Physiology of reproduction in pigs:

An understanding of the physiology of reproduction in pigs can aid in selecting

and managing breeding herd and is essential for a successful mating program and
reproductive management. Male pig or the boar has a remarkable role in the reproductive
efficiency of swine breeding herd. Depending on the semen collection frequency and
insemination dose, semen from a single boar can be used to breed between 750 and 1000
female pigs or sows per year. As a result, reproductive failure of a single male influences
a large number of sows. Similarly, breeding herd of female pigs (gilts and sows) are also
considered as important component in swine production systems. The knowledge on the
basic aspects of male and female reproductive physiology is thus important in managing
breeding herd for optimal fertility.

(i) Reproduction in male pig (boar): Male reproductive system in pig is composed of
different structures viz. testes, fibroelastic penis, urogenital duct system, secondary sex
glands, pituitary gland and the hypothalamus. These communicate via the endocrine or
hormonal interplay and nervous system to coordinate normal reproductive activity in
boars. Abnormal activity in one or more of these structures can result in reproductive
failure. The main function of testis is to continuously produce spermatozoa, while the
epididymis ensures production of a heterogeneous sperm population capable of fertilizing
an oocyte and also acts as a reservoir of spermatozoa [1]. After completing
spermatogenesis in the testis, the spermatozoa are not capable of fertilizing a female
gamete or oocyte. The fertilizing ability will be acquired in a temporally controlled
manner during different stages towards the encounter with the oocyte. Sperm maturation
in the epididymis requires around 10 days to be completed, a relatively long time
comparing to the processes that occur from the ejaculation that takes between minutes to
hours. Boar semen is a suspension of spermatozoa or the sperm cells and the reproductive
tract secretions, including secretions from the accessory glands. The fluid part of this
suspension is called as seminal plasma and it helps in carrying and protecting the
spermatozoa or the sperm cells [2]. In boars, the semen also contains large quantities of
gel. A normal sperm has a head and a tail and the entire sperm cell is covered by a
membrane. The head contains chromosomes which carries vital genetic information. On
top of the head is the acrosome which is a thin sac that contains enzymes that help the
sperm penetrate the ovum during the fertilisation process. The tail consists of the neck,
middle, principal and end pieces. The middle piece contains the mitochondria which
generate the energy required for sperm motility.

The two major endocrine producing cells in the testes are Leydig cells and Sertoli
cells. Luteinizing hormone (LH) released from the anterior pituitary gland stimulates
production of androgens from the Leydig cells. The primary androgen produced is
testosterone and it has a variety of critical functions in sperm production
(spermatogenesis) and male sexual behaviour. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
stimulates Sertoli cells or Nurse cells to produce androgen binding proteins (ABPs);
convert testosterone to dihydrotestosterone and Estrogen; and secrete Inhibin. FSH also
stimulates the testes to start spermatogenesis by initiating sperm cell division and
development. Androgen-binding protein forms a complex with androgen and is carried
along with the spermatozoa to the epididymis. Elevated levels of androgen are necessary
for the normal function of the epididymal epithelium. In the boar, high quantities of
estrogen are also found in semen. The main role of seminal estrogens is to stimulate
important reproductive events in female reproductive tract during breeding.

In pig farming, healthy and proven breeding males are essential for ultimate
success. It is therefore important to promote routine breeding soundness examinations on
boars. Through this, low performing and infertile boars could be identified before time
and money is invested in them. Boar selection is equally important with that of choosing
breeding sows. In selecting a breeding boar, the same factors should be taken into
account as for the sows; this includes the presence of twelve nipples. Choosing a boar too
highly in-bred from existing stock can be avoided, as in-breeding can lead to reduced
fertility, poor growth rate, and lower levels of disease resistance. The litters from the boar
that breeds regularly and efficiently but has a low conception rate will probably be
smaller than litters from boars with higher conception rates. All new boars and many
older boars should be tested as soon as possible, especially during periods when breeding
performance is normally low. Culling of sub-fertile boars will improve conception rates,
especially during periods when some boars may be overworked. Individual-mating
systems allow breeding records to be kept for each boar and thus allows for rapid
identification of boars with a fertility problem.
(ii) Reproduction in female pig (sow): A thorough knowledge of the female reproductive
system in pigs is important for a successful mating program, whether AI or natural
service is used. The primary structures of the female reproductive tract are the ovaries
and they have two major functions: (1) to produce ova, the female germ cells/gametes
and (2) to produce important hormones viz. progesterone and estrogen. Each ovary is
covered by a membrane (Infundibulum) which acts as a funnel to collect ova and direct
them to the oviduct. The oviduct is about 6-10 inches long and acts as the site of
fertilization. There are two uterine horns, each with 2-3 feet length in non-pregnant sow.
They act as a passageway for sperm to reach the oviduct and are the site of fetal
development. Body of the uterus is small compared to some other livestock species and is
located at the junction of two uterine horns.

Non-pregnant and non-lactating sows and gilts (young female pig that has never
had piglets) display estrus or standing heat on a regular basis throughout the year. Sows
and gilts are non-seasonal and polyestrous, with the estrous cycle lasting 18–24 (average
21) days. Follicular growth increases by about three days before estrus and is controlled
by FSH from the pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain. A mature ovum is held
within each follicle and granulosa cells in the follicle secrete estrogen which is majorly
responsible for the typical signs of estrus. The release of ova (ovulation) is stimulated by
LH. Ovulation occurs about 40 hours after the onset of estrus, but this interval is variable.
Sows are behaviorally anestrous during pregnancy. Ovulatory estrus usually is not
observed during lactation except under conditions of high feeding levels, group rearing,
or direct male exposure. It is important to note that partial weaning methods or exogenous
hormonal treatment can induce estrus during lactation, but the results are inconsistent and
not economical. Normal uterine physiology is re-established by 20–25 days postpartum.
Most sows exhibit estrus 3–7 days after weaning. Estrus in gilts and post-weaning
anestrus sows can be initiated with exogenous hormones. Nevertheless, these hormonal
agents circumvent natural selection for reproductive efficiency, and this should be kept in
mind when they are used in breeding management programs.

Estrus lasts around 36–48 hours in gilts and ≥48–72 hours in sows. Interval to
estrus post-weaning and duration of estrus in sows can be influenced by length of
lactation, stress, plane of nutrition, genetics, and other management practices. Estrus is
characterized by behavioral (signs like standing reflex, mounting, increased activity and
restlessness, vocalization etc.) and sometimes physical (eg, vulvar swelling, vaginal
discharge) changes. Usually, ovulation occurs during mid to late estrus. During ovulation,
around 15–24 ova are released over a period of 1 to 4 hours. Initially, ovulation rate
increases with parity, so that the litters from fourth to fifth farrowing tend to be the
largest in number. However, the rate of ovulation can decrease when gilts or sows are
under low plane of nutrition. Most gilts are on full feed, thereby averting the adverse
affects of under-nourishment on early reproductive performance.

Sperm cells reach the oviduct within 30 minutes of mating, and fertilization can
occur within 2–6 hours. Fertilization rates are very high in sows, but embryonic mortality
up to 30%–40% accounts for the usual litter size of 10–12 pigs. Embryos enter the uterus
approximately 48–60 hours after ovulation. Embryos hatch from the zona pellucida and
form blastocysts 144 hrous after ovulation. Recognition of pregnancy in the maternal
system occurs by day 10–14 of gestation, coinciding with intra-uterine migration and
distribution of embryos. Attachment of embryo usually begins by day 13–14, and
implantation is completed by day 40. Skeletal mineralization develops by day 35, with
fetuses immuno-competent by day 70–75. Fetal deaths that usually occur after day 35 can
result in expulsion or retention of recognizable piglets. Dead fetuses that are retained in
this sterile environment are converted into mummified fetuses and are usually expelled
during farrowing time. Average length of gestation in pig is 114 ± 2 days and is usually
shortened in sows with large litters.

Reference:

1. Benson, G.S. (1993). Male sexual function: erection, emission and ejaculation. In: The
Physiology of Reproduction, Vol. 1. Knobil, E. and Neill, J.D. (eds). Raven Press, New
York. pp. 1489-1508.

2. Hemsworth, P.H. (1982). Social environment and reproduction. In: Control of Pig
Reproduction.Cole, D.J.A. and Foxcroft, G.R. (eds). Butterworths, London. Pp: 585-602.

3. Garner, D.L. and Hafez, E.S.E. (1993). Spermatozoa and seminal plasma. In:
Reproduction in Farm Animals, Ed. E.S.E. Hafez (6th edition). Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia. pp: 165-187.
4. Shipley, C.F. (1999). Breeding soundness examination of the boar. Swine Health
Prod.; 7(3):117-120.

5. Crabo, B.G. (1997). Reproductive examination and evaluation of the boar. In:
Youngquist, RS, ed. Current Therapy in Large Animal Theriogenology. Philadelphia, PA:
W.B. Saunders, Co., pp: 664-670.

6. Singleton, W and Diekman, M. (2010). Reproductive Physiology and Anatomy of the

Sow, Purdue University Department of Animal Sciences. (http://www.ansc.purdue.edu/
swine/porkpage/repro/physiol/reppaper.htm)

7. Caballero, J., Frenette, G. and Sullivan, R. (2011). Post-Testicular Sperm Maturational

Changes in the Bull: Important Role of the Epididymosomes and Prostasomes. Veterinary
Medicine International, pp: 13.