CoTM 4203 - Railway and Tunnel Construction

Debre Markos University

Part I March, 2017
Railway Engineering Mequanent Mulugeta (MSc.)
(mequ2me@gmail.com)
Subject Matter
 The track structure system
 Track loads
 Track Analysis and components Design
 Track Modulus
 Rail support; sleepers/ties; ballast and
subballast
 Rail fastening system
 Ballasted and Slab track
Mequanent M. 2
 The Railway Track as a System
The railway system is a complex system: it is often a mixture of
components of different age and status that have to work together in a
system.
• The railway track has to guide the trains in a safe and economic
manner.

Mequanent M. 3
Components of track structure

Mequanent M. 4
 Function of Track Structure
The railway track has to fulfil two main functions:
 To guide the train directionally with safety
 To carry and distribute the train load to the subgrade

Requirements of track:
 guide vehicles without risk of derailment,
 take up vertical and horizontal/lateral vehicle forces,
 off-load these forces via the track grid and ballast bed into the subsoil,
 ensure high passenger comfort and
Mequanent M. 5
 high availability for train traffic.
The Track System

Mequanent M. 6
  Train Guidance Function of Track
The two wheels of a wheel set are rigidly connected to the wheel
axle. The wheel profiles are conical in order to steer the wheel
set. Normally, the wheel set has eccentricity and due to Conicity
of the wheel set, wheel have different rolling radius to the other.

Mequanent M. 7
 Train Guidance Function of Track
The rolling radius difference with respect to the wheel conicity
Case A: The wheel set Case C: The wheel set on a
exactly at the centerline. left curve

Case B: The wheel set on a

right curve

Mequanent M. 8
 Load carrying function of Track
Track Loads

The requirements for the bearing strength and quality of the track
depend to a large extent on the load parameters:
1. The static axle load level, to which the dynamic
increment is added, in principle determines the
required strength of the track.
2. The accumulated tonnage is a measure that determines
the deterioration of the track quality and as such
provides an indication of when maintenance and
renewal are necessary.
3. The dynamic load component which depends on
speed and horizontal and vertical track geometry also
plays an essential part here.
Mequanent M. 9
 Forces on the Track
Classification of Track Loads:
1. Based on the application
 Vertical loads
 Lateral loads (transverse), and
 Longitudinal loads (parallel)
2. Depending on their nature
o Static loads (normally caused by
the vehicle body mass)
o Quasi-static loads (or dynamic
ride loads),
o Dynamic (dynamic wheel/rail)
loads, which are associated with
significant track/vehicle
irregularities
Mequanent M.
• Irregularities of the track
geometry
• Discontinuities on the
running surface
(switches, joints)
• Wear of the running
surface of the rails
• Wear of the wheels (out-
of-round wheels)
• Vehicle suspension and
vehicle asymmetries
Dynamic wheel/rail forces
are much higher in
magnitude than quasi-static
(dynamic ride) forces. 10
 Quasi-static (Dynamic Ride) Forces
 the sum of the static load and the effect of the static load at speed
 classified in the frequency range between 0.5 and 30 Hz.
 which are associated with reaction to geometrical irregularities in
the track.
 Typically between 1.4 and 1.6 times the static wheel load before
unbalanced superelevation effects are included.
 Due to the geometrical roughness of the track on vehicle response
and unbalanced superelevation (the effect of the train load not being
distributed evenly over both rails).

Mequanent M. 11
 Dynamic Forces
The Dynamic Wheel / Rail Forces: P1 and P2 Forces

The P1 Force
 classified in frequency range between 100 Hz and 2000 Hz.
 These forces are also called impact forces.
 They correspond to surface irregularities or defects in rails and
wheels and produce strong impact to rail and wheel.
 a very high frequency force occurring ¼ - ½ ms after crossing the
angular discontinuity that occurs at the bottom of the dip and has a
very short duration

12
Mequanent M.
 Dynamic force- The P1 Force
Effect of P1 forces
 Rail hammering just after the joint gap and produces high
stresses in the rail web.
 It contributes to bolt hole failures in bolted joints by increasing
the stress range.
 contribute to the cracking of concrete sleepers.
 Its effects are largely filtered out by the rail and sleepers,
 do not directly affect ballast or subgrade settlement.
 they have a great influence on wheel/rail contact behavior.

Mequanent M. 13
 Dynamic forces- The P2 Force
 P2 forces are classified in lower frequency range (30 Hz and 100
Hz)
 have a lower-amplitude and longer-duration than the P1 forces.
 The peak force occurs in the area of the first running-off sleeper
after the joint.
 P2 forces therefore increase contact stresses, contribute to the total
stress range experienced by the rail web and at joint bolt holes
 Increase the loads on sleepers and ballast in the immediate
neighborhood of the joint.
 P2 forces are of great interest to the track design engineer.
 P2 forces contribute primarily to the degradation of track
geometry.

Mequanent M. 14
 Static vs. Dynamic Loads
 Dynamic loads higher
– Acceleration from speed
– Downward rotation of wheel increase
– Wheel rotation (smaller vs larger wheels)
 Speed/wheel influence
Pv = P + θP (AREMA)
Where, Pv= Vertical Dynamic Load (lbs)
D = Wheel diameter (in)
V = Speed (MPH)
P = Static Load (lbs)
–Larger wheels impose less influence
 Additional dynamic loads from impacts such as caused by wheel flat
spots, rail discontinuities (e.g. frog flange ways), track transitions (e.g.
bridge approaches), track condition,
Mequanentetc.
M. 15
 Force Limits
Railway organizations around the world have set limits on the
various forces at the wheel / rail contact area.
Vertical Force Limits
• In the vertical direction high forces can cause damage to the
rails and supporting structures and can cause rolling contact
fatigue when combined with high tangential forces such as
occur during traction, braking or curving.
• Eg. UIC limits
– a maximum static load of 112.5 kN per wheel and
– a maximum dynamic vertical force per wheel of between 160 kN and
200 kN, depending on maximum speed (provided this values does
not exceed the static wheel load plus 90 kN).
– In small radius curves (less than 600 m) a limit of 145 kN for the
quasi-static vertical force.

Mequanent M. 16
 Lateral Force Limits
→ In the lateral direction high forces can cause distortion of the track on
ballast-bed.
→ This is normally protected against by using the simple but widely
established PrudHomme limit for the track shifting force at one wheel set,
which can be calculated from the static load (Po force):

Where, Y and P0 are in kN.

Lateral forces of very short

duration are less likely to shift
the track and therefore only
forces that act for more than
2m of track length are usually
counted. In small radius curves
(less than 600 m) UIC sets a
limit of 60 kN for the quasi-
Mequanent M. static lateral force. 17
 Derailment
 Possibility of wheel climb derailment is indicated by the ratio
of the lateral force Y to vertical force V
 Nadal theory is used to establish limits for the Υ/V derailment
ratio with 0,8 as the limiting value.

Wheel Unloading
Very low vertical forces at the contact patch can indicate that a
vehicle is tending to derailment by rolling over or by failing to
follow twists in the track.
E.g. In the UK a lower limit of 60% of the static wheel load (i.e.,
unloading by over 40%) is set.
Mequanent M. 18
 Structural design of track
The Design Principle:-
→Components do not function independently!
→Each component layer must protect the one below.
Main design components (superstructure)
1. Rail
2. Rail pad/plate
3. Sleeper
4. Ballast

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 Deflection Profile

Source: Selig and Waters, Track Geotechnology and Substructure Management, 1994
Mequanent M. 20
 Track Stiffness

In the time domain, track stiffness (k) is generally defined as

• the ratio of track load F(t) and track deflection d(t) in the linear
part of the rising phase of the load.
K = F(t)/ d(t)
• It is a function of frequency as well as of load. If track stiffness is
studied in the frequency domain, the track receptance, á(f) or
dynamic flexibility is preferable, which is the inverse of the
dynamic track stiffness, and is often displayed with magnitude and
phase.
k(d) = inverse of track modulus = receptance
In the stiffness analysis;
• Rail is assumed to be a beam on an elastic foundation
• Modulus of Track Elasticity, u (or k) (Track Modulus)

Mequanent M. 21
 Track Stiffness
→ Two ways to calculate track modulus
u = P/Δ
Where,
1 u = Modulus of Track Elasticity (lbs/in/in)
P = Wheel load per unit length of rail (lbs/in)
Δ = Unit of Track Deflection (in), less “play” or track “looseness”
u = P/S
Where,
2
u = Modulus of Track Elasticity (lb/in/in)
P = Wheel load (lbs) required to deflect the track 1 inch on one tie
S = Tie spacing (in)

Mequanent M. 22
Typical Track Stiffness Values

Winkler Model of Rail Deflection

The deterioration process due

to variation in track stiffness
Mequanent M. 23
Talbot Equation Summary for Maximum Rail
Deflections and Rail Bending Moments

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 Track Deflections and Stiffness

For a given loading (2P):

Less stiff (softer) track - More deflection
More stiff track - Less deflection

Also, deflection is an indicator of long term track performance

Mequanent M. 25
 Determination of Rail Seat Forces (Q or F)
Classic Approach
Rail Moment: Mo= 0.318Px1
Deflection: Yo= 0.391P/ux1
Rail Seat Load: Qo= 0.391PS/x1
where: P = Wheel Load (lbs)
u = Track Modulus (lbs/in/in)
S = Tie spacing (in)
x1= (π/4)(4EI/u)¼(in)
EI = Flexural rigidity of rail
with: E = Modulus of Elasticity of
Rail (30x106psi) Pressure p(x)[lb/in] Curve
I = Rail Moment of Inertia (in4) Mequanent M. 26
Load Deflections and Bending Moments

Mequanent M. 27
 Design Steps (AREMA and Others) (Generalized)

1. Select design wheel load based on most common,

heaviest car and desired track speed. Consider all
wheels in a truck and proximity of adjacent cars.
2. Select a Track Modulus, u or k, based on desired design
deflection
3. Select rail size and section
4. Determine moment and loading coefficients
5. Check rail bending stress
6. Choose trial tie spacing and calculate maximum rail seat
load
7. Select tie size
Mequanent M. 28
 Design Steps (AREMA and Others) (Generalized)

8. Check tie bending stress

9. Determine and select plate size based on minimum area
10. Determine ballast surface stress
11. Determine ballast depth based on allowable subgrade
stress
12. Calculate track deflection under load and check on
acceptability
13. If deflection is unacceptable, re-do design

Mequanent M. 29
 Rails
→ are the longitudinal steel members. Characteristics:
→ guides the conical, flanged wheels, keeping • Rigidity
the vehicles on the track without active • Tenacity
steering and therefore allowing trains to be
• Hardness
much longer than road vehicles
• Roughness of top
Functions: surface
→ Supports the loads of train and guides their
wheel movements Types and length
→ The excellence of the track determines the • weight (Kg/m), 75,
permissible wheel loads, speeds, safety 60, 50, 43
→ provide a surface with smaller resistance
• Standard rail
→ bear the force of the wheels and spread it to
length: 12.5m and
sleeper
25m.
→ used as track circuit in electrified railways
and automatic block segments
Mequanent M. 30
 Rail requirement
• Resist static and dynamic stress.
• bear very high lateral forces exerted by the wheel flange striking
against the gauge corner of the outer rail.

Rail requirements
 high resistance to wear,
 high resistance to
compression,
 high resistance to fatigue
 high yield strength, tensile
strength and hardness
 high resistance to brittle
fracture
 good weld ability,
 high degree of purity
 good surface quality
 evenness and observance
of profile
 low residual stress after
manufacturing

Mequanent M. 31
 Rail Profile
The rail profile is the cross sectional shape of a railway rail,
perpendicular to the length of the rail.
→ A rail is hot rolled steel of a specific cross sectional profile (an
asymmetrical I-beam) designed for use as the fundamental
component of railway track.
→ Composed of rail head, rail web and rail base
→ The rail head and base must be large and thick

rail head

rail web

rail base
Mequanent M. 32
 Rail Usage
The following rail forms are in use at present:
→Vignoles rail (standard railway rail with head, web and foot),

→Double-head rails with head, web and foot (obsolete)

→Grooved rails for tram ways,

→Switch rails and

→Crane rails etc

Mequanent M.
33
 Rail Manufacture
Rail consists of steel with desired amounts of carbon, manganese,
and silicon. Control sulfur and phosphorous.
→ Properties Yield stress ≈ 448.16 - 482.63 Mpa (min);
758.42Mpa (min) for high strength
→ Tensile strength ≈ 965.27 Mpa (min); 1172.1 Mpa
(min) for high strength
→ E = 201 - 210 GPa
→ Weight measured in kg/m (43-75 common)
Composition
– Unlike other uses of iron and steel, railway rails are subject to
very high stresses and have to be made of very high quality
steel.
– Minor flaws in the steel that pose no problems in reinforcing
rods for buildings, can, however, lead to broken rails and
dangerous derailments when used on railway tracks
Mequanent M. 34
Rail Manufacture

Mequanent M. 35
Mequanent M. 36
Rail Completing Last Rolling Pass

Mequanent M. 37
Inspection
→ Done at mill by RR
company rep
→ Chemical tests
→ Templates for shape
→ Test for ductility and
impact (eliminate
brittle rails and those
with internal defects)
→ Ultrasonic

Mequanent M. 38
 Jointed Rail
Jointed Rail Features
→ Rail sections must be joined together with joint bars
→ Rails may need to be pre-bent to accommodate sharp curve
requirements
 Bent on-site or off-site
 Normally required if curve radius is less than 120m (≈14 deg)
 Avoids the occurrence of “peaked” joints
→ A gap must exist between the rails that shrinks as rail expands in
warm weather and widens when rail contracts in cold weather

Sun Kinks
due to
Improper
Gapping
Mequanent M.
39
 Jointed Rail
Rail gap
To adapt to the needs of expanding with heat and contracting with
cold, the rail gap can not too big or too small.
1 1
  0.0118L  t2  t0    q t2   tmax  tmin 
2 2
Where,
δ- size of rail gap(mm)
L- length of track(m)
δq- structural joint gap, track of 38kg/m, 43kg/m,
50kg/m, 60kg/m, 75kg/m are 18mm
t0 - temperature of rail gap(oC)
Mequanent M. 40
 Continuous welded track (CWR)
CWR Usage:
• Used on main lines, high speed lines, and special
situations
• The 25 m rail are welded into 100-200m long rail in
factory, and then be welded again into1000-2000m
long rail in the laid place
CWR Features:
• Rail length in excess of 120m is considered CWR
• field or factory welded
• Impact loading greatly reduced
• Rails may need to be pre-bent, on-site, to
accommodate sharp curve requirements
Advantages:
• Smooth Driving
• Low maintenance cost/long life
Mequanent M. 41
 Laying CWR
• Accomplished with a steel gang
• Highly automated, but labor intensive, too
• Generally, rail is installed one-at-a-time during renewal

Unloading Rail from Rail Train

Mequanent M. 42
Rail Analysis and Design (weight and section selection)

Bending stress:
S = Moc/I or S = Mo/Z
Where,
S = Bending stress, psi
Mo= Max bending moment, in-lbs
c = Distance to base from neutral axis, in
I = Moment of inertia of rail, in4
Z = Section modulus, I/c (properties of rail section)

Eg.: Allowable bending stress, typically is:

– 220.63Mpa for jointed rail
– 172.37Mpa for continuously welded rail (CWR)
Mequanent M. 43
 Rail Analysis and Design (weight and section selection)
Maximum bending moment, Mo
Mo= P(EI/64u)1/4 (Mo= 0.318Px1)
Where, Mo= Max bending moment
P = Max wheel load, lbs (static or dynamic)
E = Modulus of elasticity = 30 x 106 psi
I = Moment of inertia, in4
x1= (π/4)(4EI/u)¼(in)
u = track modulus, lbs/in/in
Note: Must account for moments from adjacent wheels. Compute from
Master Diagram, computer code, or EXCEL.
→ I and c are a function of design
→ Greater weight => greater I – Increase height => greater I (limiting
factor is web height - thickness ratio)
→ Must keep maximum bending stress less than or equal to allowable
bending stress. 44
Mequanent M.
 Stresses in the Rail Head
 Wheel-rail contact stresses mainly include rolling and shear stresses
 The magnitude of these stresses is greatly dependent upon the geometry of
ellipsoidal wheel-rail contact patch.
 If the wheel load Q is distributed evenly over the contact area with a width of 2b,

The mean contact stress can be calculated as.

𝜋𝐸𝑄
q mean =
64 1−𝑣2 𝑅𝑏

The more practical formula;

𝑄
qmean = 1374
𝑅

Where,
Q = effective wheel load (KN),
R = wheel radius (mm)
2b = width of wheel/rail contact area (b = 6 mm) Assumed contact
E = modulus of elasticity (210000 N/mm2), distribution between wheel
v = Poisson's ratio (0.3)
Mequanent M. 45
 Compression and Shear Stresses
→Stresses in head due to wheel loads
1. Shear stress

Where,
τ = Shear stress, psi
Pv = Dynamic wheel load, lbs
R1 = Larger radius, inches Shear stress distribution in rail head
R2 = Smaller radius, inches
𝟏
τ max = 412 𝑄
𝑅
τ all = √𝟑 qmean
Q = effective wheel load (KN),
R = wheel radius (mm)

Mequanent M. 46
 Compression and Shear Stresses
→ Compression and shear stresses affect fatigue life and head defects
→ Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) cracking (head checks) of rail surface
Cracks will grow due to “stick/slip” action at wheel /rail interface
→ If liquids (water or lubricant) get into crack, they can cause additional
pressure that accelerates crack growth

Mequanent M. 47
Flowed Rail
• Repeated loads work harden surface
of rail
• Improper contact patch size, shape,
and location
– Increases friction
– Alters load path in rail from
“optimum”
– High contact stresses cause cracking
– Increase rail rollover risk
• Rail head contour
– Shape to reduce stresses through
better wheel contact
• Design
• Rail Grinding
– Need sufficient metal for wear
Mequanent M. 48
Rail Grinding
 Restores proper profile and
contact area/location
 Removes small flaws before
they penetrate farther into head
 Controls the wear process and
actually extends rail life
 Control rolling contact fatigue
(RCF)
 Control wheel wear and fatigue
 Control train hunting
 Dress welds
 Improves reliability of
ultrasonic rail tests
 Reduces wheel / rail noise
Mequanent M. 49
Axial Stresses

Sun Kink(s)

Mequanent M. 50
 Serious Defects
– Those related to cracks or fissures are serious and are corrected
when detected. Can lead to rail failure and derailment. Depending
on severity of occurrence must initiate correction within 24-48
hours or must issue slow order or do a temporary repair.

Examples:
– Fractures
– Fissures
– Head/web separations
– Cracks
– Piped rail
– Horizontal/vertical split head

Mequanent M. 51
 Non-serious Defects
• Those present, but generally do not lead to rail failure or derailment.
Track standards generally do not call for a slow order or immediate
repair. Examples: Engine burns
• Crushed head (flattened rail) (depth < ⅜”)
• Corrugations
• Head checks/spalls
• Flaking
• Flowed rail
• Irregular welds
• Shelling
• End batter
• These defects may lead to serious defects if they worsen or if not
corrected. Track inspectors may impose a restriction depending on the
situation.
• Do nothing, maintain (welding and grinding and/or grinding), or 52
Mequanent M.
repair (if desired or required by the situation).
 Inspection/testing methods
– Visual
• Discover service defects (e.g. broken rail)
• Frequency based on traffic levels and track class and is
included as part of routine safety inspections
– Internal
• In addition to the regular visual inspections, internal
inspections must be done at least once every 40 MGT or
annually, whichever is shorter
– Induction (high voltage, low current)
– Residual magnetic
– Laser-based ultrasonic (under development and evaluation)
– Often hand check to verify defect

Mequanent M. 53
 Computing rail life based on vertical wear (empirical)

Where, L = Rail life, MGT

W = Rail weight in lbs/yd
D = Traffic density, MGT/yr
K = Maintenance factor
 If L known, K can be computed. If L not known, establish how much
wear will be permitted before rail will be replaced (this is a
management policy decision.)
 This wear divided by average rate per 100 MGT will give value for
L. Then K can be computed.
 Need to correct when curves are involved due to greater wear.

Mequanent M. 54
Fastening Systems/Union Pieces

Mequanent M. 55
 Rail fastening system/ Union piece
• A Rail fastening system is a means of fixing rails to railroad
sleepers.
• The terms rail anchors, tie plates, chairs and track fasteners are
used to refer to parts or all of a rail fastening system. Various
types of fastening have been used over the years.

Function:
The purpose of the rail fastenings:
→ To maintain the track gauge
→ Offer sufficient resistance in a vertical direction
→ To transmit forces acting on and in the rails to the sleepers
(cross, longitudinal, concrete plates etc.)
→ Electrically insulate the sleeper against the remaining track grid,
to minimize the loss of signals of the direct-current circuits
Mequanent M. 56
 Rail fastening system/ Union piece
(1) Rail joint fastenings (2) Middle joint fastenings
Rail joint fastenings are used at • used to connect rail with the sleeper
the end of the two tracks. • Based on sleeper type, (reinforced
concreted joint fastenings and
wooden joint fastenings)

57
Mequanent M.
Union pieces are divided into
=> Rail joint fastenings
=> Middle joint fastenings.

58
Mequanent M.
 Rail fastening system/ Union piece
wooden joint fastenings Reinforced concreted joint fastenings

Mequanent M. 59
 Plates
Gauge side Field side
Functions
– Distribute load from rail to tie
– Provide rail cant for uniform load
distribution on tie
– Help hold gauge by limiting rail
lateral movement

Mequanent M. 60
 Sleepers
Definition:

 Sleepers (ties) are members which are laid transverse to the track alignment
to support the rails

 They transfer the load from the rails to the underlying ballast.

Mequanent M. 61
 62
Mequanent M.
 Sleeper (Cross Tie)
(a) Function
 Supporting signal
 Bear the force of track
engineering and other safety
 Act as elastic medium to absorb related equipment such as
blows & vibrations trip cocks and point motors.
 Longitudinal & lateral stability  Supporting conductor rails,
 spread the force to ballast bed and electrical bonds and feeder
roadbed cables.
 keep the direction, position and  Reducing noise and
gauge of track vibration on non-ballasted
bridge decks
 Supporting wheels and/or jacks
direct (in a derailment situation).
 Acting as transverse beams when
sitting on temporary ‘way beams
63
Mequanent M.
 Sleeper
(b) Characteristic
It is solid, flexible, reasonably cost, convenient for manufacturing and
maintenance.

Mequanent M. 64
 Sleeper
C) Requirements
Moderate weight- easy to handle
Fixing and removing of fastening should be easy
Sufficient bearing area and Able to resist shocks and
vibrations
Easy maintenance and gauge adjustment
Track circuiting must be possible
Minimum maintenance and initial cost
D）types
– According to production material: reinforced concreted sleeper,
wooden sleeper, steel sleeper
– According to their usage: regular sleeper, switch sleeper and
bridge sleeper. Mequanent M. 65
 Sleeper Density
Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length.
n+x
Where, n= Length of rail in meter
x = Constant (varies to factors)
 ERC uses 1680 – 1760 Sleepers per km

Arrangement
Configuration number at each kilometer is decided by volume, speed and
line level. The rule:
 wooden sleepers must no more than 1920 per km and no less than
1440
 Reinforced concreted sleepers must no more than 1840 per 1km
and no less than 1440
Mequanent M. 66
 Sleeper Classification
By material type
1. Wooden sleepers
2. Metal sleepers
a) Cast iron Sleepers
b) Steel Sleepers
3. Concrete Sleepers
1. R.C.C Sleepers
2. PSC Sleepers
a) Post Tension
b) Pre Tension
4. Fiber sleepers
Mequanent M. 67
 Wooden Sleeper
• Timber ties are usually of a variety of hardwoods, oak being a
popular material.
• They have the advantage of accepting treatment more readily, they are
more susceptible to wear.
• They are often heavily creosoted. Creosote treating can reduce insect
infestation and rot. However, creosote is carcinogenic and
environmentally damaging.
• Less often, ties are treated with other preservatives, although some
timbers are durable enough that they can be used untreated.

Mequanent M. 68
 Concrete Sleeper
• Concrete ties have become more common mainly due to greater
economy and better support of the rails under high speed and heavy
traffic than wooden ties

Mequanent M. 69
 Prestressed Monoblock
 7000 psi (48.26 Mpa) concrete (min)
 150 psi (1Mpa) pre-compression stress (min) under rail seat
 Air entrained to promote durability from freeze-thaw
 Low water/cement (w/c) ratios (0.4)
 Concrete used elsewhere in world with variations in size, etc.

Prestressing

Mequanent M. 70
 Pre stressing concepts
 The initial load or ‘pre-stress’ is applied to enable the structure to
counteract the stresses arising during its service period

Mequanent M. 71
 Two-block sleepers
 Bi-block sleepers consist of two concrete rail supports joined by steel (Blocks
joined by transverse steel T bar)
 Reinforced, but not prestressed
 Two-block design flexes and behaves somewhat like wood ties
 Simpler, Lighter, easier to handleand less costly than prestressed monoblock
ties
 Higher lateral resistance, eliminate damage from torsional forces on the
sleeper centre due the more flexible steel connections
 Bi-block sleepers are also used in ballastless track systems

Mequanent M. 72
 Sleeper
Mono-block vs. Twin-block sleepers
The advantages of the twin-block sleeper
 Well-defined bearing surfaces in the ballast bed;
 high lateral resistance in the ballast bed
The advantages of the mono-block sleeper
 low price
 less susceptibility to cracking
 can be pre-stressed

Mequanent M. 73
Comparison – wood and concrete sleepres

Mequanent M. 74
 Steel sleeper
– In past times steel sleepers have suffered from poor design and
increased traffic loads over their normal long service life.
– The steel sleepers’cost benefits together with
 the ability to hold rail gauge,
 lower long-term maintenance costs,
 increase the life of other track components,
 reduce derailments

Mequanent M. 75
 Steel sleeper
Advantages of steel sleeper:
 Long life, Better lateral rigidity
 Free from decay and fire hazards
 Good scrap value
 Lesser damage during handling
 Less maintenance problems
 Easy to maintain gauge

Disadvantages of steel sleeper:

 Liable to corrosion
 Unsuitable to track circuiting
 Becomes center bound due to sloping ends
 Rail specific
Mequanent M. 76
 Classification by Use
 Crosstie (a.k.a. cross-tie, tie, plain tie, grade tie,
sleeper) Typically 2.4m, 2.6m, or 2.74m long
 Joint tie Same length as crossties
 Bridge tie Can be up to 3m – 3.7m long and up to 30cm
wide, 36cm deep
 Switch tie (a.k.a. switch timber, turnout tie) 2.7 –
4.3m long (may go as high as 6.7m)
 Third rail ties (some transit lines) 30.5cm – 46cm
longer than crossties, space every 4th or 5th tie (or so)

Mequanent M. 77
 Usage of Sleepers
Switch sleeper Bridge sleeper

Short sleeper long sleeper

78
Mequanent M.
 Wide sleeper
 Concrete monoblock sleepers have also been produced in a
wider form (e.g. 56 cm (22 in))
 there is no ballast between the sleepers;
 wide sleeper increase lateral resistance and
 reduces ballast pressure.

Mequanent M. 79
 Y-shaped sleepers
 An unusual form (developed in 1983)
 reduced ballast volume due to the load spreading characteristics
Compared to conventional sleepers.
 High Noise levels
 very good resistance to track movement.
 Three point contact curves means that an exact geometric fit
cannot be observed with a fixed attachment point.

80
Mequanent M.
 Sleeper Analysis and Design
(size and spacing)
• Action under load

–Talbot found that stress

–Earlier tie reaction was concentrated under rail seat
considered as uniform

Typical sleeper dimension and ballast pressure condition

81
Mequanent M.
 Stiffness and Yieldability of ballast
 Not constant under tie
 Ballast stiffness is stress dependent
 Repeated load applications result in greater deflection under rail
seat than under center
 Center bound track condition may result (this case is close to a
uniform ballast pressure under load).
 This, in turn, can result in broken ties (at center).

Mequanent M. 82
– End bound track possible in newly tamped track

– Tie deflections May be about 0.5 inches (more or less possible)

• Due to: Ballast type
• Degree of compaction
• Tie length
• Wood fiber compression
• Depth of ballast section
• Seasonal variation
– Variations in bending moment from tie to tie "Play" between tie
and ballast
– Variations in ballast stiffness
Mequanent M. 83
– Tie condition
 Ballast Pressure Conditions

84
Mequanent M.
 Theoretical Design
 Force diagram (close to center-bound condition)

 Look at bending moments under center and rail seat

Qo must account for

adjacent wheels. Recall,
pressure distribution and
principle of
superposition.
Mequanent M. 85
 Theoretical Design

Mc = (-wL/2) x L/4 + QoL1/2

reduce to Mc = -wL2/8 + QoL1/2
and since L1 = L – 2L2
Mc = -wL2/8 + (Qo/2)(L – 2L2)
since w = 2Qo/L Mr = -wL2 x L2/2
Mc = -2Qo x L2/8 + (Qo/2)(L – 2L2)
reduce to Since w = 2Qo/L
Mc = -QoL/4 + (Qo/2)(L – 2L2) and Mr = (-2QoL2/L) x L2/2
Mc = -QoL/4 + QoL/2 – 2QoL2/2
Thus
Multiply terms to get common denominator
Mc = -QoL/4 + 2QoL/4 + 4QoL2/4 Mr = -QoL22/L
Reduce to Mc = (Qo/4)(-L + 2L – 4L2)
Thus Mc = (Qo/4)(L – 4L2)
Or Mc = (Qo/4)(L1 – 2L2) Mequanent M. 86
 Maximum allowable bending moment
(e.g. wooden sleeper)
–Simple beam moment
S = Mc/I or M = SI/c
Where, M = bending moment, inch-lbs
I = moment of inertia = bh3/12, in4
c = dist. from base to neutral axis = h/2, inches
S = allowable wood fiber bending stress, lb/in2
h = tie height, inches
b = tie width, inches
Then, M = (bh3S/12)/(h/2) = bh2S/6
–S varies by wood specie (e.g., 1000 psi for shortleaf yellow pine,
1200 psi for longleaf yellow pine, 900 psi for Douglas fir, and 1400
psi for oak) Mequanent M. 87
 Practical Design
• Load distribution
– Bearing area is ⅔ of tie length
(tamping zone), so
A’b= ⅔Lb
Unit load on ballast will be
pa= 2Qo/A’b
Thus, pa= 3Qo/Lb
Where,
pa= unit tie pressure on ballast
(<65 psi wood, <85 psi concrete)  Do a rail seat load analysis
A'b= total tie bearing area, in2
L = tie length, inches
b = tie width, inches
Qo= Rail seat load, lbs (static or
dynamic), based on trial tie spacing
Mequanent M.
Tie spacing
 Rail seat load (Qo) varies with
spacing
 Sometimes assumed that 40%
of a given axle load is carried
by one tie
 As spacing increases, load per
tie also increases
instead of assuming a value
 Track Stiffness (Track
Modulus, u) is inversely
proportional to tie spacing (i.e.
as spacing increases, track
stiffness decreases) 88
Plate Analysis and Design(size selection)
Two basic types
–Single shoulder
–Double shoulder

Size
–Width sized to fit tie
–Length to keep stress on wood tie <200 psi
–Stress = Qo/Plate Area
–Limited set of fixed sizes (generally choose smallest size possible for
economics)
• Distance between shoulders (double shouldered plates) spaced to
match rail base width Mequanent M. 89
 Rail seat deterioration (RSD) Loss of mortar
– Aggregate often protrudes
– Rail can become unstable and accelerate deterioration
– Related to: axle load, load reps, water, freezing temperatures,
traffic, abrasives, curvature, fastener toe load (restricting motion),
pad, other factors
– Mechanisms include: abrasion, crushing, freeze-thaw, hydraulic
pressure, hydro-abrasive erosion

Mequanent M. 90
 Thanks!
Mequanent Mulugeta
AAiT, SCE, Road & Railway Eng.

Mequanent M. 91