Part I(A): Power Systems

AC Power Definitions and

Concepts
 Topics
 AC Power Definitions
 Effective or RMS Value
 Power Factor Correction
 Voltage Regulation

Chapter 2 Chapter 11
 Instantaneous Power
Simple example:
i(t)

v(t) ~ Arbitrary circuit

element

Let v(t ) = Vm cos(ωot + θ v ) i (t ) = I m cos(ωot + θ i )

Instantaneous power absorbed is then

p (t ) = v(t )i (t ) = Vm I m cos(ωot + θ v ) cos(ωo t + θ i )

Instantaneous power gives power in watts at any instant of time.

 Instantaneous Power
Further simplifying:
1 1 Constant plus
p (t ) = Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i ) + Vm I m cos(2ωt + θ v + θ i )
2 2 sinusoid at 2ω

Positive – absorbing or charging

Negative – generating or discharging

 Average “Real Active” Power
Averaging over one period:
T
1
P =  p (t )dt = Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i )
0
2

Instantaneous power is time-varying but average power is constant.

 Instantaneous Power
Alternatively:
Term 1 Term 2
1 1
p (t ) = Vm I m cosψ {1 + cos 2(ωt + θ v )}+ Vm I m sinψ sin 2(ωt + θ v )
2 2
ψ = θ v − θi
Term 1
 Always positive or above zero.
 Average is 0.5 ,, similar to average “real active” power P
computed earlier.
Term 2
 Average is always zero with equal positive and negative half-cycles.
 Peak is 0.5 , also known as “imaginary reactive” power Q.

How do they appear graphically?

Instantaneous Power

Term 1
Term 2
Total
 Average Real Active Power
Is it possible to compute average active power using phasors?
1
P = Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i )
2
v(t ) = Vm cos(ωo t + θ v )  V = Vm ∠θ v
i (t ) = I m cos(ωot + θ i )  I = I m ∠θ i

To get (θv − θI), I must first be conjugated before multiplying

with V.
VI " = Vm I m ∠(θ v − θ i )
Average active power is then
1 " 1
P = Re VI  = Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i )
2  2
 Imaginary Reactive Power
V
V = Vm ∠θ v , I = I m ∠θ i , Z = = R + jX
I
1 " 1 1 1
S = VI = Vm I m ∠(θ v − θ i ) = Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i ) + j Vm I m sin (θ v − θ i )
2 2 2 2

P Q
1 " 1 1 1
S= VI = (Z × I )I " = I m2 R + j I m2 X = P + jQ
2 2 2 2
1 2 1
∴P = I m R and Q = I m2 X
2 2

Reactive power Q is a measure of energy exchange

between source and reactance X
 Other Power Definitions
V Vm
V = Vm ∠θ v , I = I m ∠θ i , Z = = ∠(θ v − θ i )
I Im
1  1 1 
P = Re VI "  = Re Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i ) + j Vm I m sin (θ v − θ i )
2  2 2 
1 " 1
Complex power (VA) S = VI = Vm I m ∠(θ v − θ i ) = P + jQ
2 2
1 " 1
Reactive power (VAr) Q = Im VI  = Vm I m sin (θ v − θ i )
2  2

Power factor p. f . = cos(θ v − θ i )

Power factor angle θ = θv − θi Same angle

1
Apparent power (VA) S = S = Vm I m
2
 Special Cases
V = Vm ∠θ v , I = I m ∠θ i

1
Resistor S = P + jQ = Vm I m Active power only
2
(θv − θI = 0)

1
Inductor S = P + jQ = j Vm I m Reactive power only
2
(θv − θI = 90º)

1
Capacitor S = P + jQ = − j Vm I m Reactive power only
2
(θv − θI = −90º)
 Conservation of AC Power

S Source =  S Load
P Source =  PLoad
Q Source =  QLoad

Total power supplied by sources = total power delivered to loads

But does not apply to apparent power
 Topics
 AC Power Definitions
 Effective or RMS Value
 Power Factor Correction
 Voltage Regulation
 Effective or RMS Value
Effective or root-mean-square (RMS) value of a periodic
voltage / current
=
DC voltage / current that delivers the same average power to a
resistor
t o +T
1
 Rdt E
2
P= i
T
q
to
t o +T
u 1
 dt
2
I eff = i
a T to

t
t o +T
e 1
 dt
2
P=I R eff Veff = v 2

T to

if applied to voltage
 Special Case - Sinusoid
v(t ) = Vm cos(ω ot + φ )
1 t o +T
RMS value Vrms =
T  to
v 2 (t )dt arbitrary to

1 t o +T

2
= Vm cos 2 (ωot + φ )dt
T to

1 t o +T 2 1 + cos 2(ω o t + φ ) 
=
T 
to
Vm 
 2 

dt

Vm
=
2
Average = 0.5
2 1
cos ( A) = [1 + cos(2 A)]
2
 Power Definitions in RMS
v(t ) = Vm cos(ωot + θ v )  Vrms = Vrms ∠θ v
i (t ) = I m cos(ωot + θ i )  I rms = I rms ∠θ i
V V V
Z = rms = rms ∠(θ v − θ i ) = m ∠(θ v − θ i )
I rms I rms Im

1
Complex power (VA) S = VI " = Vrms I *rms = Vrms I rms ∠(θ v − θ i ) = P + jQ
2

Active power (W) ( )

P = Re Vrms I *rms = Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θ i )

Reactive power (VAr) Q = Im (Vrms rms ) = Vrms I rms sin (θ v − θ i )

I *

Power factor p. f . = cos(θ v − θ i ) Same angle

Apparent power (VA) S = S = Vrms I rms

 Summary
Complex power S = P + jQ = 12 VI * = Vrms I *rms = Vrms I rms ∠θ where
* Vrms = Vrms ∠φ2 ,
S = Vrms I rms = ( I rms ∠φ1 Z) I rms ∠ − φ1 = I rms
2
Z
* * I rms = I rms ∠φ1 ,
 Vrms   Vrms ∠φ2  Vrms
2
S = Vrms I *rms = Vrms   = Vrms ∠φ2   = * θ = φ 2 − φ1
 Z   Z  Z
Apparent power S = S = Vrms I rms = P 2 + Q 2
Real power P = Re{S} = S cos θ
- average power delivered to a load, unit: watts (W)
Reactive power Q = Im{S} = S sin θ
- measure of energy exchange between the source and reactive part of the load
- unit: volt-ampere reactive (VAR)
Q = 0: resistive loads (unity power factor)
Q < 0: capacitive loads (leading power factor)
Q > 0: inductive loads (lagging power factor)
 Topics
 AC Power Definitions
 Effective or RMS Value
 Power Factor Correction
 Voltage Regulation
 Power Factor Correction
 Still remember reactive power Q is a measure of energy.
exchange between source and reactance X.
 No real power absorbed and hence no real work done.
 However, transmission losses have been introduced.
 Generally desired to minimize or nullify reactive power.

How?

Power factor correction

 Process whereby load power factor has been improved
(increased) without altering its voltage and current.
 Illustration

Before
correction

After
correction

 Practical loads are mostly  Add capacitor in parallel (V unchanged).

inductive.  IL remains unchanged but now IC will
 Therefore, IL lags V. flow.
 Power = P + jQ1, Q1 > 0.  Power = P + jQ1 − jQC.
 Power factor < 1.  Obviously, power factor ≈ 1 if Q1 ≈ QC.

Power factor of new combined load has been improved!

 Pictorially

IC leads V by 90º for capacitor

Old
New
Note I = IL + IC

Other observations after correction

 New source current I is smaller  smaller transmission losses.
 Power companies usually provide incentives for improving power factor.
 Cost of additional capacitor may hence not be impactful.
 Real power P remains unchanged  no deterioration of capacity.
 Sizing of Correction Capacitor
Note
 Real power P remains unchanged.
 Subscripts 1 and 2 represent old and
new conditions, respectively.
 Amount of QC needed is …

Old
 Since

New
 Example A.1
Given
 120-Vrms, 60-Hz source.
 4-kW, 0.8-lagging-power-factor load.
 Find C needed to get new power factor
of 0.95.

Old
New
4 kW
 Topics
 AC Power Definitions
 Effective or RMS Value
 Power Factor Correction
 Voltage Regulation
 Voltage Regulation
 Another usage of capacitors is for voltage regulation.
 Voltage regulation means improving voltage profiles
within power systems.
 Better illustrated with simplified power system below.

Distribution line
(Usually inductive)

Generator Load
 Voltage Regulation
1
I I= Vs
R + jωL
+ Vline - R
Vr = Vs = RI
R + jωL
jωL
Vline = Vs = jωLI
R + jωL
 Vr and I are in phase, while Vline is 90° ahead of I anticlockwise.

Vs = Vr + Vline Vline

I Vr
 Vr obviously shorter than Vs, and will become even shorter as R
reduces to draw more current or power ( ).
 Voltage Regulation
I What will happen if consumer
adds capacitor C?
+ Vline -
R // (1 jωC )
Vr,new = Vs
R // (1 jωC ) + jωL
R
=
R (1 − ω LC ) + jωL
2
Vs

R
Vr,old = Vs
R + jωL
Vr,new > Vr,old
 In other words, Vr does not drop as much with C (and its
accompanied Qc) added for voltage regulation.
 More interesting observations can be viewed by plotting
⁄ with respect to C (see next page).
 Voltage Regulation
⁄ with respect to C

Plotted with ω = 2π × 60 = 377

rad/s, R = 10 Ω, and L = 10 mH

Observation
With properly sized C, can
be made even larger than
 Voltage Regulation

Capacitors (sometimes inductors

too), switched in increments, are
thus commonly used by utilities
for controlling voltage profiles

Static semiconductor
switches studied later

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