A counter balance valve is used to maintain control over a vertical cylinder so that it
will not fall freely because of gravity. The primary port of the valve is connected to the
lower cylinder port and the secondary port to the directional control valve.

The pressure setting is slightly higher than is required to hold the load from falling.

When the pump delivery is directed to the top of the cylinder, the cylinder piston is
forced down causing pressure at the primary port to increase and raise the spool,
opening a flow path for discharge through the secondary port to the direction valve
and subsequently to the tank.

When the cylinder is raised the integral check valve opens to permit free flow for
returning the cylinder.

17.3 Compound sequence valve

A sequence valve causes performance in a system to take place in a definite order


and maintains a pre-determined minimum pressure in the primary line while the
secondary operation occurs. Fluid can flow freely through the primary passage to
operate the first phase until the pressure setting of the valve is reached. As the spool
lifts, flow is diverted to the secondary port to operate a second phase.

The first phase (primary line) always requires a lower pressure to operate than the
secondary line.

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Construction differs from the relief valve, in the sense that the drain passage from the
pilot stage is external rather than through the stem of the balanced piston. In
operation the primary system passage is connected to the bottom port. Sequencing
occurs when the primary system pressure is about 20 psi higher than the pilot valve
cracking pressure.

17.4 Pressure reducing valve N/Open

Pressure reducing valves are normally- open pressure controls used to maintain
reduced pressures in certain parts of the system.

They are activated by pressure sensed in the branch circuit and tend to close as it
reaches the valve setting, thus preventing further pressure buildup.

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17.5 Unloading valve

This valve can be used to load (charging) an accumulator. When the pressure
reaches the maximum setting of the valve, the pilot pressure will lift the spool and the
pump delivery will go back to tank.

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17.6 Single acting brake valve

A brake valve is used in the exhaust line of a hydraulic motor to prevent over
speeding when an overrunning load is applied to the motor shaft and to
prevent pressure buildup when decelerating or stopping a load.

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18 VOLUME CONTROL VALVES

Volume or flow control valves are used to regulate the speed of a piston or a motor. It
is possible to regulate flow with a variable displacement pump, but in many circuits it
is more practical to use a fixed displacement pump and regulate flow with a volume
control valve.

18.1 Simple volume control valve

By making the orifice smaller the flow becomes less and the speed will be slower.

By making the orifice bigger the flow increases and the speed will be faster.

18.2 Flow Control methods

There are three basic methods of applying volume control valves to control actuator
speeds.

They are: Meter- in


Meter- out
Bleed- off

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a. METER-IN CIRCUIT

In meter-in operation, the flow control valve is placed between the pump and cylinder.
In this way, it controls the amount of fluid entering the cylinder.

Pump delivery in excess of the metered amount is diverted to tank over the relief
valve. With the flow control valve installed in the cylinder line, flow is controlled in one
direction. A check valve must be included in the flow control or placed parallel with it
for return flow.

If it is desired to control speed in both directions, the flow control can be installed in
the pump outlet line before the directional valve.

The meter-in method is highly accurate.

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b. METER-OUT CIRCUIT

Meter-out control valve is used where the load might tend to run away. The flow
control is located where it will resist exhaust flow from the cylinder.

To regulate speed in both directions, the valve is installed in the tank line from the
directional valve. More frequent control is needed in only one direction and it is
placed in the line between the cylinder and directional valve.

Here too a by-pass check- valve is required for a rapid return stroke.

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c. BLEED-OFF CIRCUIT.

In a bleed-off arrangement the flow control is teed off the supply line from the pump
and determines the piston speed by metering a portion of the pump delivery back to
the tank.

The advantage is that the pump operates to the tank through the flow control instead
of through the relief valve.

Bleed-off circuits should not be used where there is a possibility of the load running
away.

18.3 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL VALVES

Flow through a pressure compensated flow control valve is subject to change with
variations in oil temperature.

Although oil flows more freely when it is hot, constant flow can be maintained by
decreasing the size of the throttle opening as the temperature rises. This is
accomplished through a compensating rod, which lengthens with heat and contracts
when cold. The throttle is a simple plunger that is moved in and out of the control
port.

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These valves can also be equipped with a restrictor, which maintains a constant flow
across the valve. In this valve the balanced piston is normally opened and tends to
close off, blocking all flow in excess of the throttle setting. In this unit, the workload
pressure acts with a light spring above the balanced piston to hold it open.

Pressure at the throttle inlet and under the balanced piston tends to close it, permitting
only oil to tender the valve for the required force through the throttle.

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19. SERVO VALVES

A servo valve is a valve, which can be shifted to an infinite number of positions. This
valve can, not only regulate the direction of oil flow but can also control the flow rate.

19.1 THE MECHANICAL SERVO VALVE

The control lever is fastened onto the spool of the valve, while the valve itself is
fastened to the load that must be moved. Therefore the valve body moves with the
load.

When the lever is actuated, oil is sent to a cylinder, which moves the load in the same
direction in which the spool was moved. The valve now follows the load. Flow will
continue to the cylinder until such time when the valve body catches up on the spool.

The effect of this is that the load will move according to the distance the spool has
been moved. A common use for this valve is in power steering on motor vehicles.

Drawing of a Mechanical servo valve

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19.2 ELECTRO MECHANICAL SERVO VALVES

This type of servo valve reacts to an electrical signal, supplied to a torque


motor in the valve. Before the signal reaches the valve, however, it can be
amplified.

The torque motor will, therefore react according to the signal supplied, and
will shift the spool of the valve.

The amount of movement on the spool is in relationship to the distance and


speed that the cylinder would move.

Drawing of a electromechanical servo valve

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19.3 THE FLAPPER TYPE SERVO VALVE

This valve uses a flapper actuated by an electrical coil. This flapper increases or
decrease the opening above the orifice in the valve, according to the intensity of the
electric impulse supplied to the coil.

This changes in the size of the opening can alter the amount of flow or pressure
leaving the valve.

This valve, however can only be used to handle small quantities of fluid.

Drawing of a flapper type servo valve

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19.4 THE JET PIPE SERVO VALVE

This servo valve uses a spool that is shifted hydraulically. It also includes return
springs to keep the spool centered.

The distance the spool will move depends on the force applied to the ends. Inside the
valve is a jet pipe with an orifice on the end. This pipe sends a constant flow of oil
under pressure into a receiver. The receiver has two outlet ports, connected to both
ends of the spool.

The pressure on both sides of the spool is the same as long as the jet pipe is in the
center of the receiver. An electric coil receiving an electric signal can however pull the
jet pipe to one side or the other. The movement of the jet pipe then allows more
pressure on one side of the spool than on the other and so the spool moves over.

Drawing of a jet pipe servo valve

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20 ACCUMULATORS

Accumulators are used when a large volume of fluid is required at certain stages of
the working cycle, when the accumulator helps the pump to deliver the required
volume.

Secondly it can be used to hold pressure in the system or part of the system when the
pump is used to do work in others parts of the system. Thirdly, it acts as a cushion to
absorb shocks coming from the cylinders.

20.1 ACCUMULATORS ARE AVAILABLE IN THREE BASIC TYPES :

a The weight type accumulator.


b The spring type accumulator.
c The gas type accumulator.

a DRAWING OF A WEIGHT TYPE ACCUMULATOR

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In this case the fluid lifts up a piston onto which a series of weights are stacked.
Weights can be added or taken away to suit the required pressures. Pressure in these
types stays the same from top to bottom.

Fluid pressure = mass of ram + mass of weight


Area of ram
Advantages:
Maintains constant pressure
Delivers large amount of fluid
Delivers constant volume

Disadvantages:
The only disadvantage is that they are big and take up a lot of area.

b SPRING TYPE ACCUMULATOR

Here the fluid compresses a spring when entering the accumulator. When required,
the spring on it's turn exercises pressure on the fluid.

Drawing of a spring type accumulator

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c Drawing of a gas type accumulator

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In this case the fluid compresses a gas. The accumulator is pre-charged with dry nitrogen.

In spring and gas type accumulators, the pressure drops as the accumulator becomes
empty.

It is important to select a pressure volume relationship such that no more than 2/3 of
the oil is ever used in the operation of the no-separator type. This is to avoid
accidental discharge of gas into the system.

d DIAPHRAGM OR BLADDER TYPE

Some accumulators incorporate a synthetic rubber diaphragm or bladder to contain


the gas pre-charge and separate it from the hydraulic fluid. Available oil can vary
between 1/4 and 3/4 of total capacity, depending upon operating conditions.
Operating outside these limits can cause the separator to stretch or wrinkle and
shorten its life.

As a word of caution the accumulator must be clocked out of the circuit or completely
discharged before attempting to disconnect any hydraulic lines. Never try to
disassemble an accumulator without releasing the pre charge gas, weights or springs.
The gas pre-charge pressure is invariable much lower than the fluid pressure and
compression ratios of up to 5 : 1 may be achieved according to the particular
requirements of the installation. Nominal maximum working pressure with this type of
bag accumulator is commonly 3 000 PSI or 217 Pa.

For long service life for the bladder the minimum pre-charge pressure must be ± 75%
or more of the system pressure.

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20.2 HOW TO FILL THE GAS BAG OF THE GAS TYPE ACCUMULATOR

1. Switch off power supply and do lock out according to the correct procedure.
2. Put danger card on
3. Close valve no 1
4. Open valve no 2 slowly
5. Do inspection
6. Connect nitrogen pipe to valve no 3
7. Open valve no 3 and fill the gas bag 2/3 of system pressure with nitrogen
8. Close valve no 3
9. Clean system
10. Do inspection
11. Close valve no 2
12. Open valve no 1 slowly
13. Remove danger card
14. Remove lock- out device

20.3 SHOCK WAVE ABSORPTION

An accumulator, connected directly to a fluid line and intended only to absorb shock
waves can normally be charged to some value near the expected working pressure.
This means that the magnitude of the shock will be near or above the normal working
pressure. The shock absorbing action of the accumulator should be such that it will
not absorb needed energy during the working cycle. A high charge in the gas
chamber will prevent loss of energy at critical periods in the work cycle. The waves to
be absorbed should be in the highest pressure range in most circuits.

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A check valve with an integral orifice in the poppet may be used to permit a shock to
pass virtually unrestrained into the accumulator. The energy trapped in the
accumulator is returned to the circuit through the orifice in the poppet at a controlled
rate. This in effect, is similar to the shock absorber used on mobile equipment.

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21 Accumulator systems

a To hold pressure

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b To absorb shocks

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c Fast return stroke

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d Load balancing by accumulator

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e Accumulator unloading

f Accumulator bleed off system

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22 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

a Meter in system

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b Meter out system

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c Bleed off system

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d Rapid advance to feed

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e Rapid advance using a pilot operated check valve

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f Clamp and sequence system

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g Hydraulic system with counter balance and P/O check valve

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h Hydraulic system with double pilot operated check valve

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i Hydraulic press

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j Braking system

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k Brake against resistance using a double counter balance valve

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l Regenerated system

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m Relief/ unloading system


( Electro- mechanical )

(Mechanical)

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n Cartridge valve system

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23 SAFETY PROCEDURE FOR SHUTTING DOWN SYSTEMS

LOWER OR MECHANICALLY
SECURE ALL SUSPENDED LOADS

EXHAUST ANY PRESSURE


LOCKED IN THE SYSTEM

DRAIN DOWN ALL


ACCUMULATORS

DISCHARGE BOTH ENDS OF


CYLINDERS

ISOLATE THE ELECTRICAL


CONTROL SYSTEM

ISOLATE THE ELECTRICAL POWER


SUPPLY

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24 TROUBLE SHOOTING

Preventative maintenance is necessary in a hydraulic system and it is based on the prevention


of faults by regular checks and attention to hydraulic components. It must be carried our
conscientiously and at suitable intervals. This is the most effective and cheapest form of maintenance.
It has an advantage that a suitable routine can be laid down in simple terms. It does not necessarily
require a very high degree of skill or experience to be carried out.Curing a fault is not necessarily
enough, trouble shooting of fault diagnoses must establish the cause of the original trouble, which
could re-occur if left uncorrected.
Trouble shooting is simplified if a hydraulic circuit diagram of the system is available.

24.1 PUMP FAULTS

If a mechanical fault is suspected in a pump, it can simply be checked by switching off the
electric motor and then turning the pump by hand. Any excessive tightness or non smooth rotation is
a certain indication of an internal mechanical fault or damage to the pump or it's bearings. If the pump
motion is smooth, but when connected and run, the pump is noisy, it will be most likely due to
cavitation. Cavitation can be caused by starvation of fluid on the pump inlet side.

Check

Reservoir oil level


Strainer condition in the reservoir.
Establish that there are no air leaks on the suction line from the reservoir to the pump inlet.

a Excessive pump noise

Suction strainer or pump inlet pipe is blocked.


Bore or suction line too small flow velocity must not exceed 1,2 - 1.5 m/s.
Air leaks on pump inlet pipe.
Fluid too cold.
Fluid viscosity is too high.
Air ventilation is blocked.
Pump is running too fast.
Damaged or worn parts in pump.

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b Low pump pressure

Relief valve setting incorrect.


Worn pump parts
Internal leakage - worn parts
Faulty pump drive - check rpm of pump and electric motor.
External leakage - check seals and packings.
Faulty valves - check operation of valves and settings.

c No fluid delivery from pump

Pump drive incorrect.


Suction line blocked.
Air leaks in suction line.
Fluid viscosity too high - a tendency for the pump to be slowed.
Fluid level in tank is low.

d Airation of fluid

The reason can be :


Fluid level is low in tank.
Return line in reservoir above fluid level.
Incorrect fluid.
Pump shaft seal allowing entry of air.
Suction line joints allowing entry of air.

e Abnormal high pressure

Pump speed too high.


Relief valve is stuck, or badly adjusted.
Faulty non return valve isolating the relief part of the system.

24.2 SYSTEM MALFUNCTION


With system trouble shooting the basic problem is to determine whether the malfunction is due
to one of the more obvious faults as described earlier in 17.1 up to e or is due to the failure of one or
more of the individual components controlling the system.
Diagnosis or trouble shooting relies on isolating the fault within a specific group and from thence
determining the basic fault responsible for the malfunction of that group.

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Basically the most straight forward method is usually to 'read back' from the actuator involved
to establish the point at which the lack of behaviour or control is initiated, ignoring those components
not directly concerned with the function which is at fault.

24.3 POSSIBLE FAULTS

a Normal system pressure, lack of actuator movement


Absence of signal.
Solenoid failure in the solenoid valve accepting the signal.
Mechanical obstruction.

b Normal system pressure. loss of actuator speed

External oil leaks


Internal oil leak in actuator or valve in actuator pressure line.
Badly or faulty adjusted relief valve.
Control valve is partially blocked.
Pump fault or blockage in delivery line. Reducing delivery but no pressure.
Overheating of fluid causing loss in viscosity.
Excessive wear on actuators
Excessive loading of actuator.

c Low system pressure : loss of actuator

Faulty pump or leak loss of delivery.


Accumulator failure, gas bag requiring a recharge.
Faulty pump drive.
Incorrect valve settings.
Faulty relief or by-pass valves.
Volume control valves is set incorrect or spool is damaged.

d Variable pressure in system, variable actuator speed

Worn pump or dirt in pump.


Undersized accumulator.
Internal leakage on part of the system.

Valve spool will not move to full open.


Faulty pressure relief valve.

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e Mechanical vibration

Faulty alignment or loose coupling.


Vibrating pipe work.
Pump worn or damaged.
Pump can be unsuitable for type of work.

f Excessive fluid temperature

Relief valve setting is too high.


Relief valve is damaged.
Fluid viscosity too low.
Internal leakage in valves.
Reservoir too small.
Cooler faulty or too small.
Restrictions in pipe lines - partially blocked.

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