CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWMETERS

Table 10-4 lists the major classes of flowmeters, along with common
examples of each. Brief descriptions are provided in this subsection,
followed by more details in subsequent subsections.
Differential Pressure Meters Differential pressure meters
or head meters measure the change in pressure across a special flow
element. The differential pressure increases with increasing flow
rate. The pitot tubes described previously work on this principle.
Other examples include orifices [see also Eqs. (6-111) and (8-102),
and Fig. 10-14], nozzles (Fig. 10-19), targets, venturis (see also Sec.
8 and Fig. 10-17), and elbow meters. Averaging pitot tubes produce
a pressure differential that is based on multiple measuring points
across the flow path.
Differential pressure meters are widely used. Temperature, pressure,
and density affect gas density and readings of differential pressure
meters. For that reason, many commercial flowmeters that are
based on measurement of differential pressure often have integral
temperature and absolute pressure measurements in addition to differential
pressure. They also frequently have automatic temperature
and pressure compensation.
Velocity Meters Velocity meters measure fluid velocity. Examples
include electromagnetic, propeller, turbine, ultrasonic Doppler,
ultrasonic transit time, and vortex meters. Section 8 describes the
principles of operation of electromagnetic, turbine, ultrasonic, and
vortex flowmeters.
Mass Meters Mass flowmeters measure the rate of mass flow
through a conduit. Examples include Coriolis flowmeters and thermal
mass flowmeters. Coriolis flowmeters can measure fluid density
simultaneously with mass flow rate. This permits calculation of volumetric
flow rate as well. Section 8 includes brief descriptions of Coriolis
and thermal mass flowmeters.
Volumetric Meters Volumetric meters (also called positive displacement
flowmeters) are devices that mechanically divide a
fluid stream into discrete, known volumes and count the number of
volumes that pass through the device. See Spitzer (2005, op. cit.).
Variable-Area Meters Variable-area meters, which are also
called rotameters, offer popular and inexpensive flow measurement
devices. These meters employ a float inside a tube that has an internal
cross-sectional area that increases with distance upward in the
flow path through the tube. As the flow rate increases, the float rises
in the tube to provide a larger area for the flowing fluid to pass.
Open-Channel Flow Measurement Open-channel flow measurements
are usually based on measurement of liquid level in a flow
channel constructed of a specified geometry. The two most common
flow channels used are weirs and flumes. See Spitzer (2005, op. cit.).
Flowmeter Classes

MASS FLOWMETERS
General Principles There are two main types of mass flowmeters:
(1) the so-called true mass flowmeter, which responds directly to
mass flow rate, and (2) the inferential mass flowmeter, which commonly
measures volume flow rate and fluid density separately. A variety
of types of true mass flowmeters have been developed, including
the following: (a) the Magnus-effect mass flowmeter, (b) the axial-flow,
transverse-momentum mass flowmeter, (c) the radial-flow, transverse momentum
mass flowmeter, (d) the gyroscopic transverse-momentum
mass flowmeter, and (e) the thermal mass flowmeter. Type b is the basis
for several commercial mass flowmeters, one version of which is briefly
described here.
Axial-Flow Transverse-Momentum Mass Flowmeter This
type is also referred to as an angular-momentum mass flowmeter. One
embodiment of its principle involves the use of axial flow through a
driven impeller and a turbine in series. The impeller imparts angular
momentum to the fluid, which in turn causes a torque to be imparted
to the turbine, which is restrained from rotating by a spring. The
torque, which can be measured, is proportional to the rotational speed
of the impeller and the mass flow rate.
Inferential Mass Flowmeter There are several types in this category,
including the following:
1. Head meters with density compensation. Head meters such as
orifices, venturis, or nozzles can be used with one of a variety of densitometers
[e.g., based on (a) buoyant force on a float, (b) hydraulic
coupling, (c) voltage output from a piezoelectric crystal, or (d) radiation
absorption]. The signal from the head meter, which is proportional
to V2 (where fluid density and V fluid velocity), is
multiplied by given by the densitometer. The square root of the
product is proportional to the mass flow rate.

2. Head meters with velocity compensation. The signal from the

head meter, which is proportional to V2, is divided by the signal from
a velocity meter to give a signal proportional to the mass flow rate.
3. Velocity meters with density compensation. The signal from
the velocity meter (e.g., turbine meter, electromagnetic meter, or
sonic velocity meter) is multiplied by the signal from a densitometer
to give a signal proportional to the mass flow rate.
Coriolis Mass Flowmeter This type, described in Sec. 8, offers
simultaneous direct measurement of both mass flow rate and fluid density.
The coriolis flowmeter is insensitive to upstream and downstream
flow disturbances, but its performance is adversely affected by the presence
of even a few percent of a gas when measuring a liquid flow.

Pumps & compressor

A pump
or compressor is a physical contrivance that is used to deliver fluids
from one location to another through conduits. The term pump is
used when the fluid is a liquid, while the term compressor is used
when the fluid is a gas. The basic requirements to define the application
are suction and delivery pressures, pressure loss in transmission,
and flow rate. Special requirements may exist in food, pharmaceutical,
nuclear, and other industries that impose material selection requirements
of the pump.
The primary means of transfer of energy to the fluid that causes
flow is gravity, displacement, centrifugal force, electromagnetic
force, transfer of momentum, mechanical impulse, and a combination
of these energy-transfer mechanisms. Displacement and centrifugal
force are the most common energy-transfer mechanisms in use.

There are four (4) major types of pumps: (1) positive displacement,
(2) dynamic (kinetic), (3) lift, and (4) electromagnetic. Piston pumps
are positive displacement pumps. The most common centrifugal

pumps are of dynamic type; ancient bucket-type pumps are lift

pumps; and electromagnetic pumps use electromagnetic force and
are common in modern reactors. Canned pumps are also becoming
popular in the petrochemical industry because of the drive to minimize
fugitive emissions.

Displacement

The large variety of displacement-type fluid-transport devices

makes it difficult to list characteristics common to each. However,
for most types it is correct to state that (1) they are adaptable to
high-pressure operation, (2) the flow rate through the pump is variable
(auxiliary damping systems may be employed to reduce the
magnitude of pressure pulsation and flow variation), (3) mechanical
considerations limit maximum throughputs, and (4) the devices are
capable of efficient performance at extremely low-volume throughput
rates.

Centrifugal Force
Centrifugal force is applied by means of the
centrifugal pump or compressor.

Basic principle of centrifugal pump is to produce kinetic energy

by the action of centrifugal force and then to convert this energy into
pressure by efficiently reducing the velocity of the flowing fluid.
In general, centrifugal fluid-transport devices have these characteristics:
(1) discharge is relatively free of pulsation; (2) mechanical
design lends itself to high throughputs, capacity limitations are rarely
a problem; (3) the devices are capable of efficient performance over a
wide range of pressures and capacities even at constant-speed operation;
(4) discharge pressure is a function of fluid density; and (5) these
are relatively small high-speed devices and less costly.
A device which combines the use of centrifugal force with mechanical
impulse to produce an increase in pressure is the axial-flow compressor or
pump. In this device the fluid travels roughly parallel to the shaft through
a series of alternately rotating and stationary radial blades having air foil
cross sections. The fluid is accelerated in the axial direction by mechanical
impulses from the rotating blades; concurrently, a positive-pressure
gradient in the radial direction is established in each stage by centrifugal
force. The net pressure rises per stage results from both effects.

Electromagnetic Force When the fluid is an electrical conductor,

as is the case with molten metals, it is possible to impress an
electromagnetic field around the fluid conduit in such a way that a
driving force that will cause flow is created. Such pumps have been
developed for the handling of heat-transfer liquids, especially for
nuclear reactors.
Transfer of Momentum Deceleration of one fluid (motivating
fluid) in order to transfer its momentum to a second fluid (pumped
fluid) is a principle commonly used in the handling of corrosive materials,
in pumping from inaccessible depths, or for evacuation. Jets and
eductors are in this category.
Absence of moving parts and simplicity of construction have frequently
justified the use of jets and eductors. However, they are relatively
inefficient devices. When air or steam is the motivating fluid,
operating costs may be several times the cost of alternative types of
fluid-transport equipment. In addition, environmental considerations
in today’s chemical plants often inhibit their use.
Mechanical Impulse The principle of mechanical impulse when
applied to fluids is usually combined with one of the other means of
imparting motion. As mentioned earlier, this is the case in axial-flow
compressors and pumps. The turbine or regenerative-type pump is
another device which functions partially by mechanical impulse.
Measurement of Performance The amount of useful work that
any fluid-transport device performs is the product of (1) the mass rate
of fluid flow through it and (2) the total pressure differential measured
immediately before and after the device, usually expressed in the
height of column of fluid equivalent under adiabatic conditions. The
first of these quantities is normally referred to as capacity, and the second
is known as head.
Capacity This quantity is expressed in the following units. In SI
units capacity is expressed in cubic meters per hour (m3/h) for both
liquids and gases. In U.S. customary units it is expressed in U.S. gallons
per minute (gal/min) for liquids and in cubic feet per minute
(ft3/min) for gases. Since all these are volume units, the density or specific
gravity must be used for conversion to mass rate of flow. When
gases are being handled, capacity must be related to a pressure and a
temperature, usually the conditions prevailing at the machine inlet. It
is important to note that all heads and other terms in the following
equations are expressed in height of column of liquid.
Total Dynamic Head The total dynamic head H of a pump is
the total discharge head hd minus the total suction head hs.
Total Suction Head This is the reading hgs of a gauge at the suction
flange of a pump (corrected to the pump centerline), plus the
barometer reading and the velocity head hvs at the point of gauge
attachment:
hs hgs atm hvs (10-43)
If the gauge pressure at the suction flange is less than atmospheric,
requiring use of a vacuum gauge, this reading is used for hgs in Eq.
(10-43) with a negative sign.

Before installation it is possible to estimate the total suction head as

follows:
hs hss hfs (10-44)
where hss static suction head and hfs suction friction head.
Static Suction Head The static suction head hss is the vertical
distance measured from the free surface of the liquid source to the
pump centerline plus the absolute pressure at the liquid surface.
Total Discharge Head The total discharge head hd is the reading
hgd of a gauge at the discharge flange of a pump (corrected to the
pump centerline*), plus the barometer reading and the velocity head
hvd at the point of gauge attachment:

hd hgd atm hvd (10-45)

Again, if the discharge gauge pressure is below atmospheric, the
vacuum-gauge reading is used for hgd in Eq. (10-45) with a negative sign.
Before installation it is possible to estimate the total discharge head
from the static discharge head hsd and the discharge friction head hfd
as follows:
hd hsd hfd (10-46)
Static Discharge Head The static discharge head hsd is the vertical
distance measured from the free surface of the liquid in the
receiver to the pump centerline,* plus the absolute pressure at the liquid
surface. Total static head hts is the difference between discharge
and suction static heads.