Leadership

Done By :Mahfooz Arian

Roll No:22
Class: SY .BA
Some well known leaders of the world
 Concepts of Leadership

According to Ann Marie E. McSwain, Assistant Professor at Lincoln University,

leadership is about capacity: the capacity of leaders to listen and observe, to use
their expertise as a starting point to encourage dialogue between all levels of
decision-making, to establish processes and transparency in decision-making, to
articulate their own values and visions clearly but not impose them. Leadership is
about setting and not just reacting to agendas, identifying problems, and initiating
change that makes for substantive improvement rather than managing change.

Deferent type of Leadership Styles

When developing your leadership skills, one must soon confront an important
practical question, "What leadership styles work best for me and my organization?"
To answer this question, it's best to understand that there are many from which to
choose and as part of your leadership development effort, you should consider
developing as many leadership styles as possible.

Three Classic Leadership Styles

One dimension of has to do with control and one's perception of how much control
one should give to people. The laissez faire style implies low control, the autocratic
style high control and the participative lies somewhere in between.

The Laissez Faire Leadership Style:

The style is largely a "hands off" view that tends to minimize the amount of direction
and face time required. Works well if you have highly trained and highly motivated
direct reports.

The Autocratic Leadership Style :

The autocratic style has its advocates, but it is falling out of favor in many countries.
Some people have argued that the style is popular with today's CEO's, who have
much in common with feudal lords in Medieval Europe.

The Participative Leadership Style:

It's hard to order and demand someone to be creative, perform as a team, solve
complex problems, improve quality, and provide outstanding customer service. The
style presents a happy medium between over controlling (micromanaging) and not
being engaged and tends to be seen in organizations that must innovate to prosper.
 Situational Leadership

Situational Leadership. In the 1950s, management theorists from Ohio State

University and the University of Michigan published a series of studies to determine
whether leaders should be more task or relationship (people) oriented. The
importance of the research cannot be over estimated since leaders tend to have a
dominant style; a leadership style they use in a wide variety of situations.

Surprisingly, the research discovered that there is no one best style: leaders must
adjust their leadership style to the situation as well as to the people being led.

The Emergent Leadership Style:

Contrary to the belief of many, groups do not automatically accept a new "boss" as
leader. We see a number of ineffective managers who didn't know the behaviors to
use when one taking over a new group.

The Transactional Leadership Style:

The approach emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo;
almost in opposition to the goals of the transformational leadership. It's considered to
be a "by the book" approach in which the person works within the rules. As such, it's
commonly seen in large, bureaucratic organizations.

The Transformational Leadership Style:

The primary focus of this leadership style is to make change happen in:

 Our Self,
 Others,
 Groups, and
 Organizations

Charisma is a special leadership style commonly associated with transformational

leadership. While extremely powerful, it is extremely hard to teach.

Visionary Leadership, The leadership style focuses on how the leader defines the
future for followers and moves them toward it.

Strategic Leadership

This is practiced by the military services such as the US Army, US Air Force, and
many large corporations. It stresses the competitive nature of running an
organization and being able to out fox and out wit the competition.
Team Leadership :

A few years ago, a large corporation decided that supervisors were no longer
needed and those in charge were suddenly made "team leaders." Today, companies
have gotten smarter about teams, but it still takes leadership to transition a group
into a team.

Facilitative Leadership:

This is a special style that anyone who runs a meeting can employ. Rather than
being directive, one uses a number of indirect communication patterns to help the
group reach consensus.

Leadership Influence Styles

Here one looks at the behaviors associated how one exercises influence. For
example, does the person mostly punish? Do they know how to reward?

Cross-Cultural Leadership:

Not all individuals can adapt to the leadership styles expected in a different culture;
whether that culture is organizational or national.

Coaching :

A great coach is definitely a leader who also possess a unique gift--the ability to
teach and train.

Level 5 Leadership:

This term was coined by Jim Collins in his book Good to Great: Why Some
Company’s Make the Leap and Other Don’t. As Collins says in his book, "We were
surprised, shocked really, to discover the types of leadership required for turning a
good company into a great one." What he seems to have found is what The
Economist calls "The Cult of the Faceless Boss."

Servant Leadership:

Some leaders have put the needs of their followers first. For example, the motto of
the Los Angeles Police Department, "To Protect and Serve." reflects this philosophy
of service. One suspects these leaders are rare in business.
 Theories of leadership
Trait theory:

In psychology, Trait theory is a major approach to the study of human personality.

Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be
defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. According to this
perspective, traits are relatively stable over time, differ among individuals e.g. some
people are outgoing whereas others are shy and influence behavior.

Gordon Allport was an early pioneer in the study of traits, which he sometimes
referred to as dispositions. In his approach, central traits are basic to an individual's
personality, whereas secondary traits are more peripheral. Common traits are those
recognized within a culture and may vary between cultures. Cardinal traits are those
by which an individual may be strongly recognized. Since Allport's time, trait theorists
have focused more on group statistics than on single individuals. Allport called these
two emphases "nomothetic" and "idiographic," respectively.

There is a nearly unlimited number of potential traits that could be used to describe
personality. The statistical technique of factor analysis, however, has demonstrated
that particular clusters of traits reliably correlate together. Hans Eysenck has
suggested that personality is reducible to three major traits. Other researchers argue
that more factors are needed to adequately describe human personality. Many
psychologists currently believe that five factors are sufficient.

Behavioral and style theories:

In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research
leadership as a set of behaviors, evaluating the behavior of 'successful' leaders,
determining a behavior taxonomy and identifying broad leadership styles.David
McClelland,
 For example, Leadership takes a strong personality with a well developed positive
ego. Not so much as a pattern of motives, but a set of traits is crucial. To lead; self-
confidence and a high self-esteem is useful, perhaps even essential.

Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on
the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the
performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate.
In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group decision
making, praise and criticism and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles:

(1) authoritarian

(2) democratic and

(3) laissez-faire

. Authoritarian climates were characterized by leaders who make decisions alone,

demand strict compliance to his orders, and dictate each step taken; future steps
were uncertain to a large degree. The leader is not necessarily hostile but is aloof
from participation in work and commonly offers personal praise and criticism for the
work done. Democratic climates were characterized by collective decision
processes, assisted by the leader. Before accomplishing tasks, perspectives are
gained from group discussion and technical advice from a leader. Members are
given choices and collectively decide the division of labor. Praise and criticism in
such an environment are objective, fact minded and given by a group member
without necessarily having participated extensively in the actual work. Laissez faire
climates gave freedom to the group for policy determination without any participation
from the leader. The leader remains uninvolved in work decisions unless asked,
does not participate in the division of labor, and very infrequently gives prais .The
results seemed to confirm that the democratic climate was preferred

The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was
developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for
goal achievement.

The Rise of Alternative Leadership Theories:-

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, however, a series of qualitative reviews of these
studies (e.g., Bird, 1940; Stogdill, 1948 [Mann, 1959)prompted researchers to take a
drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the
extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common
across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that persons who are
leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations.
Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait,
as situational approaches (see alernative leadership theories below) posited that
individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others. This approach
dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades.

The Reemergence of the Trait Theory:-

New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that
would ultimately reestablish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of
leadership. For example, improvements in researchers’ use of the round robin
research design methodology allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do
emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks ]. Additionally, during the
1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses, in which
they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of
studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and
parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the
qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers
revealed the following:

Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks

Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits as:

 intelligence
 adjustment
 extraversion
 conscientiousness
 openness to experience
 general self-efficacy
 The Managerial Grid

Concern for people

 Leadership performance

In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on
organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased
attributions about leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Despite these assertions
however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that
leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute
to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). In
order to facilitate successful performance it is important to understand and
accurately measure leadership performance.

Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to

organizational success (Campbell, 1990). Campbell identified a number of specific
types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of the dimensions that he
identified. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance (Yukl,
2006). Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the
umbrella of leadership performance, including outcomes such as leader
effectiveness, leader advancement, and leader emergence (Kaiser et al., 2008). For
instance, leadership performance may be used to refer to the career success of the
individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader
emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While
these aspects may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should
depend on the applied/research focus

Leadership in organizations

An organization that is established as an instrument or means for achieving defined

objectives has been referred to as a formal organization. Its design specifies how
goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions,
departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. Thus,
the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships
with clients or with its members. According to Weber's definition, entry and
subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Each employee receives a salary
and enjoys a degree of tenure that safeguards her/him from the arbitrary influence of
superiors or of powerful clients. The higher his position in the hierarchy, the greater
his presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the
work carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure
that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative
subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their
position

In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges

within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure.
The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the
individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with
those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension
of the social structures that generally characterize human life — the spontaneous
emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.

In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance,

protection, and survival. Now humanity spends a major portion of waking hours
working for organizations. Her/His need to identify with a community that provides
security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging continues unchanged
from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its
emergent, or unofficial, leaders

Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal
qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors
attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures.
Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent
leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-
operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a
stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action
through the control of a means of punishment.

A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. It is

not dependent on title or formal authority. (elevos, paraphrased from Leaders,
Bennis, and Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar). Leaders are recognized by
their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to
persist. An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to
command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position. However,
she or he must possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority,
because authority is only potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient
personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who
can challenge her/his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead.
However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows
that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining
a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority. Leadership can be
defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs
leaders at every level.

Leadership versus management

Over the years the philosophical terminology of "management" and "leadership"

have, in the organisational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly
differentiated meanings. Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these
terms should be restricted, and generally reflects an awareness of the distinction
made by Burns (1978) between "transactional" leadership (characterised by eg
emphasis on procedures, contingent reward, management by exception) and
"transformational" leadership (characterised by eg charisma, personal relationships,
creativity). That those two adjectives are in fact used equally well with the noun
"management" as with the noun "leadership" indicates that there is such a messy
overlap between the two in academic practice that attempts to pontificate about their
differences are largely a waste of time

Leadership by a group:

contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership.

In this situation, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole.
Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity,
reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as
costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the maintenance of the
boss becomes too expensive - either by draining the resources of the group as a
whole, or by impeding the creativity within the team, even unintentionally.

A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional teams. A team of

people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a
project. A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues, but more
commonly uses rotating leadership. The team member(s) best able to handle any
given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s). Additionally, as each
team member has the opportunity to experience the elevated level of empowerment,
it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success.

Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination and synergistic

communication skills will bring out the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders
use their own inner mentors to energize their team and organizations and lead a
team to achieve success.

Characteristics of a Team

 There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members.

 There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to
contribute, learn from and work with others.
 The member must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.
Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams:

 Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are
invested in accomplishing its mission and goals.
 Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when
to achieve team goals.
 Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a
more skillful member to do a certain task.
 Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood.
 Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-
making and personal growth.
 Personal traits: members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and
well utilized.
 Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for
every one in the groups.
 Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look
forward to this time together.
 Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and
share in this equally and proudly.
 Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and
taken advantage of by team members.

Charismatic Leadership

Key Characteristics of Charismatic leaders

1. Self Confidence- They have complete confidence in their judgment and

ability.
2. A vision- This is an idealized goal that proposes a future better than the
status quo. The greater the disparity between idealized goal and the status
quo, the more likely that followers will attribute extraordinary vision to the
leader.
3. Ability to articulate the vision- They are able to clarify and state the vision
in terms that are understandable to others. This articulation demonstrates an
understanding of the followers’ needs and, hence acts as a motivating force.
4. Strong convictions about vision- Charismatic leaders are perceived as
being strongly committed, and willing to take on high personal risk, incur high
costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve their vision.
5. Behavior that is out of the ordinary- Those with charisma engage in
behavior that is perceived as being novel, unconventional, and counter to
 norms. When successful , these behaviors evoke surprise and admiration in
followers.
6. Perceived as being a change agent- Charismatic leaders are perceived as
agents of radical change rather than as caretakers of the status quo.
7. Environmental sensitivity- These leaders are able to make realistic
assessments of the environmental constraints and resources needed to bring
about change.

Transactional vs Transformational leaders

Characteristics of Transactional and transformational leaders:

Transactional Leaders

• Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises

rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishment
• Management by exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from
rules and standards, takes corrective action.
• Management by exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met
• Laissez faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions

Transformational Leaders

• Charisma : Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect
trust.
• Inspiration: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts,
expresses important purposes in simple ways.
• Intellectual Stimulations: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful
problem solving.
• Individualized consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each
employee individually, coaches, advises.
The Activities of Successful & Effective leaders

staffing
 Ethical Leadership

Ethical leadership is leadership that is involved in leading in a manner that respects

the rights and dignity of others. “As leaders are by nature in a position of social
power, ethical leadership focuses on how leaders use their social power in the
decisions they make, actions they engage in and ways they influence others”
Leaders who are ethical demonstrate a level of integrity that is important for
stimulating a sense of leader trustworthiness, which is important for followers to
accept the vision of the leader These are critical and direct components to leading
ethically. The character and integrity of the leader provide the basis for personal
characteristics that direct a leader’s ethical beliefs, values, and decisions. Individual
values and beliefs impact the ethical decisions of leaders

Leaders who are ethical are people-oriented, and also aware of how their decisions
impact others, and use their social power to serve the greater good instead of self-
serving interests. In ethical leadership it is important for the leader to consider how
his or her decisions impact others. Motivating followers to put the needs or interests
of the group ahead of their own is another quality of ethical leaders . Motivating
involves engaging others in an intellectual and emotional commitment between
leaders and followers that makes both parties equally responsible in the pursuit of a
common goal. These characteristics of ethical leaders are similar to inspirational
motivation, which is a style component of transformational leadership. Inspirational
motivation “involves inspiring others to work towards the leader’s vision for the group
and to be committed to the group. Similarly, ethical leadership “falls within the nexus
of inspiring, stimulating, and visionary leader behaviors that make up
transformational and charismatic leadership. Ethical leaders assist followers in
gaining a sense of personal competence that allows them to be self-sufficient by
encouraging and empowering them.

Ethical leadership in organizations

In organizational communication, ethics in leadership are very important. Business

leaders must make decisions that will not only benefit them, but also they must think
about how the other people will be effected (Stansbury 33). The best leaders make
known their values and their ethics and preach them in their leadership style and
actions. It consists of communicating complete and accurate information, where
there is a personal, professional, ethical, or legal obligation to do so (McQueeney
165). When practicing ethics, you gain the respect and admiration of employees,
with the satisfaction of knowing you did the right thing. If you never make clear what
you want, and expect, then it can cause mistrust.

Being unethical in the workplace can include anything from taking personal phone
calls while at your desk, telling someone the "check is in the mail", when in fact it
hasn't even been written yet, and even taking office supplies home for your personal
use. Most organizations create an ethical code, which is usually a list of rules that
tells you what behaviors are right and what are wrong in the company.
For your organization, you might want to let employees know your values right off the
bat. Such values can be, teamwork, ambition, honesty, efficiency, quality,
accomplishment, and dedication.

Ideal leadership

Inter-Disciplinary Leadership -- or IDEAL Leadership -- is a scientific leadership

theory developed in 2001 by Larry Stout, a professor at the Stockholm School of
Economics in Riga (Latvia). The model identifies six critical capabilities that are
grouped under Leadership Capital and four capacities termed Leadership conditions.
The six critical Leadership Capital capacities are the vision and values that
constitute the leader's philosophy; the wisdom and courage that compose the
leader's personal composition; and the trust and voice that enable them to influence
others. The four vital Leadership Conditions necessary for these capacities to make
a difference are a place where the leader can hold sway, a period that calls for his
or her leadership, a position that conveys leadership authority, and people who are
ready for leadership.

Ideal Leadership defines a leader as one who moves his or her organization forward
in a positive direction. Given the right conditions, combined with adequate capital,
the result is favorable not only to the particular organization, but also to the society at
large. The theory postulates that failure in leadership is related to unfavorable
conditions, or inadequate capital (termed anti-leadership).

The scientific nature of the Ideal Leadership Model is reflected in that it that it is a
descriptive, prescriptive, and predictive theory. It fully describes all the divergent
elements that compose the leadership phenomenon. It prescribes adjustments to a
leader's capital in relation to the theory in order to make a leader more effective,
based on a leadership assessment measured by leadershipmetrics. It also can
accurately predict who would be effective in leadership and under what
circumstances they would be effective.
 Leadership development
Leadership development refers to any activity that enhances the quality of leadership
within an individual or organization. These activities have ranged from MBA style programs
offered at university business schools to action learning, high-ropes courses and executive
retreats.

Developing Individual Leaders

Traditionally, leadership development has focused on developing the leadership

abilities and attitudes of individuals.

Just like people aren't all born with the ability to, say, play football like Zinedine
Zidane or sing like Luciano Pavarotti, people aren't all born with the ability to lead.
Different personal characteristics can help or hinder a person's leadership
effectiveness and require formalized programs for developing leadership
competencies.Yet, everyone can develop their leadership effectiveness. Achieving
such development takes focus, practice and persistence more akin to learning a
musical instrument than reading a book

Classroom-style training and associated reading is effective in helping leaders to

know more about what is involved in leading well. However, knowing what to do and
doing what you know are two very different outcomes; management expert Henry
Mintzberg is one person to highlight this dilemma. It is estimated that as little as 15%
of learning from traditional classroom style training results in sustained behavioral
change within the workplace.

The success of leadership development efforts has been linked to three variables .

 Individual learner characteristics

 The quality and nature of the leadership development program
 Genuine support for behavioural change from the leader's supervisor

Military officer training academies, such as the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst,
go to great lengths to only accept candidates who show the highest potential to lead
well

. Personal characteristics that associated with successful leadership development

include leader motivation to learn, a high achievement drive and personality traits
such as openness to experience, an internal focus of control, and self-monitoring.

Development is also more likely to occur when the design of the development
program:
  Integrates a range of developmental experiences over a set period of time (eg 6-12
months). These experiences may include 360 degree feedback, experiential
classroom style programs, business school style coursework, executive coaching,
reflective journaling, mentoring and more.
 Involve goal setting, following an assessment of key developmental needs and then
evaluate the achievement of goals after a given time period.

Among key concepts in leadership development one may find:

- Experiential learning: positioning the individual in the focus of the learning
process, going through the four stages of experiential learning as formulated by
David A. Kolb: 1. concrete experience 2. observation and reflection 3. forming
abstract concept 4. testing in new situations.
- Self efficacy: The right training and coaching should bring about 'Self efficacy' in
the trainee, as Albert Bandura formulated: A person's belief about his capabilities to
produce effects
- Visioning: Developing the ability to formulate a clear image of the aspired future of
an organization unit.

Leadership studies

Leadership studies is a multidisciplinary academic field of study that focuses on

leadership in organizational contexts and in human life. Leadership studies has
origins in the social sciences , sociology, anthropology, psychology), in humanities ,
history and philosophy), as well as in professional and applied fields of study .,
management and education). The field of leadership studies is closely linked to the
field of organizational studies.

As an academic area of inquiry, the study of leadership has been of interest to

scholars from a wide variety of disciplinary backgrounds. Today, there are numerous
academic programs (spanning several academic colleges and departments) related
to the study of leadership. Leadership degree programs generally relate to: aspects
of Leadership, Leadership Studies, and Organizational Leadership (although
there are a number of leadership-oriented concentrations in other academic areas).
 Leadership in Higher Education

Leadership has become one of the fastest growing academic fields in higher
education . At all levels, undergraduate through doctoral, an increasing number of
colleges and universities have begun developing not only individual courses, but
entire degree programs specifically devoted to the study of leadership.

Even among some of the more established and traditional academic disciplines such
as engineering, education, and medicine, specialization and concentration areas
have been developed around the study of leadership. Most of these academic
programs have been designed to be multidisciplinary in nature—drawing upon
theories and applications from related fields such as sociology, psychology,
philosophy, and management. Such an approach, Rost (1991) has argued “allows
scholars and practitioners to think radically new thoughts about leadership that are
not possible from a unidisciplinary approach.

History of Leadership as a Field of Study

The study of leadership can be dated back to Plato, Sun Tzu and Machiavelli;
however, leadership has only become the focus of contemporary academic studies
in the last 60 years, and particularly more so in the last two decades. Contemporary
leadership scholars and researchers have often been questioned about the nature of
their work, and its place within the academy, but much of the confusion surrounding
leadership as a field of study may be attributed to a lack of understanding regarding
inter- and multi- disciplinary academic fields of study in general.

The discipline (which encompasses a host of sub-fields) is filled with definitions,

theories, styles, functions, competencies, and historical examples of successful and
diverse leaders. Collectively, the research findings on leadership provide a far more
sophisticated and complex view of the phenomenon than most of the simplistic views
presented in the popular press.

Some of the earliest studies on leadership include:

 The Ohio State Leadership Studies which began in the 1940s and
focused on how leaders could satisfy common group needs. The
findings indicated that the two most important dimensions in leadership
included: "initiating structure," and "consideration." These
characteristics could be either high or low and were independent of one
another. The research was based on questionnaires to leaders and
subordinates. These questionnaires are known as the Leader Behavior
Description Questionnaire (LDBQ) and the Supervisor Behavior
 Description Questionnaire (SDBQ). By 1962, the LDBQ was on
version XII.

 The Michigan Leadership Studies which began in the 1950s .and

indicated that leaders could be classified as either "employee
centered," or "job centered." These studies identified three critical
characteristics of effective leaders: task oriented behavior, relationship-
oriented behavior, and participative leadership.

 McGregors Theory X & Theory Y developed by Douglas McGregor in

the 1960s at MIT Sloan School of Management. These theories
described employee motivation in the workforce. Both theories begin
with the premise that the role of management is to assemble the
factors of production, including people, for the economic benefit of the
firm. Beyond this point, the two theories of management diverge.

 Blake & McCanse Leadership Grid[ developed the orientation of "task

orientation" and "people orientation" in leader behavior. They
developed the leadership grid which focused on concern for results (on
the one axis) and concern for people (on the other axis).

In addition to these studies, from an academic perspective leadership has been

studied from several theoretical lenses:

 Trait & Behavioral theories of Leadership: Attempt to describe the

types of behavior and personality tendencies associated with effective
leadership.

 Situational & Contingency theories of Leadership: Incorporate

environmental and situational considerations into leader behavior.

 Functional Leadership theory: Suggests that a leader’s primary

responsibility is to see that whatever is necessary in relation to group
needs is taken care of.

 Information-Processing Leadership theory:[Focuses on the role of

social perception in identifying leadership abilities.

 Self Leadership theory:Although behaviorally oriented, the essence of

self leadership theory is that behaviors are directed toward the
attainment of super-ordinate goals.

 Transactional & Transformational theories of Leadership: The

transactional leader focuses on managerial reward and contingent
valuation. The transformational leader focuses on motivation and goal
attainment.

The first doctoral program in Leadership Studies was established at the University of
San Diego in the School of Leadership and Education Sciences in 1979.The first
undergraduate school of Leadership Studies was established at the University of
Richmond (The Jepson School) in 1992.The growth of transpersonal psychology
means that this field has relevance to Transpersonal business studies.

Conclusion
Identifying how leaders emerge in a complex environment proved illusive
primarily due to very different concepts of leadership. Leadership itself is a
complex system. Our work, therefore, focused on identifying the qualities of a
leader based on our personal experiences rather than treat leadership in an
organizational context/contextual fashion affecting team performance. We also
proposed the model that leadership in a small group environment evolves in the
context of strength of intrapersonal relationships. Future work should explore the
degree to which team size, aggregated team characteristics, and member
homogeneity/heterogeneity affect leadership emergence