Issue 5, 2016, Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture

Journal of Civil Engineering
and Architecture
Volume 10, Number 5, May 2016 (Serial Number 102)
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Journal of Civil Engineering
and Architecture
Volume 10, Number 5, May 2016 (Serial Number 102)
Contents
Environmental Engineering
513 A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Quality at the Rosetta Branch of the Nile River, Egypt
Mohamed Mostafa and Robert W. Peters
530 Landfill Siting Using GIS and AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process): A Case Study Al-Qasim
Qadhaa, Babylon, Iraq
Ali Jalil Chabuk, Nadhir Al-Ansari, Hussain Musa Hussain, Sven Knutsson and Roland Pusch
544 Understanding Environmental Worldview of Famagusta Residents and Its Determinants through
Survey Research
Buket Asilsoy and Derya Oktay
Construction Engineering
553 A GIS Model for Analyzing Airspace Obstructions and Safety near Airports
Sze-Wei Chang
563 Stability Analysis of Tubular Steel Shores

Fábio André Frutuoso Lopes, Fernando Artur Nogueira Silva, Romilde Almeida de Oliveira and
Romildo Alves Berenguer
568 Durability of Seawater Mixed Concrete with Different Replacement Ratio of BFS (Blast Furnace
Slag) and FA (Fly Ash)
Nobuaki Otsuki, Aung Kyaw Min, Tomohiro Nagata and Cheng Yi
581 Dynamic Analysis of Historical Brick Masonry House

Hari Ram Parajuli
Urban Design
587 Car Ownership and the Impact of Built Environment, Demographics and Transport Systems
Rolf Moeckel and Di Yang
596 Urban Participatory Design through Technology: Birloki System, a Network of Interactive
Interfaces
Juan Sádaba and Sara Lenzi
Tourism and Sustainable Development
607 Mass Tourism and Air Transport, an Inevitable Relationship: The Case of Canary Islands
Victor S. Pescador
615 Spatial Quality of Social Housing for Seniors: Village of the Elderly in São Paulo (Brazil)
Rosio Fernandez Baca Salcedo, Renata Cardoso Magagnin and Talita Cristina Pereira
Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture 10 (2016) 513-529
doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.001
D DAVID PUBLISHING
A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Quality at the

Rosetta Branch of the Nile River, Egypt
Mohamed Mostafa and Robert W. Peters

Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294,
USA
Abstract: The aim of the present study is to assess the water quality along the Rosetta branch of the Nile River, Egypt. The study
area extends from upstream of the El-Rahawy drain to the end of the branch. The correlation matrix was performed to help identify
the nature of correlations between the different parameters. The WQI (water quality index) was calculated seasonally at different
points along the Rosetta branch to provide a simple indicator of water quality at these points. The results of WQI calculations showed
that the fecal coliform is the main cause of poor water quality along the Rosetta branch. A statistical analysis was also performed
using a two-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) to identify the significant sources of water pollution and to determine the impact of
the parameters on a mass loading. A significant difference was observed between the impacts of the pollution sources on the water
quality. Also, a significant difference was observed between the impacts of each parameter in the mass loading. The results showed
that the El-Rahawy, Tala and Sabal drains are the major sources for water quality degradation along the Rosetta branch and that the
effect of the El-Tahrir and the Zawyet El-Baher drains on the water quality is not significant.
Key words: Physicochemical analysis, analysis of variance, water quality index, correlation matrix, Rosetta branch, Egypt.
1. Introduction Rosetta branch daily receives more than 3 million m3

of agricultural drainage water, in addition to receiving
The longest river in the world, the Nile River
untreated and partially treated industrial and domestic
measures 6,700 km (4,163.2 mi) long and runs from
wastewaters [3], as well as toxic dumping. Five
Lake Victoria in east central Africa to the
agricultural drains empty into the branch: the
Mediterranean Sea in northeastern Egypt. The drainage
El-Rahawy, the Sabal, the El-Tahrer, the Zawyet
area of the Nile basin is 2,900,000 km2
El-Bahr, and the Tala [5]. At the El-Rahawy drain,
(1,119,696.2 mi2). The Nile River passes through the
considered as the main source of pollution along the
countries of Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya,
Rosetta branch [6], the water quality is greatly
Tanzania, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda,
affected by two primary pollution sources: (1) small
and Burundi [1]. As an arid country of high
drains located along its path that discharge agriculture
temperatures and low rainfall, Egypt depends on the
and domestic wastewater without prior treatment; and
Nile River for more than 95% of its fresh water
(2) the El-Mansoria Canal, which receives secondary
needs [2]. The river travels for 950 km through Egypt,
treated wastewater from the Zenen WWTP
starting from Aswan in the south and ending at Cairo in
(Wastewater Treatment Plant) and primary treated
the north, where it separates into two branches, Rosetta
wastewater from the Abu-Rawash WWTP [7]. Several
and Damietta branches, which form the Nile Delta [3].
studies have been conducted to address water quality
The average flow rate of this branch is about
at the Rosetta branch. Abdel-Satar and Elewa [8]
21,500,000 m3/day (5,679,698,000 gal/day) [4]. The
observed low levels of DO (dissolved oxygen) at the
discharge points of the El-Rahawy drain. Abdo [9]
Corresponding author: Mohamed Mostafa, Ph.D., research concluded that the El-Rahawy and the Sabal drains
field: environmental engineering.
comprise the major sources of pollutants along the Table 1 Location of the study stations along the Rosetta
branch.
Rosetta branch due to the large amount of domestic,
Station
industrial, and agricultural wastes discharged from Description
code
these drains. Other studies of water quality at the S₁ Upstream of the El-Rahawy drain
Rosetta branch included that of Elewa et al. [10], who S₂ At discharge point of the El-Rahawy drain
S₃ Downstream of the El-Rahawy drain
determined that the El-Rahawy drain constitutes the
S₄ Upstream of the Sabal drain
major source of pollution along the Rosetta branch S₅ At discharge point of the Sabal drain
because the drain discharges large amounts of S₆ Downstream of the Sabal drain
agricultural and domestic wastewaters. Also, El S₇ Upstream of the El-Tahrir drain
S₈ At discharge point of the El-Tahrir drain
Bouraie et al. [7] found high concentrations of
S₉ Downstream of the El-Tahrir drain
inorganic and organic pollutants at the discharge point S₁₀ Upstream of the Zawyet El-Baher drain
of the El-Rahawy drain, with a resultant adverse effect S₁₁ At discharge point of the Zawyet El-Baher drain
on water quality at the Rosetta branch. S₁₂ Downstream of the Zawyet El-Baher drain
S₁₃ Upstream of the Tala drain
2. Materials and Methods S₁₄ At discharge point of the Tala drain
S₁₅ Downstream of the Tala drain
The survey, performed in the Rosetta branch, S₁₆ Downstream of the El-Kwa Water Treatment Plant
involved collecting water samples in winter, spring, S₁₇ At end of the Rosetta branch
summer, and autumn 2013. Fig. 1 shows the sampling
Water samples were collected from a depth of
points along the study area. 17 stations were chosen
approximately 0.3 m (1 foot) below the surface with
along the Rosetta branch in order to cover the main
the use of 2-liter plastic containers. After their
polluted areas along the branch: 10 upstream and
placement in an ice chest and were then transported to
downstream from the point sources; 5 at the discharge
the laboratory, water samples were analyzed for TDS
point of the point source; 1 at the middle distance
(total dissolved solids), TSS (total suspended solids),
between the last pollution source and the end of the
BOD (biochemical oxygen demand), COD (chemical
branch; and the last station located at the end of the
oxygen demand), TOC (total organic carbon), DO, Cl−
branch, as shown in Table 1. The point sources
(chlorides), NO3− (nitrates), PO43− (total phosphate),
located along the study area include the El-Rahawy
turbidity, pH and temperature. The samples were
drain, the Sabal drain, the El-Tahrir drain, the Zawyet
analyzed according to the standard methods for
El-Baher drain, and the Tala drain.
wastewater analysis [11]. Results of the analysis were
then compared with standards specified in Egyptian
Law 48/1982 and EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency) standards [12, 13]. The WTW multi 340i
meter (JERMANY/WTW 340i/05281018) enabled
measurement of DO, pH and temperature values in the
field. The meter automatically adjusts DO and
temperature. Four buffer solutions with pH values of
4.0, 7.0 and 10.0 were used for the multi meter
calibration. The TDS/EC meter (HM
Digital/COM-80/891144000229) was used to measure
Fig. 1 Map of the sampling stations along the Rosetta
branch. the TDS concentration in the field. For quality control
A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Quality at the Rosetta Branch of the Nile River, Egypt 515
purposes, a solution with known concentration A correlation matrix, performed with the use of
allowed assessment of the accuracy of measurements. Microsoft Office Excel 2010, yielded the nature of
Analysis of the other parameters took place in HBRC correlations among the different parameters. A two-way
(Egyptian Housing Building Research Center) ANOVA (analysis of variance) was used to identify the
laboratory, located in Cairo City. Turbidity was impact of each point source on the water quality of the
measured by using the turbidity meter (COLE Nile Delta, the major source of water pollution along the
PALMER- USA/08391.45/12106698). For quality study area, the impact of each parameter on a mass
control purposes, testing of a solution with a known loading, and the influence of the parameters on each
concentration ensured accuracy of the measurements. other. The parameters included pH, COD, BOD, TOC,
The TOC concentration was measured by using a TSS, TDS, chlorides, and DO. 10 groups were
TOC analyzer (Shimadzu/4200) [11]; An automatic established: Two groups followed the mass loading
calibration conducted by using dilution water as a theory (flow × concentration), while the other groups
standard solution ascertained the accuracy of the data. followed the loading factor concept (flow × solids
The 5-day BOD test 5210B was used in the concentration × organics concentration), as shown in
determination of the BOD concentration in wastewater Table 2. The first two groups comprise DO and pH
samples [11]. For quality control purposes, the (−log[H+]) multiplied by the flow rate. The other groups
research protocol included the following procedures: contain solids multiplied by organics and flow rate,
(1) In seed control samples tested after 5 days of where the solids are bound to organics in water.
incubation, a minimum residual DO of 1.0 mg/L and a The WQI (water quality index) was calculated
minimum DO depletion of 2.0 mg/L were required; (2) seasonally at different points along the study area to
the glucose-glutamic acid solution and the dilution provide a simple indicator of water quality at these
water were tested and compared with the acceptable points. WQI is an excellent and reliable tool used to
limits. Use of the closed reflux, titrimetric method measure and monitor changes in water quality. Several
5220C enabled determination of the COD water quality parameters are used to calculate the
concentration in the samples [11]. For quality control WQI, including TS (total solids), DO, BOD, FC, pH,
purposes, testing of a solution with known turbidity, NO3−, PO43− and temperature. The index
concentration ensured accuracy of the measurements. was determined with the use of the NSF (National
Test method 2540D was used for the determination of Sanitation Foundation) method [14]. The
TSS [11]. For quality control purposes, analysis of mathematical expression for NSF WQI is given by:
20% of the total number of samples took place. Fecal NSF WQI = ΣWXQX = WpH × QpH +
coliform membrane filter technique 9222D was used WPhosphate × QPhosphate + WNitrate × QNitrate +
to determine the FC (fecal coliform) density in the WDO sat% × QDO sat% + WTS × QTS + WFC × QFC +
samples [11]. The NO3−, PO43− and Cl− were WBOD × QBOD + WTurbidity × QTurbidity +
measured by applying ion chromatography method WTemp × QTemp. (1)
4110B [11]. For quality control purposes, the sample where, WX is weight factors of the water quality
loop and the needle were flushed with 250.0 mL of parameters, QX is Q-value of the water quality
deionized water; The temperature of the column was parameters, and X = water quality parameters. The
set at 30 °C. After running occurred, the time and the weight factors for DO, FC, pH, BOD, temperature,
resolution of the peaks were checked. The time and PO43−, NO3−, turbidity, and TS are 0.17, 0.16, 0.11,
the resolution of the peaks must approximate those of 0.11, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.08 and 0.07, respectively [14].
the chromatogram of the column. After calculation of WQI values took place, the values
Table 2 ANOVA terms (interaction between organic and solid factors).

Pollution source/parameter COD, TSS COD, TDS BOD, TSS BOD, TDS DO
PS1 Qn₁ × CCOD₁ × CTSS₁ Qn₁ × CCOD₁ × CTDS₁ Qn₁ × CBOD₁ × CTSS₁ Qn₁ × CBOD₁ × CTDS₁ Qn₁ × CDO₁
PS2 Qn₂ × CCOD₂ × CTSS₂ Qn₂ × CCOD₂ × CTDS₂ Qn₂ × CBOD₂ × CTSS₂ Qn₂ × CBOD₂ × CTDS₂ Qn₂ × CDO₂
PS3 Qn₃ × CCOD₃ × CTSS₃ Qn₃ × CCOD₃ × CTDS₃ Qn₃ × CBOD₃ × CTSS₃ Qn₃ × CBOD₃ × CTDS₃ Qn₃ × CDO₃
PS4 Qn₄ × CCOD₄ × CTSS₄ Qn₄ × CCOD₄ × CTDS₄ Qn₄ × CBOD₄ × CTSS₄ Qn₄ × CBOD₄ × CTDS₄ Qn₄ × CDO₄
PS5 Qn₅ × CCOD₅ × CTSS₅ Qn₅ × CCOD₅ × CTDS₅ Qn₅ × CBOD₅ × CTSS₅ Qn₅ × CBOD₅ × CTDS₅ Qn₅ × CDO₅
Pollution source/parameter TOC, TSS TOC, TDS Cl−, TSS Cl−, TDS pH
PS1 Qn₁ × CTOC₁ × CTSS₁ Qn₁ × CTOC₁ × CTDS₁ Qn₁ × CCl-₁ × CTSS₁ Qn₁ × CCl-₁ × CTDS₁ Qn₁ × pH1
PS2 Qn₂ × CTOC₂ × CTSS₂ Qn₂ × CTOC₂ × CTDS₂ Qn₂ × CCl-₂ × CTSS₂ Qn₂ × CCl-₂ × CTDS₂ Qn₂ × pH2
PS3 Qn₃ × CTOC₃ × CTSS₃ Qn₃ × CTOC₃ × CTDS₃ Qn₃ × CCl-₃ × CTSS₃ Qn₃ × CCl-₃ × CTDS₃ Qn₃ × pH3
PS4 Qn₄ × CTOC₄ × CTSS₄ Qn₄ × CTOC₄ × CTDS₄ Qn₄ × CCl-₄ × CTSS₄ Qn₄ × CCl-₄ × CTDS₄ Qn₄ × pH4
PS5 Qn₅ × CTOC₅ × CTSS₅ Qn₅ × CTOC₅ × CTDS₅ Qn₅ × CCl-₅ × CTSS₅ Qn₅ × CCl-₅ × CTDS₅ Qn₅ × pH5
Notation: Q, flow rate from pollution source; PS, pollution source; PS1, El-Rahawy drain; PS2, Sabal drain; PS3, El-Tahrir drain;
PS4, Zawyet El-Baher drain; PS5, Tala drain.
were then classified into five categories, as follows: (H2CO3) content in the water and, as a result, to
 0~24, poor water; increased water acidity. The highest pH value (8.3)
 25~49, bad water; was recorded at Station S1 (upstream of the El-Rahawy
 50~69, medium water; drain) during the summer season because, when water
 70~89, good water; alkalinity increases in hot weather because the aquatic
 90~100, excellent water [14]. plants consume more carbon dioxide. The lowest
3. Results and Discussion value (7.22) was found at Station S2 (at discharge
point of the El-Rahawy drain) during the winter
3.1. Physicochemical Analysis season because water acidity increases in cold weather
Results of physicochemical analysis of water as a function of increased carbonic acid content that
samples collected along the Rosetta branch during the develops in the water when phytoplankton consume
four seasons are presented in the Appendix in Tables less carbon dioxide. The data analysis showed that the
A1 and A2. pH level along the study area did not adversely
3.1.1 The pH Value affected by climate change or receiving discharge
The pH value represents the master control from point sources located along the branch.
parameter for chemical and biological reactions in a 3.1.2 Turbidity
water body. The optimum pH for most aquatic species Turbidity is a water quality indicator measures
ranges from 6.5 to 9 [15]. Tables A1 and A2 show that water transparency. In open water, turbidity results
pH values for all water samples collected along the primarily from suspended particles such as silt, clay,
Rosetta branch were alkaline and within the fine sand, plankton, microbes, algae, and other
permissible limits. In the hot season, the growth of substances. These materials usually range in size from
aquatic plants in the Nile River increases the pH value 0.004 mm (clay) to 1.0 mm (sand) [16]. Turbidity
of water because plants consume carbon dioxide in the values along the Rosetta branch ranged from 4.5 to
photosynthesis process, which leads to increased 54 NTU (nephelometric turbidity unit) during all
alkalinity of the water. On the other hand, during the seasons which exceeded the limits specified in Law
cold season, the phytoplankton consumes less carbon 48/1982 and EPA standards (20 NTU) [12, 13]. The
dioxide, which leads to increased carbonic acid highest values for this parameter were recorded at
Stations S2, S5 (at discharge point of the Sabal drain) S14 is attributed to the discharge of domestic,
and S14 (at discharge point of the Tala drain), as shown agricultural and industrial effluents from El-Rahawy
in Tables A1 and A2. The increase in turbidity and Sabal drains. On the other hand, the high value of
concentration at these stations is attributed to the TDS at Station S17 is attributed to intrusion of
discharge of domestic, agricultural, and industrial seawater, which is characterized by high TDS
effluents from El-Rahawy, Sabal and Tala drains, concentration. Rise in water temperatures was also
which increased the concentration of suspended solids found at Stations S2 and S14 as a result of high TDS
at the Rosetta branch. Because suspended particles concentration. Many organisms can not survive in
absorb more heat energy, rise in water temperatures high temperatures [20].
was also found at these stations as a result of high 3.1.4 Fecal Coliform
turbidity. The production of DO can also decrease FC, a harmful microbial contaminant, exists in
because the rate of photosynthesis lessens as a result of surface waters and may cause diseases such as
the turbidity which reduces the amount of sunlight hepatitis A, gastroenteritis, dysentery, cholera and
penetrating the water. High turbidity at Stations S2, S5 typhoid fever [21]. The drinking water standard
and S14 can affect surface fish populations by shifting requires that the FC bacteria be totally absent from
fish populations to species that feed on the river bottom. potable water [22]. FC bacteria can be found in
High turbidity can also increase the cost of surface water surface water as a result of discharge of domestic
treatment for the drinking water supply [17]. sewage and animal wastes. Along the Rosetta branch,
3.1.3 Total Dissolved Solids FC values ranged from 450 to 2.496 × 106 CFU
TDS can be defined as all organic and inorganic (colony forming units)/100 mL during all seasons.
The highest FC values were recorded at Station S2
dissolved substances that can pass through a filter
during all seasons due to the discharge of domestic
paper (2 µm) when a sample of water is filtered. The
effluent from the El-Rahawy drain (Tables A1 and
inorganic substances usually include potassium,
A2). The FC values for all water samples collected
calcium, sodium, magnesium, chlorides, sulfates and
along the Rosetta branch exceeded the permissible
bicarbonates. The organic ions include hydrocarbons,
limits specified by Egyptian Law 48/1982 and EPA
plant debris and herbicides, in addition, soil organic
standards (≤ 1,000 CFU/100 mL) [12, 13], except at
materials such as fulvic and humic acids help to
Stations S7 (upstream of the El-Tahrir drain), S10
comprise TDS [18, 19]. Tables A1 and A2 show that (upstream of the Zawyet El-Baher drain), S13
the TDS concentrations for all water samples collected (upstream of the Tala drain) and S17, due to the low
along the Rosetta branch are greater during summer discharge of domestic wastewater at these points.
and winter than during spring and autumn. The 3.1.5 Dissolved Oxygen
increasing rate of water evaporation in summer leads DO measures the amount of oxygen dissolved in a
to increased TDS concentrations in the water; During body of water, and adequate DO concentration proves
the “winter closing” period, low water level results in necessary for aquatic life and good water quality.
the elevation of TDS concentrations. The TDS Oxygen is absorbed in water through photosynthesis,
concentrations along the Rosetta branch fall within the surface water agitation and diffusion from the
permissible limits specified by Egyptian Law 48/1982 surrounding air [23]. In the Rosetta branch, the
and EPA standards (≤ 500 mg/L) [12, 13], except at concentration of DO ranged from 2.5 to 7.21 mg/L.
Stations S2, S14 and S17 (at end of the Rosetta branch). More than 91% of the studied stations along the
The increase in TDS concentration at Stations S2 and Rosetta branch did not comply with permissible DO
limits specified by Egyptian Law 48/1982 and EPA wastewater discharged directly from El-Rahawy,
standards (≥ 5 mg/L) [12, 13]; These excessive levels Sabal and Tala drains, all of which contain high loads
resulted from discharge of untreated domestic, of organic matter which is undesirable for aquatic life.
agricultural and industrial wastewater to the branch. High COD and BOD concentrations in surface water
The lowest DO concentrations were recorded at can cause poor aeration conditions [27]. Tables A1
Station S2, particularly in summer season, where and A2 also show that BOD and COD concentrations
warm water holds more DO than cold water, as shown are greater during winter and summer than during
in Tables A1 and A2. The decline in DO concentration autumn and spring for all water samples collected
at this point also occurs because of high organic and along the Rosetta branch; The BOD and COD
inorganic matters, as well as because of the nutrient concentrations increase in the winter as a result of the
load discharged directly from El-Rahawy drain. The low water level during the winter period and increase
main problem is that most of the aquatic life can not in the summer because of the increased rate of water
survive at concentrations below 3 mg/L of DO [24]. In evaporation and the reduced amount of oxygen
contrast, the highest DO concentrations were recorded dissolved in water.
at the end of the Rosetta branch as a result of strong 3.1.7 Temperature
mixing between the Rosetta branch and the Temperature governs many important parameters in
Mediterranean Sea and as a result of the impact of the rivers, including biological activity and growth: the
prevailing winds from the Mediterranean Sea. Tables solubility of oxygen in water; and the kinds of
A1 and A2 also show the DO concentrations increase organisms, aquatic life and plants that can live in
during spring than during the other seasons; In spring, rivers [28]. The change in water temperature occurs as
more sunlight penetrates the water and phytoplankton a result of weather conditions, discharges into the
reproduce rapidly. river from pollution sources and groundwater inflows.
3.1.6 Biological Oxygen Demand and Chemical Along the Rosetta branch, the water temperature
Oxygen Demand values ranged from 16.4 to 28.4 °C during all seasons,
BOD quantifies the amount of oxygen consumed by as shown in Tables A1 and A2. The maximum water
microorganisms over a 5-day period at a constant temperatures, recorded in summer, occurred because
temperature of 20 °C, and COD represents the amount of the warm air temperatures and the direct exposure
of oxygen consumed during the chemical to the sunlight. The highest temperature was recorded
decomposition of organic materials under the effect of at Station S2, which occurred because of the elevated
strong oxidizing chemicals. Consumption of large TSS concentration discharges from the El-Rahawy
amounts of oxygen indicates the presence of large drain—the suspended solids absorb heat energy,
amounts of pollutants in water [25, 26]. The water resulting in a rise in water temperature. The main
quality standard specified in Egyptian Law 48/1982 problem is that organisms can not survive in high
and EPA standards for BOD and COD is 6 and water temperatures [20].
10 mg/L, respectively [12, 13]. The BOD and COD 3.1.8 Total Suspended Solids
values along the Rosetta branch ranged from 2.4 to TSS can be defined as all particles suspended in
41 mg/L and from 8 to 63 mg/L, respectively, which water that do not pass through a filter paper (2 µm)
clearly exceeded the permissible limits. Tables A1 and when a sample of water is filtered. Suspended solids
A2 show that the highest BOD and COD values were usually include decaying plant matter, silt, clays,
recorded at Stations S2, S5 and S14, because of the industrial wastes, animal matter and domestic
huge amount of domestic, agricultural, and industrial wastes [26]. Tables A1 and A2 show that, for all water
samples collected along the Rosetta branch during all attributed to the discharge of pollutants from
seasons, TSS concentrations exceeded the permissible El-Rahawy and Tala drains at these stations. On the
limits specified by Egyptian Law 48/1982 and EPA other side, the high value of Cl− at Station S17 is
standards (≤ 20 mg/L) [12, 13]. Because Stations S2, attributed to intrusion of seawater, characterized by
S5 and S14 receive effluents from the El-Rahawy, high Cl− concentration. High Cl− concentration in the
Sabal and Tala drains, these sites yielded the highest river can make the water unsuitable for drinking and
TSS values. The presence of high levels of TSS in can kill aquatic animals and plants [32].
river can adversely affect the aquatic life and water 3.1.11 Phosphates
quality because suspended particles absorb heat from In surface waters, phosphorus usually occurs in the
sunlight, causing an increase in water temperature and form of PO43−. Potential sources of phosphate
a decrease in oxygen production [20]. contamination include fertilizers, soil erosion,
3.1.9 Total Organic Carbon domestic sewage, industrial wastes and animal
TOC, a measurement of the amount of organic wastes [33]. Tables A1 and A2 show that PO43− values
compounds in water, is often used for evaluation of along the Rosetta branch ranged from < 0.1 to
water quality [29]. Organic compounds in water are 6.1 mg/L during all seasons. The highest values were
either synthetic or naturally occurring. The synthetic recorded at the discharge point of the El-Rahawy drain
organic compounds include solvents, detergents, oils, (Station S2) (Tables A1 and A2), due to receiving flow
herbicides, fertilizers and pesticides, whereas the from agricultural drainage water. The presence of a
natural organic compounds include tannin, humic and high concentration of phosphorus and nitrogen in
fulvic acids [30]. TOC values along the Rosetta surface water produces large quantities of algae and
branch ranged from 0.29 to 4 mg/L during all seasons, aquatic plants. In consequence, the level of DO
as shown in Tables A1 and A2. The highest values decreases as the algae decay. The PO43− is normally
were recorded at Stations S2 and S14, where these absorbed by the algae found in water or removed
drains receive a huge amount of agricultural, domestic through the direct adsorption onto the river bed
and industrial wastewater that contains a high load of sediments. The results showed PO43− concentrations
organic matter. High TOC concentration in surface greater during winter; In cold water, the removal of
water can result in depletion of DO which adversely PO43− decreases because the algae grow slower in the
affects the aquatic life [20]. winter. The main concern is that most of the aquatic
3.1.10 Chlorides life can not survive under low oxygen conditions [24].
Cl−, or inorganic anions in freshwater and saltwater, 3.1.12 Nitrate
are derived from the dissociation of salts such as NO3−, an inorganic compound, consists of one
calcium chloride or sodium chloride [31]. Potential hydrogen ion attached to three oxygen ions. NO3−
sources of chloride include groundwater, road salts, does not harm human health unless converted to
wastewater effluent, fertilizers and industrial nitrite (NO2−) [34]. Potential sources of NO3−
discharge. Tables A1 and A2 show that the chloride contamination include septic tanks, fertilizers, plant
values along the Rosetta branch ranged from 60 to debris, domestic sewage and animal wastes [35]. NO3−
7,150 mg/L during all seasons. The highest values values along the Rosetta branch ranged from 2.95 to
were recorded at Stations S2 (at discharge point of the 115 mg/L during all seasons, as shown in Tables A1
El-Rahawy drain), S14 (at discharge point of the Tala and A2. The highest values were recorded at the
drain) and S17 (at end of the Rosetta branch). The discharge points of the El-Rahawy and Tala drains,
increase in Cl− concentration at Stations S2 and S14 is which receive large amounts of untreated and partially
treated industrial and domestic wastewaters, in

70
addition to agricultural drainage water. For all water 60
samples collected along the Rosetta branch, results 50
showed NO3− concentrations greater during winter and 40
WQI
30
spring than during summer and autumn; In cold water, 20
the nitrification rate (converting ammonium to nitrate) 10
may drop due to decreased microbial and bacterial 0

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17
Station
activity.
Fig. 2 Water quality index for collected water samples in
3.2 Correlation Matrix spring season.
The nature of correlations among the different 70
parameters is provided in Tables A3-A6 in the 60

50
Appendix. Results revealed negative correlations
WQI
40
between pH values and all studied parameters for all 30

20
seasons, except DO and temperature. Turbidity, BOD, 10
COD, TDS, TSS, TOC, FC, Cl−, PO43− and NO3− 0
values showed positive correlations with all selected Station

parameters for all seasons, except DO, pH and
summer season.
temperature. Analytical results also showed a strong
positive correlation (r ≈ 0.9999) between TDS and Cl−
70
during all seasons. Negative correlations were found 60
50
between DO values and all studied parameters for all 40
WQI
seasons, except pH and temperature; This finding 30

20
indicates the important role of DO in improving water 10
quality and illustrated the extent of the link between 0

Station
DO depletion and the bacterial water deterioration.
Strong positive correlations were found between COD
autumn season.
and BOD during all seasons. The analyses results
showed that fecal coliform, found in the Rosetta
60
branch as a result of discharge of domestic sewage, 50
constitutes the main cause of the poor water quality 40

WQI
30
along the branch. The increase in fecal coliform
20
concentration leads to an equivalent increase in TDS, 10
TSS, COD, BOD and TOC concentrations and to a 0

decrease in DO and pH levels. Station

3.3 Water Quality Index winter season.
The WQI, calculated seasonally at different points during all the seasons. The worst water quality
along the study area, provided a simple indicator of conditions were recorded during the winter and
water quality at these points. Figs. 2-5 show the WQI summer seasons. The concentration of pollutants
values at different stations along the Rosetta branch increases in the winter due to decreased water flow
during the “winter closing” period; In summer, the Station S17 (the end of the Rosetta branch), where the
elevated rise in water temperature leads to increased FC concentration decreased as a result of the mixing
rates of water evaporation and, thus, to an increase in between the Rosetta branch and the Mediterranean Sea.
the concentration of pollutants. Results of the WQI
3.4 Analysis of Variance
indicate that the El-Rahawy and the Tala drains
comprise the main sources of water pollution along A two-way ANOVA was used to determine the
the Rosetta branch because of the large amount of difference in the water samples collected from five
agricultural, domestic and industrial wastewater pollution sources and was based on eight parameters:
discharges to those drains. Although water quality COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TOC, DO, pH and Cl−.
upstream of the El-Rahawy drain was classified as Table 3 shows the flows from different pollution
medium during all seasons, water quality downstream sources along the Rosetta branch at different seasons,
of the El-Rahawy drain was classified as bad because and Table 4 provides results for the mass loading for
of discharge received from the drain. Also, upstream each parameter at different point sources. The null
of the Tala drain, the water quality was determined to hypothesis (H0) states that there are no differences
be medium during autumn, summer and spring, and to between the means of the samples, while the alternate
be bad downstream from the Tala drain. The results of hypothesis (H1) states that there are differences
the WQI also showed that FC constitutes the main between the means of the samples. The results of the
cause of the poor water quality along the Rosetta two-way ANOVA showed a significant difference in
branch. The increase in FC concentration leads to an the impacts of each pollution source in the mass
equivalent increase in turbidity levels and to a decrease loading: As Table 4 indicates, the pollution source
in DO concentration. Higher turbidity decreases the p-value (1.25 × 10−54) was found to be significantly
rate of photosynthesis because the suspended particles less than 0.05 (5.0% chance that the null hypothesis
absorb more heat and reduce the amount of sunlight was true). In this case, the null hypothesis was
penetrating the water; In turn, the decreased rejected in favor of an alternative hypothesis. A
photosynthesis leads to a decrease in DO production. significant difference was observed between the
An improvement in water quality was observed at impacts of each parameter on the mass loading: The
Table 3 Flow from different pollution sources along the Rosetta branch for different seasons.
Pollution source Flow (m3/day)
Season Spring 2013 Autumn 2013 Winter 2013 Summer 2013
El-Rahawy drain 1,900,000 2,000,000 1,950,000 1,850,000
Sabal drain 450,757 400,000 410,000 430,000
El-Tahrir drain 600,045 545,000 550,000 580,000
Zawyet El-Bahr drain 90,900 85,000 89,000 90,000
Tala drain 428,000 460,000 445,000 467,000
Table 4 Results of two-way ANOVA with replication at the Rosetta branch.

Source of SS (sum of
df MS (mean square) F-statistics p-value F-critical Hypothesis
variation squares)
Pollution source 3.64E + 23 4 9.09E + 22 169.83 1.25E − 54 2.43 Alternate hypothesis (H1)
Parameter 3.11E + 23 9 3.46E + 22 64.59 3.95E − 47 1.94 Alternate hypothesis (H1)
Interaction 5.10E + 23 36 1.42E + 22 26.47 1.26E − 48 1.49 Alternate hypothesis (H1)
Within 8.03E + 22 150 5.35E + 20
Total 1.27E + 24 199
parameter p-value (3.95 × 10−47) was found to be the water, and phytoplankton reproduces rapidly. The
significantly less than 0.05, as shown in Table 4. In highest pollution levels were recorded at the discharge
this case, the null hypothesis was rejected in favor of points of the El-Rahawy, Sabal and Tala drains, which
an alternative hypothesis. Also a significant difference receive large amounts of agricultural, domestic and
between pollution sources and their relationship to the industrial wastes.
parameters were found: The F-value (26.47) exceeded The calculated WQI showed medium water quality
the F-critical (1.49), and the interaction p-value upstream of the El-Rahawy and Tala drains and bad
(1.26 × 10−48) was significantly lower than 0.05. In water quality downstream of those drains because of
this case, the null hypothesis was also rejected in high levels of pollutants discharged from the two
favor of an alternative hypothesis. The ranking of the drains. The results of WQI also showed that FC is the
point sources in terms of participation in the mass main cause of poor water quality along the Rosetta
loading for all the studied groups was as follows: the branch, which receives large amounts of untreated and
El-Rahawy drain, the Tala drain, the Sabal drain, the partially treated domestic wastewater from the
El-Tahrir drain and the Zawyet El-Baher drain El-Rahawy, the Sabal and the Tala drains. Better
(Table A7). For point sources, parameters, and the water quality was observed at the end of the
interaction between them, the null hypothesis was Rosetta branch, where the mixing that occurs between
rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis, and the Rosetta branch and the Mediterranean Sea results
then there is evidence that the differences in the means in increased DO levels and decreased FC
are statistically significant (Table 4), which means that concentrations.
each point source has a different effect in the Rosetta The results of ANOVA testing showed a significant
branch water quality. The results revealed that the difference between the impacts of each point source
El-Rahawy and Tala drains are the major sources of on the mass loading. The impact of each parameter in
water pollution along the Rosetta branch, where these the mass loading was found to be significantly
drains receive wastewater from agricultural, domestic different. The results of ANOVA testing also showed
and industrial sources located along its path. a significant difference in the relationship of each
parameter to the point sources. The ranking of the
4. Conclusions
drains in terms of their impact on the mass loading at
The results of the physicochemical analysis showed the Rosetta branch is as follows: the El-Rahawy, the
that the worst water quality conditions were recorded Tala, the Sabal, the El-Tahrir and the Zawyet
during winter and summer seasons because the water El-Baher.
flow decreases during the “winter closing” period, It was concluded that El-Rahawy, Tala and Sabal
leading to an increase in pollution levels, and because drains contribute most to water quality degradation
the water temperature rises during summer, it leads to along the Rosetta branch due to a large amount of
an increased rate of water evaporation and, thus, to an domestic, agricultural and industrial wastewater
increase in pollution levels. The lowest DO discharges to those drains. Because the El-Tahrir drain
concentrations were recorded during the hot summer does not receive domestic or industrial wastes, its
season, at which time the warmer water has less effect on the water quality is not significant. The
capacity to hold DO than cold water. In contrast, DO Zawyet El-Baher drain also has a minor effect
concentrations were lowest during spring than in the on the water quality due to its low flow rates from this
other seasons; in the spring, more sunlight penetrates drain.
Acknowledgments Characteristics of the River Nile at Delta Barrage with

Special Reference to Rosetta Branch.” Global J. Environ.
This research was supported by the GAFP (Graduate Res. 90 (1): 1-6.
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Appendix
Table A1 The average values of physical and chemical analyses for water samples collected along the Rosetta branch at
different seasons (2013).
Sampling locations
Parameter Season S₁ S₃ S₄ S₆ S₇ S₉ S₁₀ S₁₂ S₁₃ S₁₅ S₁₆ S₁₇
Spring 11,653 950,326 119,316 131,142 7,195 6,895 450 7,358 618 61,659 5,165 705
FC Summer 15,569 1,298,045 165,654 259,568 17,587 17,357 735 14,987 986 79,567 7,282 1,001
(CFU/100 mL) Autumn 9,526 854,629 112,659 147,659 8,756 8,700 528 8,865 487 47,659 5,489 634
Winter 17,000 1,010,625 136,978 213,657 14,365 14300 612 12,879 1,100 87,326 6,765 981
Spring 48.2 57.3 46.3 53.2 47.5 54 52.3 53.2 50.87 52.6 43.4 38.7
TSS Summer 46.3 59.19 52.7 67.8 60.5 57.4 49.9 51.3 47.3 46.3 44.2 41.6
(mg/L) Autumn 36.4 39.8 32.8 37.46 36.32 40.74 38.92 37.6 34.03 35.3 30.3 27.3
Winter 54.1 54.24 49.7 64.4 62.45 64.7 61.3 60.95 58.5 55.2 46.65 41.16
Spring 230.2 279.5 243.2 255.5 246.3 250.4 242.3 241.4 230.7 259.3 210.9 11,065.3
TDS Summer 272.3 318.6 292.1 301.62 293.67 295.3 282.8 282.6 274.5 325.4 305.43 12,210.2
(mg/L) Autumn 198.8 265.5 241.5 263.3 236.4 240.6 223.2 232.8 230.4 267.6 194.2 10,390.1
Winter 246.1 342.3 280.6 313.4 285.1 290.1 259.1 273.6 269.1 340.9 286.4 13,400.4
Spring 7.9 7.9 8.2 8.1 8.2 8.23 8.23 8.18 8.2 7.8 8.1 8.2
pH Summer 8.30 7.8 7.8 7.6 7.6 7.91 7.91 7.8 7.805 7.66 7.72 7.9
Autumn 8.22 8.1 8.12 7.90 8.1 8.1 8.15 8.16 8.2 7.9 8.2 8.22
Winter 7.98 7.81 7.81 7.78 7.88 8.1 7.95 7.92 7.98 7.82 8.2 8.05
Spring 11.2 29.9 26.2 27.6 25.7 27.3 24.6 24.5 22.1 30.4 21.7 12.1
COD Summer 18.825 32.6 26.83 28.4 24.3 29.4 27.4 29.3 27.3 36.8 32.4 22.45
(mg/L) Autumn 8.3 20.2 17.85 20.5 15.5 18.3 20.8 19.9 17.6 19.1 15.54 8.3
Winter 12.25 34.1 29.6 29.3 27.4 32.6 27.6 31.3 28.7 38.7 35.3 25.7
Spring 4.2 15.5 11.3 15.67 8.2 11.8 9.1 9.3 8.1 10.4 8.1 4.3
BOD Summer 9.3 20.98 16.586 21.6 14.1 16.4 14.2 14.6 11.7 16.1 12.3 7.1
(mg/L) Autumn 2.68 8.85 6.51 10.4 6.80 7.60 4.50 5.3 2.7 6.7 5.15 2.4
Winter 6.5 18.81 16.5 20.52 15.90 17.3 15.1 15.4 14.1 19.3 16.4 10.8
Spring 0.43 1.49 1.42 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.24 1.39 1.2 1.75 1.45 1.25
TOC Summer 0.8 2.1 1.85 2.01 1.85 1.79 1.5 1.74 1.48 1.95 1.37 1.21
(mg/L) Autumn 0.29 1.25 1.1 1.07 1.04 0.96 0.91 0.93 0.89 1.05 0.9 0.64
Winter 0.70 2.15 1.7 1.84 1.79 1.43 1.24 1.3 1.27 1.6 1.26 1.11
Spring 7.21 5.35 5.2 4.45 4.41 4.83 4.715 4.62 4.1 4.8 4.15 9.3
DO Summer 5.55 4.25 3.92 4.5 4.21 4.5 4.11 4.25 3.57 3.69 3.18 6.5
(mg/L) Autumn 6.01 5.6 5.2 4.9 4.75 4.6 4.42 4.55 4.48 4.35 3.8 6.6
Winter 6.64 4.72 4.69 4.09 4.06 4.45 4.34 4.25 3.8 4.42 4.15 7.6
Spring 6.2 14.5 9.5 26.5 11.8 9.5 7.5 9.5 8.3 25.3 9.5 7.3
Turbidity Summer 8.5 18.3 15.3 34.1 15.5 14.5 11.1 15.6 9.6 28.6 12.2 8.5
(NTU) Autumn 6.1 12.6 7.6 16.9 10.1 9.6 6.6 8.4 5.5 18.2 9.3 4.5
Winter 9.3 23.1 19.5 32.3 15.3 15.7 13.3 16.9 11.4 29.1 15.5 10
Spring 72.3 86.6 77.3 81.3 78.1 80.2 75.93 75.7 74.2 80.8 75.53 6,115.2
−
Cl Summer 80.08 90.1 75.2 88.37 81.6 77.3 76.5 77.17 74.05 95.6 86.3 6,748.3
(mg/L) Autumn 65.2 78.1 77.6 83.3 81.7 77.91 74.44 75.6 69.8 76.16 72.6 5,742.6
Winter 83.28 97.2 90.8 91.9 89.4 84.4 79.3 83.1 80.2 98.4 89.1 7,150.4
NO3− Spring 9.2 38.6 21.64 24.75 20.3 22.32 15.11 17.62 10.4 28.5 17.45 10.3
(mg/L) Summer 6.3 30.41 15.45 19.6 13.23 14.2 8.32 9.2 2.2 14.74 4.7 2.15
(Table A1 continued)
Sampling locations
Parameter Season S₁ S₃ S₄ S₆ S₇ S₉ S₁₀ S₁₂ S₁₃ S₁₅ S₁₆ S₁₇
NO3− Autumn 3.35 35.6 19.67 22.1 16.55 17.6 10.8 11.7 4.1 17.14 6.3 3.55
(mg/L) Winter 11.2 41.4 27.9 32.96 27.1 28.8 21.2 23.14 15.6 39.7 26.87 15.3
Spring < 0.1 0.38 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.15 < 0.1 < 0.1
PO43− Summer 0.18 0.48 0.1 0.11 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.41 0.105 < 0.1
(mg/L) Autumn < 0.1 0.26 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.18 < 0.1 < 0.1
Winter 0.15 0.64 0.11 0.12 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.1 < 0.1 0.33 < 0.1 < 0.1
Spring 23.79 24.15 24.48 24.76 24.6 24.3 24.48 24.8 25.6 24.4 24.45 22.8
Temperature Summer 27.21 27.63 27.6 27.8 28.3 28.4 27.7 28.3 28.3 27.9 28.4 27.2
(Celsius) Autumn 18.80 19.18 19.52 19.80 19.59 19.34 19.52 19.56 19.59 19.4 19.49 18.3
Winter 17.0 17.36 17.69 18.5 17.21 17.51 17.69 18.6 18.2 17.6 17.66 16.4
Table A2 The average values of physical and chemical analyses for water samples collected at discharge points of pollution
sources at different seasons (2013).
Sampling locations
Parameter Season S₂ S₅ S₈ S₁₁ S₁₄
Spring 1,816,359 250,145 915 17,500 547,986
FC Summer 2,496,385 402,698 1,469 29,568 812,568
(CFU/100 mL) Autumn 1,453,356 232,567 865 21,548 398,720
Winter 2,151,173 345,456 1,236 32,568 750,659
Spring 80.4 88.5 42.3 46.87 79.6
TSS Summer 84.6 94.3 51.2 61.2 101.3
(mg/L) Autumn 72.6 83.1 33.4 44.2 74.9
Winter 91.2 96.4 49.2 58.6 106.2
Spring 421.2 372.2 300.3 272.3 401.3
TDS Summer 506.3 392.3 346.5 300.4 501.4
(mg/L) Autumn 416.2 312.8 265.4 275.6 356.8
Winter 521.4 410.3 372.6 287.12 514.4
Spring 7.47 7.9 8.2 8.14 7.62
pH Summer 7.67 7.4 7.9 7.75 7.5
Autumn 7.3 7.82 8.21 8.2 7.7
Winter 7.22 7.676 8.1 7.85 8.05
Spring 54.4 44.3 30.3 24.5 38.3
COD Summer 63.3 48.1 38.4 33.1 56.8
(mg/L) Autumn 48.2 32.5 22.2 13.3 28.1
Winter 55.1 40.2 41.1 38.9 54.6
Spring 31.2 22.6 12.23 10.5 17.3
BOD Summer 41.3 29.2 17.5 15.6 25.8
(mg/L) Autumn 28.1 16.2 8.3 5.7 12.3
Winter 37.6 24.6 18.1 16.4 24.4
Spring 3.3 2.5 2.1 1.6 2.8
TOC Summer 4.5 2.7 2.4 2.6 3.8
(mg/L) Autumn 2.207 1.6 1.4 1.1 2.1
Winter 3.1 3.2 2.3 1.671 3.25
Spring 4.35 3.8 3.45 3.78 3.34
DO Summer 2.5 3.3 3.76 3.2 3.1
(mg/L) Autumn 3.62 4.1 4.12 3.86 4.025
Winter 3.3 3.56 3.1 3.56 4.1
Sampling locations
Parameter Season S₂ S₅ S₈ S₁₁ S₁₄
Spring 32.3 38.2 6.8 13.5 30.3
Turbidity Summer 38.2 49.1 14.5 23.8 52.4
(NTU) Autumn 27.3 33.9 9.3 12.3 27.3
Winter 40.4 52.1 16.2 22.2 54.8
Spring 163.8 153.3 89.6 77.6 154.2
Cl− Summer 149.6 115.2 77.5 80.8 170.3
(mg/L) Autumn 125.3 92.6 83.7 76.5 110.8
Winter 190.2 161.9 85.3 99.6 194.3
Spring 70.12 35.1 24.6 25.3 51.1
NO3− Summer 47.88 26.2 15.7 16.4 30.4
(mg/L) Autumn 51.65 32.7 21.1 22.8 37.6
Winter 81.65 42.4 31.45 32.6 63.7
Spring 4.1 0.17 0.14 0.23 0.45
PO43− Summer 4.48 0.32 0.2 0.33 2.7
(mg/L) Autumn 3.85 0.14 0.15 0.19 0.6
Winter 6.1 0.25 0.19 0.34 < 0.1
Spring 25.30 25.30 23.8 24.91 25.20
Temperature Summer 28.40 27.90 28.2 27.9 28.20
(Celsius) Autumn 20.20 20.30 19.11 19.5 20.10
Winter 18.32 18.21 17.20 18.12 18.23
Table A3 Correlation coefficient matrix between water quality parameters for spring 2013.
Parameter COD BOD TOC TDS TSS DO pH Temp. Cl− Turbidity FC NO3− PO43−
COD 1
BOD 0.96 1
TOC 0.93 0.89 1
TDS 0.37 0.29 0.13 1
TSS 0.84 0.83 0.76 0.28 1
DO −0.60 −0.46 −0.53 −0.77 −0.40 1
pH −0.67 −0.74 −0.64 −0.21 −0.71 0.15 1
Temp. −0.58 −0.54 −0.45 −0.71 −0.59 0.78 0.34 1
−
Cl 0.37 0.29 0.14 0.99 0.28 −0.77 −0.21 −0.71 1
Turbidity 0.81 0.81 0.78 0.19 0.86 −0.38 −0.77 −0.54 0.19 1
FC 0.74 0.83 0.69 0.11 0.63 −0.12 −0.80 −0.26 0.11 0.55 1
NO3− 0.90 0.92 0.90 0.24 0.78 −0.41 −0.83 −0.44 0.24 0.76 0.89 1
PO43− 0.71 0.78 0.68 0.07 0.52 −0.13 −0.63 −0.25 0.08 0.47 0.90 0.80 1
Table A4 Correlation coefficient matrix between water quality parameters for autumn 2013.
COD 1
BOD 0.95 1
TOC 0.89 0.85 1
TDS 0.31 0.22 0.25 1
TSS 0.77 0.76 0.86 0.21 1
DO −0.61 −0.49 −0.62 −0.62 −0.53 1
pH −0.87 −0.91 −0.81 −0.20 −0.72 0.49 1
Temp. −0.55 −0.44 −0.59 −0.68 −0.57 0.75 0.51 1
Cl− 0.32 0.23 0.26 0.99 0.22 −0.63 −0.21 −0.69 1
Turbidity 0.78 0.81 0.81 0.23 0.89 −0.51 −0.83 −0.61 0.24 1
FC 0.79 0.84 0.70 0.11 0.54 −0.19 −0.76 −0.17 0.12 0.56 1
NO3− 0.85 0.89 0.91 0.29 0.79 −0.44 −0.78 −0.48 0.30 0.80 0.83 1
PO43− 0.81 0.86 0.67 0.07 0.54 −0.36 −0.82 −0.14 0.08 0.51 0.87 0.70 1
Table A5 Correlation coefficient matrix between water quality parameters for winter 2013.
COD 1
BOD 0.87 1
TOC 0.85 0.87 1
TDS 0.19 0.27 0.22 1
TSS 0.60 0.62 0.68 0.50 1
DO −0.65 −0.64 −0.56 −0.65 −0.75 1
pH −0.72 −0.85 −0.83 −0.20 −0.46 0.34 1
Temp. −0.51 −0.56 −0.50 −0.61 −0.52 0.68 0.57 1
Cl− 0.19 0.27 0.22 0.99 0.50 −0.65 −0.20 −0.61 1
Turbidity 0.75 0.77 0.91 0.22 0.59 −0.43 −0.83 −0.60 0.22 1
FC 0.65 0.83 0.71 0.11 0.36 −0.26 −0.84 −0.31 0.11 0.57 1
−
NO3 0.90 0.95 0.90 0.24 0.58 −0.50 −0.90 −0.48 0.24 0.81 0.87 1
PO43− 0.64 0.82 0.59 0.07 0.39 −0.29 −0.79 −0.29 0.08 0.45 0.93 0.82 1
Table A6 Correlation coefficient matrix between water quality parameters for summer 2013.
COD 1
BOD 0.89 1
TOC 0.95 0.91 1
TDS 0.22 0.32 0.23 1
TSS 0.80 0.82 0.86 0.25 1
DO −0.76 −0.67 −0.70 −0.58 −0.54 1
pH −0.60 −0.58 −0.63 −0.16 −0.69 0.60 1
Temp. −0.52 −0.31 −0.55 −0.46 −0.46 0.71 0.53 1
Cl− 0.23 0.33 0.24 0.99 0.26 −0.60 −0.16 −0.46 1
Turbidity 0.82 0.80 0.83 0.22 0.93 −0.62 −0.77 −0.43 0.23 1
FC 0.74 0.85 0.76 0.11 0.58 −0.51 −0.28 −0.07 0.12 0.51 1
NO3− 0.83 0.95 0.90 0.29 0.79 −0.60 −0.49 −0.23 0.29 0.75 0.90 1
PO43− 0.85 0.82 0.85 0.09 0.65 −0.50 −0.31 −0.30 0.10 0.61 0.88 0.81 1
Table A7 Interaction between organic and solid factors from different pollution sources along the Rosetta branch.
COD, COD, BOD, BOD, TOC, TOC, Cl−, Cl−,
PS/ DO,
TSS TDS TSS TDS TSS TDS TSS TDS pH
parameter mg/day
mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day
PS1 7.7E + 10 4.2E + 11 4.0E + 10 2.2E + 11 3.4E + 9 1.9E + 10 7.7E + 10 4.2E +11 2.8E + 6 1.4E + 7
PS1 1.4E + 11 5.2E + 11 8.0E +10 2.9E + 11 4.2E + 9 1.5E + 10 1.1E + 11 3.9E + 11 2.8E + 6 1.5E + 7
PS1 6.4E + 10 3.1E + 11 3.7E + 10 1.8E + 11 1.8E + 9 8.4E + 9 5.8E + 10 2.8E + 11 2.1E + 6 1.5E + 7
PS1 5.9E + 10 2.7E + 11 3.1E + 10 1.4E + 11 2.2E + 9 1.0E+ 10 6.7E + 10 3.1E + 11 2.1E + 6 1.4E + 7
PS2 1.1E + 10 3.7E + 10 5.1E + 9 1.8E + 10 8.0E + 8 2.9E + 9 2.3E + 10 8.1E + 10 1.1E + 6 3.6E + 6
COD, COD, BOD, BOD, TOC, TOC, Cl−, Cl−,
PS/ DO,
TSS TDS TSS TDS TSS TDS TSS TDS pH
parameter mg/day
mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day mg2/L·day
PS2 1.5E + 10 4.9E + 10 9.1E + 9 3.0E + 10 3.6E + 8 1.2E + 9 1.2E + 10 4.0E + 10 1.0E + 6 3.1E + 6
PS2 3.4E + 9 3.0E + 10 1.6E + 9 1.5E + 10 4.8E + 7 4.3E + 8 3.0E + 9 2.7E + 10 9.0E + 5 3.2E + 6
PS2 1.1E + 10 4.4E + 10 6.9E + 9 2.7E + 10 1.7E + 8 6.6E + 8 1.2E + 10 4.6E + 10 9.0E + 5 3.6E + 6
PS3 3.1E + 9 1.1E + 10 1.5E + 9 5.4E + 9 1.7E + 8 6.1E + 8 8.6E + 9 3.1E + 10 2.1E + 6 5.1E + 6
PS3 5.2E + 9 1.8E + 10 2.7E + 9 9.4E + 9 1.4E + 8 4.8E + 8 6.1E + 9 2.1E + 10 2.2E + 6 4.8E + 6
PS3 2.0E + 9 7.4E + 9 7.3E + 8 2.8E + 9 1.1E + 8 4.1E + 8 6.6E + 9 2.5E + 10 1.4E + 6 4.5E + 6
PS3 8.8E + 9 3.0E + 10 5.2E + 9 1.8E + 10 2.5E + 8 8.5E + 8 6.7E + 9 2.3E + 10 1.4E + 6 4.4E + 6
PS4 7.5E + 8 5.6E + 9 3.6E + 8 2.7E + 9 2.0E + 7 1.5E + 8 5.9E + 8 4.4E + 9 2.3E + 5 7.2E + 5
PS4 2.3E + 8 2.6E + 9 1.2E + 8 1.4E + 9 6.6E + 6 7.6E + 7 2.2E + 8 2.5E + 9 3.6E + 5 7.1E + 5
PS4 5.7E + 8 3.4E + 9 2.7E + 8 1.7E + 9 9.3E + 6 5.6E + 7 5.6E + 8 3.4E + 9 3.3E + 5 7.0E + 5
PS4 8.4E + 8 5.4E + 9 3.9E + 8 2.5E + 9 1.3E + 7 8.1E + 7 6.5E + 8 4.2E + 9 2.6E + 5 6.8E + 5
PS5 7.0E + 9 7.0E + 10 3.4E + 9 3.5E + 10 3.9E + 8 3.9E + 9 1.02E + 10 1.02E + 11 9.0E + 5 3.3E + 6
PS5 6.3E + 9 1.3E + 11 3.5E + 9 7.1E + 10 2.1E + 8 4.1E + 9 6.23E + 9 1.24 E+ 11 1.4E + 6 3.7E + 6
PS5 4.4E + 9 8.2E + 10 2.3E + 9 4.2E + 10 9.7E + 7 1.8E + 9 3.97E + 9 7.34E + 10 1.6E + 6 3.4E + 6
PS5 1.4E + 10 6.9E + 10 8.0E + 9 4.1E + 10 2.7E + 8 1.38E + 9 9.41E + 9 4.76E + 10 1.1E + 6 3.5E + 6
PS: pollution source, PS1: El-Rahawy drain; PS2: Sabal drain; PS3: El-Tahrir drain; PS4: Zawyet El-Baher drain; PS5: Tala drain.
doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.002
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Landfill Siting Using GIS and AHP (Analytical Hierarchy

Process): A Case Study Al-Qasim Qadhaa, Babylon, Iraq
Ali Jalil Chabuk1, Nadhir Al-Ansari1, Hussain Musa Hussain2, Sven Knutsson1 and Roland Pusch1
1. Department of Civil Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Lulea University of Technology, Lulea 971 87, Sweden
2. Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Kufa, Kufa 16008, Iraq
Abstract: The selection of a landfill site is considered as a complicated task because this process is based on many factors and
restrictions. For Al-Qasim Qadhaa, which is situated in the southern part of the Babylon Governorate, Iraq, there is no landfill site in
that area that conforms to the scientific criteria for selecting sites for landfill. For this reason, 15 criteria were adopted in this study
(groundwater depth, rivers, soil types, agriculture lands use, land use, elevation, slope, gas pipelines, oil pipelines, power lines, roads,
railways, urban centers, villages and archaeological sites) using GIS (geographic information system), which has a large ability to
manage input data. In addition, the AHP (analytical hierarchy process) method was used to derive the relative weightings for each
criterion using pair-wise comparison. To obtain the suitability index for candidate landfill sites, a weighted linear combination method
was used. After combining these methods, two suitable candidate landfill sites, with areas of 2.766 km2 and 2.055 km2, respectively,
were found to satisfy the scientific and environmental requirements. The area of these sites can accommodate solid waste from 2020
until 2030 based on the required area, which was 0.702 km2.
Key words: Landfill, Al-Qasim Qadhaa, AHP (analytical hierarchy process), GIS, WLC (weighted linear combination).
1. Introduction different aspects of landfill management, particularly

selecting a suitable site for landfill [6, 7]. The process
In developing countries, solid waste management is
of site selection is considered to be one of the most
considered one of the important issues related to
difficult tasks related to solid waste management
environmental management and, through proper
systems and a major concern for planners and
management of solid waste, pollution and the health
authorities. This is because this process is subject to
risks which arise in open dumping sites that are often
factors such as government regulation, government and
commonly used for the disposal of this waste can be
municipal funding, urbanization, increasing population
avoided [1]. MSW (management of solid waste)
densities, growing environmental awareness, public
consists of many processes, including recycling,
environmental health, reduced land availability for
reducing the waste, recovery of energy, incineration of
landfills and increasing political and social opposition
the waste, and landfill [2]. A sanitary landfill is
to the establishment of landfill sites [8, 9].
necessary to a waste management system even if other
GIS (geographic information system) and a spatial
techniques of waste management are adopted. In
multi-criteria decision analysis should be used in
countries that burn or recycle large parts of their waste,
landfill siting because they are powerful, integrated
the remains of these processes still need a suitable
tools used to solve the problem of landfill site selection.
landfill site because landfill is simple to use and
Decision makers often use MCDA (multi criteria
relatively cheap [3-5]. Within the last two decades,
decision analysis) to handle large quantities of complex
researchers have exerted great efforts in satisfying
information. GIS has a significant role in contributing
to the selection a landfill site. There are many
Corresponding author: Nadhir Al-Ansari, professor, advantages of applying GIS in the process of landfill
research fields: water and environmental engineering.
Landfill Siting Using GIS and AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process): 531
A Case Study Al-Qasim Qadhaa, Babylon, Iraq
siting. It reduces time and cost in the siting process, and for landfill through using the AHP, weighted linear
it has a high ability to manage large volumes of spatial combination method and GIS in Al-Qasim Qadhaa in
data from variety of sources. GIS may also be used for the Babylon Governorate, Iraq.
identifying routes for transporting waste to transfer
2. Methodology
stations and then to a landfill site and vice
versa [2, 10 11]. AHP (analytical hierarchy process) is 2.1 Study Area
a multi-criteria decision-making approach that was
Al-Qasim Qadhaa is considered one of the major
developed by Saaty [12] in 1980 to standardize these
cities of the newly formed Babylon Governorate, Iraq.
multi-criteria in the process of making decisions. The Until recently, the cities of this Qadhaa (Al-Qasim and
mathematical properties of AHP have attracted the Al-Talyaah) were administratively controlled by
attention of many researchers because the required Al-Hashimiyah Qadhaa, which is located in the
input data are easy to obtain. This process can be used southern part of the Babylon Governorate, between
to solve complex multi-criteria decision-making Al-Hillah Qadhaa and Al-Hashimiyah Qadhaa (Fig. 1).
problems. It uses a multi-level hierarchical structure Al-Qasim Qadhaa has an area of 637 km2, which
to determine the weighted percent of the constitutes 17.1% of the total area of the Babylon
multi-criteria [13]. AHP is used to determine the most Governorate [19]. It is situated between longitude
suitable landfill site among many candidate sites. The 44°27'41" E and 44°49'24" E, and latitude 32°25'53" N
relevant data are utilized to obtain relative weightings and 32°5'53" N (Fig. 1).
using pair-wise comparisons of decision criteria in a The official population of Al-Qasim Qadhaa was
matrix of the problem [2, 14, 15]. 184,605 inhabitants in 2015 [20], which equates to
In the literature [7, 16-18], several potential landfill 8.8% of the total population of the Babylon
sites have been identified among many candidate sites Governorate. Around 146,465 (79.33%) of the
using GIS and AHP. inhabitants live in urban regions, and 38,139 (20.67%)
This study seeks to identify a suitable candidate site of the inhabitants live in rural regions.
Babylon
Al-Qasim
Al-Hashimiyah
Al-Hillah
Al-Mahwil
Al-Musayiab
Fig. 1 The study area across Al-Qasim Qadhaa, Babylon Governorate, Iraq.
532 L
Landfill Siting
g Using GIS and
a AHP (Ana
alytical Hierarrchy Process
s):
A Ca ase Study Al--Qasim Qadh
haa, Babylon,, Iraq
2.2 Decisionn-Making Treee for Landfilll Siting the Iraqi Ministrry of Educattion. The readings of 1700
wellls for the deppths of grounndwater weree entered intoo
The selection of a suitable landfill sites considerss the
GIS
S to generatee an interpolaation between
n them usingg
main aim off the decision hierarchy. The hierarchhical
the spatial extennsion tool caalled Kriging
g in order too
structure of the decision problem
p incluudes three levvels.
produce the shappe file of grouundwater dep
pths [21]. Forr
The first levvel has been classified
c intoo two categories:
natural envirronmental facctors and artifficial factors. The creaating the shaape file of ““soil types”, the map off
second leveel is comprissed of six categories
c off the exp
ploratory soil of Iraq (scaale 1:1,000,00
00) [22] wass
criteria: hydrologicall, land, topographhical, used. The shape file of “agricuultural land” was obtainedd
infrastructurre, accessibillity and soccial-cultural. The usin
ng the land caapability map of Iraq (scale 1:1,000,000))
third level inncluded 15 criiteria used to establish suittable and
d was checked by analyzinng satellite im
mages of thee
candidate sittes for landfiill in this studdy. These critteria Bab
bylon Goveernorate froom 2011 [23]. Thee
are groundw water depth, rivers, soil types,
t agricullture arch m of Iraq (2013) [24] indicates thee
haeological map
lands use, laand use, elevaation, slope, gas pipeliness, oil locaations of arccheological aand religious sites in thiss
pipelines, poower lines, rooads, railwayys, urban cennters, Qad
dhaa. The map of industrial areas
a (scalee
villages and archaeologiccal sites (Fig. 2). 1:40
00,000) [19]] shows indu
dustrial areas within thiss
Qad
dhaa. These maps
m were prepared within GIS usingg
2.3 Preparinng Layers Maaps of Criteriaa
its spatial
s analyssis tools as a separate shaape file usingg
After seleecting the impportant criteriia that are rellated the relevant information in each map, and
a then theyy
to the presennt study, the reequired mapss were obtaineed to werre converted to
t the raster m
maps. All info
ormation wass
prepare the digitized
d criteeria map layers. Some of thhese projjected onto WGS (worldd geodetic system) 19844
maps were digital as a shape
s file (vvector), whilee the ng a projectedd coordinate system [25].
usin
remaining maps
m need to be
b converted to
t be digital maps
m
2.4 Restriction of Locations U
Using Buffer Zone
as a shape file. The inddividual shappe file mapss for
topography, slope, river, road, urban centers, villaages, Identifying the most suitabble site for lan
ndfill needs a
gas pipelinees, oil pipelinnes, power linnes and railw
ways process of largge-scale evaluuation. Any chosen sitee
were prepareed accordinglly using the innternal reporrts of shou
uld satisfy thee governmentaal regulations requirements
Suitable site selection for

f landfill
Bufffer zones
in Table
T 1
C
Categories of factors
Naturall
Artifi
ficial factors
environmentall factors
Hydrological Topographiical Lannd Acceessibility Social-cultural

S Infrastructuure
criteria criteria criterria crriteria criteria criteria
Groundwater Elevation Soils tyypes Roads
R U
Urban centers Gas pipelinees
depth Land u
use Raailways Villages Oil pipelines
Slope
Rives Agricultural A
Archaeological Power liness
land use
u sites
Fig. 2 Tree diagram
d of thee decision proccess developed for selection of
o suitable land
dfill site.
as well reducing environmental, economic and social groundwater depths in 170 wells throughout the
costs [14]. Restricted sites mean areas which do not Babylon Governorate [21]. These measurements were
allow for a landfill site to be situated within them due to carried out from 2005 to 2013. Generally, the
potential risk to the environment, human health or groundwater depths in the Babylon Governorate are
excessive cost [13]. Buffer zones, or spatial constraints, shallow. These depths removed certain areas as
were used around important sites or specific appropriate for site selection for landfill because of a
geographic features in each criterion in the GIS risk of contaminating the groundwater through
environment using the special extension tool “buffer”. leaching.
Table 1 shows the buffer zones of the criteria for Various depths have been suggested as sufficient:
unsuitable areas that were used in landfill siting in Effat and Hegazy [27] suggested that a depth of 6 m
Al-Qasim Qadhaa. from a site’s surface to the groundwater table is a
suitable depth, Delgado et al. [11] suggested 10 m,
2.5 Preparing Grading Values for Sub-criteria
Ouma et al. [41] propose 15 m, and Sadek et al.[40]
In this study, based on the opinion of experts and suggested 30 m.
literature reviews in this field, as well as various In this study, depths of between 0~1.5 m, 1.5~3 m,
required and available data about the study area, each 3~4.5 m and more than 4.5 m to groundwater were
criterion was classified into classes (sub-criteria), and given a grading value of 1, 4, 6 and 10, respectively
each class was given a suitability grading value. This (Fig. 3a).
was carried out by decision makers who gave their 2.5.2 Rivers
opinions about the sub-criteria. In order to prepare each In this study, a distance less than 1,000 m from the
criterion and sub-criteria, a number of steps were boundaries of a river was given a score value of 0 to
performed in GIS (e.g., buffer, clip, extract, overlay, reduce the potential for river contamination from
proximity, convert, reclassify and map algebra, landfill. Distances greater than 1,000 m were given a
etc.) (Table 2). grading value of 10 (Fig. 3b).
2.5.1 Groundwater Depth 2.5.3 Elevation
To prepare the groundwater depths layer for This study adopted the DEM (digital elevation
Al-Qasim Qadhaa, the Kriging tool in GIS was used to model) [21, 22]. The raster elevation map was divided
generate an interpolation between the available data of into three categories according to the study area. In this
Table 1 Description of buffer zones criteria values.

Criteria Description Researchers’ suggested buffers
The zones of groundwater depth between 0~1.5 m should be avoided in
Groundwater depth 1.5 m [26]; 6 m [27]; 10 m [11]
selection sites for landfill
Industrial area, university and agricultural lands should be excluded from
Land use
land fillsiting
Rivers Sites should be at a distance of more than 1 km from rivers 1 km [7, 28]; 0.8 km [14]; 0.5 km [29]
Roads Sites should be at a distance of more than 500 m from roads 1 km [28, 30]; 0.5 km [27, 31]
Railways Sites should be at a distance of more than 500 m from railways 500 m [6, 32, 33]
Urban centers Sites should be at a distance of more than 5 km from streams 5 km [27, 33, 34]; 3 km [35]
Villages Sites should be at a distance of more than 1 km from borders of village 1 km [31,36]; 0.8 km [35]
Archaeological sites Sites should be at a distance of more than 1 km around archaeological sites 0.5 km [7]; 1 km [13, 37]; 3 km [30]
Gas pipelines Sites should be at a distance of more than 300 m from gas pipelines 250 m [33, 38]
Oil pipelines Sites should be at a distance of more than 75 m from oil pipelines 250 m [38]
Power lines Sites should be at a distance of more than 30 m from power lines 30 m [31, 39]; 40 m [40]; 50 m [29]
534 Landfill Siting Using GIS and AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process):
Table 2 Summary of the input layers used in the analysis.

No. Criteria Sub-criteria values Sub-criteria rating Description scale Criteria weights (AHP)
0~1.5 1 Not suitable
1.5~3 4 Moderately suitable
1 Groundwater depth (m) 0.2004
3~4.5 6 Suitable
> 4.5 10 Most suitable
0~1,000 0 Not suitable
2 Rivers (m) 0.1471
> 1,000 10 Most suitable
15~22 3 Moderately suitable
3 Elevation (a.m.s.l.) 22~29 7 Suitable 0.0709
> 29 10 Most suitable
4 Slope (degree) 0°~5° 10 Most suitable 0.0463
Soil 6 (A) 10 Most suitable
Soil 5' (B) 9 Suitable
5 Soils types 0.0709
Soil 9 (C) 7 Moderately suitable
Soil 4 (D) 5 Less suitable
Industrial area 0 Not suitable
Urban centers 0 Not suitable
Villages 0 Not suitable
University 0 Not suitable
6 Land use Rivers 0 Not suitable 0.0302
Archaeological sites 0 Not suitable
Agricultural lands 0 Not suitable
Orchards 5 Suitable
Unused lands 10 Most suitable
Agricultural land 0 Not suitable
7 Agricultural land use Orchards 5 Suitable 0.0462
Unused land 10 Most suitable
0~500 0 Not suitable
500~1,000 7 Suitable
8 Roads (m) 1,000~2,000 10 Most suitable 0.0463
2,000~3,000 5 Moderately suitable
> 3,000 3 Less suitable
0~500 0 Not suitable
9 Railways (m) 0.0107
5,000-10,000 10 Most suitable
10 Urban centers (m) 0.1471
10,000~15,000 7 Suitable
> 15,000 4 Moderately suitable
11 Villages (m) 0.1038
12 Archaeological sites (m) 1,000~3,000 5 Moderately suitable 0.0302
≤ 300 0 Not suitable
13 Gas pipelines (m) 0.0146
14 Oil pipelines (m) 0.0146
15 Power lines (m) 0.0207
Note: AHP: analytical hierarchy process; a.m.s.l.: above mean sea level.
Railways (m) Elevation (a.m.s.l.)

Groundwater depth (m)
0~500 (0) 15~22 (3)
0~1.5 (1)
＞ 500 (10) 22~29 (7)
1.5~3 (4)
＞ 29 (10)
3~4.5 (6) km km
＞ 4.5 (10) km
(a) (b) (c)
Land use
Industrial sites (0)
Agricultural lands (0)
Archneological sites (0)
Soil types
Slope (°) Orchards (5)
D (5) Rivers (0)
0~5 (10) University sites (0) km
C (7)
Unused lands (10)
B (9)
Urban centers (0)
km A (10) km
Villages (0)
(d) (e) (f)
Roads (m)
Agricultural land use 0~500 (0) Railways (m)
＞ 3,000 (3) 0~500 (0)
Agricultural lands (0)
2,000~3,000 (5) ＞ 500 (10)
Orchards (5)
500~1,000 (7) km
Unused land (10)
km 1,000~2,000 (10) km
(g) (h) (i)
Fig. 3 Suitability index maps of: (a) ground water depth; (b) rivers; (c) elevation; (d) slope; (e) soil types; (f) land use;
(g) agricultural land use; (h) roads; (i) railways.
study, moderately suitable elevations were between for industrial areas and archaeological sites,
15~22 (a.m.s.l.) and between 22~29 (a.m.s.l.). respectively. The shape file of “Al-Qasim Qadhaa
Elevations of greater than 29 (a.m.s.l.) were the most rivers” was a clipping from the shape file of “Babylon
suitable for a landfill. These categories were given Governorate rivers”. All shape files were merged into a
grading values of 3, 7 and 10, respectively (Fig. 3c). single layer called “land use”. The categories of
2.5.4 Slope “orchards” and “unused lands” were given ratings of 5
All lands of Al-Qasim Qadhaa have a slope less than and 10, respectively, while other categories were
5° and so were given a rating value of 10 (Fig. 3d). assigned a score of 0 (Fig. 3f).
These lands were considered the best for a landfill 2.5.7 Agricultural Land Use
siting to prevent the transition of pollutants to The lands for Al-Qasim Qadhaa were divided into
surrounding areas. A suitable slope ranges between three categories: agricultural land, orchards and
0°~5° is necessary to prevent the transition of unused lands. The categories of orchards and unused
pollutants to surrounding areas [13, 33]. lands were drawn in polygon type in separate shape
2.5.5 Soil Type files based on analyzed satellite images of the Babylon
There are four types of soils in Qasim Qadhaa Governorate in 2011 [23] and the land capability map
Buringh (1960) (Fig. 3e). These soil groups are: basin of Iraq (scale 1:1,000,000 ) [43]. In order to prepare
depression soils A (6), river basin soils, poorly drained the features of “agricultural land”, the features of
B (5'), silted haur and marsh soils C (9) and river levee “orchards” and “unused land” were merged into one
soils D (4). These types of soils were giving scores of feature. Then, the special extension tool “erase” in GIS
10, 9, 7 and 5, respectively. The short description of the was used to extract the areas of agricultural land.
characteristics for each type of soil can be found in These features were then merged into a single
Refs. [22, 42]. shape file and then converted to a raster map called
2.5.6 Land Use “agricultural land use” (Fig. 3g). The categories of
A number of maps were incorporated to prepare the “unused land”, “orchards” and “agricultural land”
land use layer of the study area. All land classified into were given a grade of 10, 5, and 0, respectively,
one of nine categories (features): urban centers, according to the classification of the Iraqi Ministry of
villages, industrial areas, archaeological sites, Agriculture.
universities, rivers, agricultural land, orchards and 2.5.8 Roads
unused land. The land use layer was created by In this study, main roads and highways were
importing shape files for all categories into a GIS incorporated into the layer of “roads”. Buffer zones
environment in polygon type. The shape file of “urban” from roads to landfill sites of 1,000~2,000 m were
included all cities in Al-Qasim Qadhaa. The villages assigned the highest score of 10. Buffer zones of less
which spread within this Qadhaa were incorporated in than 500 m, and those greater than 3,000 m, were given
the shape file of “villages”. The “agricultural land” a grading of 0 and 3, respectively. Buffer zones of
shape file was created by analyzing satellite images of 500~1,000 m were assigned a grade of 7, while the
the Babylon Governorate in 2011 and the land buffer zones of 2,000~3,000 m were given a grading of
capability map of Iraq (scale 1:1,000,000). The shape 5 (Fig. 3h).
file of the Green University of Al Qasim was mapped 2.5.9 Railway
in polygon type from satellite images of the Babylon In this study, buffer zones of less than 500 m on both
Governorate in 2011. The maps used had scales of sides of a railway were graded 0. Distances greater than
1:400,000 and 1:1,500,000 to determine the shape files 500 m were graded 10 (Fig. 3i).
2.5.10 Urban Centers power lines on both sides should be more than 30 m,
To determine suitable locations for landfill from and these were given a score of 10. The reasons for
borders of urban areas, buffer zones of less than 5 km choosing this value were to avoid the high level of
were given a grading of 0. This figure was adopted due voltage power that results from these lines, and to
to many factors such as land value, health and safety provide electricity for the infrastructure in a landfill
laws (which often prevent siting of a landfill within the site [33, 39]. Distances less than 30 m was given a
boundaries of an urban area) noise, decreases in grading of 0 (Fig. 4f).
property value [44], odor, aesthetics [45] and
2.6 Evaluation Criteria’s Weights Using AHP Method
allowances for ensuring the potential to expand the
urban area in the future [27]. The AHP developed in 1980 by Saaty [12], is a
Buffer zones between 5~10 km were given the powerful and comprehensive decision-making
highest score which was 10. Buffer zones of 10~15 km methodology. It is one of the most common methods
and more than 15 km were given a score of 7 and 4, applied to multi-criteria in making decisions. This
respectively (Fig. 4a). process allows a decision maker to make the right
2.5.11 Villages decision by using empirical data alongside the
For rural areas, buffer zones less than 1,000 m were subjective judgments of the decision maker [13, 47].
given a grading value of 0, while those with buffer In the AHP method, the hierarchy is deconstructed
zones greater than 1,000 m were given a score of 10 into a series of pair-wise comparisons to determine the
(Fig. 4b). relative weighted importance of each criterion in terms
2.5.12 Archaeological Sites of the other criteria. A 9-point numerical scale is used
For archaeological and religious sites, buffer zone of in a typical analytic hierarchy in order to indicate how
less than 1 km around these areas was restricted and, many times more important or how dominant one
thus, scored 0. Buffer zones more than 3 km, and buffer criterion is over another criterion with respect to the
zones of 1~3 km around these areas were scored 10 and criteria. This scale was presented by Saaty [12] in 1980
5, respectively (Fig. 4c). and further developed in 2008 [48] (Table 3).
2.5.13 Gas Pipelines In this study, the typical structure of the
The necessary buffer zone from gas pipelines on decision-making problem is formed and consists of
both sides to a landfill site was 300 m, and it was given numbers, which were represented by symbol m, while
a grading value of 0 according to the determinations of alternatives were given numbers represented by
the Iraqi Ministry of Oil/Oil Pipelines Company in symbol n. The values of aij (i = 1, 2, 3…, m) and (j = 1,
1989 [46]. Buffer zones more than 300 m were given a 2, 3..., n) are used to signify the performance values in
score value of 10 (Fig. 4d). terms of the i-th and j-th in a matrix. The upper
2.5.14 Oil Pipelines triangular of the matrix is filled with the values of
Buffer zones less than 75 m on both sides of oil comparison criteria above the diagonal of the matrix. In
pipelines to a landfill site were giving a score of 0. order to fill the lower triangular of the matrix, the
Buffer zones more than 75 m are considered a safe reciprocal values of the upper diagonal are used. This is
distance according to the determinations of the Iraqi done by using the Eq. (1):
Ministry of Oil/Oil Pipelines Company in 1989 [46], aji = 1/aij (1)
and were given a grading value of 10 (Fig. 4e). where, aij is the element of row i and column j of the
2.5.15 Power Lines matrix [17, 49, 50]. The typical comparison matrix for
In this study, buffer zones from a landfill site to any problem and the relative importance of the criteria
Urban centers (m) Archaeological (m)

Villages (m)
0~5,000 (0) 0~1,000 (0)
＞ 15,000 (4) 0~1,000 (0)
＞ 1,000 (10) 1,000~3,000 (5)
10,000~15,000 (7) km
5,000~10,000 (10) km ＞ 3,000 (10) km
(a) (b) (c)
Gas pipelines (m) Oil pipelines (m) Power lines

0~300 (0) 0~75 (0) 0~30 (0)
＞ 300 (10) ＞ 75 (10) ＞ 30 (10)
km km km
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 4 Suitability index maps of: (a) urban centers; (b) villages; (c) archaeological sites; (d) gas pipelines; (e) oil pipelines;
(f) power lines.
Table 3 The fundamental scale of absolute numbers [48].

Intensity of importance Definition Explanation
1 Equal importance Two activities contribute equally to the objective
2 Weak or slight
3 Moderate importance Experience and judgment slightly favour one activity over another
4 Moderate plus
5 Strong importance Experience and judgment strongly favour one activity over another
6 Strong plus
Very strong or An activity is favored very strong over another; Its dominance demonstrated
7
demonstrated importance in practice
8 Very, very strong
The evidencefavoring one activity over another is of the highest possible
9 Extreme importance
order of affirmation
can be represented in a decision matrix as follows: The eigenvectors were calculated for each row using
 a 11 a 12 ... a 1n W1  geometric principles in Eq. (2):
 
 a 21 a 22 ... a 2n W2 
  Eg i  n a11  a12  a13  ... a1n (2)
 ... ... ... ... ... 
 a m1 a m2 ... a mn W n 
 where, Egi = eigenvalue for the row i; n = number of
L
Landfill Siting
g Using GIS and
a AHP (Ana
alytical Hierarrchy Process
s): 5399
A Ca ase Study Al--Qasim Qadh
haa, Babylon,, Iraq
elements in row i. Saaaty [12], by dividing thee value of CI C by the RII

The priorrity vector waas determinedd by normalizing (ran
ndom index) value (RI = 115.9) for n = 15 (Table 4),,
the eigenvallues to 1 (diviided by their sum) as folloows: wheere Table 4 displays meean RI for matrices
m withh
E i (k 1 Eg k ) diffferent sizes [334, 52]:
n
Pri  Eg (3)
CR = CI/RI (6))
The lambbda max (λmax m ) was obtained from the
If the value of o CR is smaller than 10 0%, the ratioo
summation of products between
b eachh element off the
indiicates a reasonable coonsistency leevel in thee
priority vecttor and the sum
m of columnss of the reciprrocal
pairr-wise compaarison. In thiss study, CR = 0.027 < 0.1
matrix as shown in the foollowing Eq. (4):

λmax =  n W j   m ai j
j 1 i 1
 (4)
and
com
d RI15 = 1.599. For any m
mpletely conssistent if a CR
matrix, the ju
udgments aree
R is equal to 0 [53]. Fig. 5
where, aij = the sum of criteria
c in eacch column inn the shows the pair--wise comparrison matrix and relativee
matrix; Wi = the value of weight foor each criteerion impportance weigghts for the seelection site for
f landfill inn
correspondinng to the priiority vector in the matrix of the study area.
decision, whhere the valuees i = 1, 2,… m, m and j = 1, 2,… Inn order to fiind the suitaability index value of thee
n. So, the laambda max (λmax) in this study is equaal to poteential areas, the method oof WLC (weeighted linearr
15.6. commbination) waas used basedd on the follow wing Eq. (7):
The CI (cconsistency inndex) was esttimated usingg the

n
Ai  W j  C ijj (7))
j 1
following Eqq. (5):
CI = (λλmax − n)/(n − 1) (5) wheere, Ai is the suitability inndex for areaa i, Wj is thee
where, CI reppresents the eqquivalent to thhe mean deviaation relaative importaance weight of criterion n, Cij is thee
of each compparison elemeent and the stanndard deviatioon of grad ding value of area i undeer criterion j and n is thee
the evaluatioon error from the
t true ones [51], and n is size totaal number of criteria
c [7, 300].
or order of thhe matrix. In thhis study, CI = 0.04. This
T Eq. (7) was applied on all criterria using thee
The CR (consistency
( ratio) was obbtained basedd on exteension tool “map
“ algebra”” in GIS. Thhe proceduress
Table 4 Ran
ndom inconsisttency indices for
f different vaalues of n [36, 54].
5
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
RI 0 0 0.588 0.9 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.49 1.51 1.448 1.56 1.57 1.59
Fig. 5 Pair-w wise comparisons matrix forr selecting a suitable landfill site, eigenvectoor and significance weights.
Note: A: grounndwater depth; B: urban centeers; C: villages;; D: rivers; E: elevation;
e F: sloope; G: roads; HH: soils types; I:
I gas pipelines;;
J: oil pipeliness; K: power linees; L: land use; M: agriculturall land use; N: archaeological
a s
sites; O: railwayys.
for estimating the suitability index were done through The category of “excluded areas” included urban
the summation of the products of multiplying the centers, villages, rivers, archaeological sites, a
grading values of the sub-criteria for each criterion university location and industrial areas. These areas
(based on the opinion of experts in this field) by the were given a value of 0. The area for each category and
corresponding relative importance weight (which was its proportion of the total study area were as follows:
calculated by the AHP method). The final value of  The “unsuitable” class is 50.76 km2 (8.74%);
suitability index was obtained according to the grading  The “moderately suitable” class is 234.46 km2
scale of 1~5, which was ranging from the lowest value (40.38%);
of an unsuitable site to the highest value of the most  The “suitable” class is 206.47 km2 (35.56%);
suitable for a site [30].  The “most suitable” class is 70.92 km2 (12.22 %);
 The “excluded areas” is 17.97 km2 (3.1%) (Fig. 6a).
3. Results and Discussion
The solid waste quantity expected in 2030 in
After determining the weights for each criterion Al-Qasim Qadhaa is 71,947 t. The cumulative quantity
using the AHP method, suitable weightings for the of solid waste expected from 2020 to 2030 is 632,990 t
sub-criteria of each criterion based on the opinion of based on an expected population in 2030 in this Qadhaa
experts in this field were assigned. The WLC method of 304,621 inhabitants, according to calculations made
was used to determine the final output map of the by Chabuk et al. [54]. The density of waste in waste
suitability index for a landfill siting in Al-Qasim disposal sites is 450 kg/m3 in the Babylon Governorate
Qadhaa. This map was divided into five categories: and, consequently, in Al-Qasim Qadhaa [55]. By
 unsuitable; dividing the solid waste quantity over the density of
 moderately suitable; waste, the expected volume of waste and the
 suitable; predictable volume of cumulative waste in 2030 are
 most suitable; 159,882 m3 and 1,406,644 m3, respectively. An
 excluded areas. average groundwater depth of 2 m in the candidate
Final model (AHP)

Excluded areas
Unsuitable
Moderately suitable
Suitable
Most suitable
(a) (b)
Fig. 6 Final maps of suitability index for landfill sitting: (a) final model map of a suitable landfill; (b) the candidate sites for
landfill in Al-Qasim Qadhaa.
sites for landfill in the study area was adopted because Governorate to make sure that these sites were
the groundwater depth from a ground surface in suitable for landfill. Generally, these sites satisfy the
Al-Qasim Qadhaa is shallow. Therefore, the required minimum requirements of the landfill sites. The area
area of a candidate site to accommodate the cumulative of Sites No. 1 and No. 2 are 2.766 and 2.055 km2,
quantity of solid waste generated from 2020 to 2030 is respectively. The required area in the present study
0.702 km2. that can well accommodate such waste was
Two candidate sites were selected for landfill among 0.702 km2. This area was estimated based on
the many sites located within the category of the “most expected solid waste for the period 2020 to 2030 as
suitable” index. These sites were each assigned a 632,990 t and was also based on the current waste
number (1 and 2). The area of Site No. 1 is 2.766 km2, generation rate and population growth rate in this
while the area of Site No. 2 is 2.055 km2. These Qadhaa, which were 0.58 kg per capita day, and 2.99%,
candidate sites are suitable for landfill in Al-Qasim respectively.
Qadhaa. Fig. 6b shows that Site No.1 is situated at
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doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.003
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Understanding Environmental Worldview of Famagusta

Residents and Its Determinants through Survey
Research
Buket Asilsoy1 and Derya Oktay2

1. Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Near East University, Nicosia 99138, North Cyprus
2. Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun 55139, Turkey
Abstract: Environmental attitude studies have been a key focus within the environmental research field, as the significance of
ecological citizenship for the sustainable development discourse has been highly recognized in recent years. In this context, the
influence of demographic variables on environmental attitude is an emerging issue that is widely investigated in the west. In this respect,
this paper seeks to understand the impact of demographic variables on the environmental worldview of Famagusta residents in order to
make a scientific contribution to the possible construction of relevant strategies. A random sample of 165 residents within the territory
of Famagusta Municipality was chosen for the survey. The survey tapped the relationship between environmental (ecocentric and
anthropocentric) attitudes and selected demographic variables (age, gender, education and household income) and the survey results
were evaluated with the help of SPSS (statistical package for social sciences) analyses. The findings reveal that younger respondents,
women and the highly educated do not achieve higher scores of environmental attitudes and household income has a statistically
significant nonlinear effect.
Key words: Environmental worldview, demographic variables, survey research, Famagusta.
1. Introduction regard, beside socio-psychological [1-5] dynamics and

socio-cultural [6-11] dynamics, socio-demographic
Ecological citizenship can be considered the
characteristics were also frequently examined in order
emerging key focus area within environmental
to understand if there is a considerable relation with
research studies. As environmental behavior is the
the environmental worldview. Such that, there is
nucleus of environmentally based living, questions
distinctive amount of empirical research seeking to
emerged about investigating the nature, structure and
find the links between various socio-demographic
constructs of environmental action within the
characteristics (such as gender, age, education, race,
ecological citizenship debate.
residence, household income, etc.) and environmental
Within this context, on the one hand, the
worldview.
environmental behavior studies have become
Developing strategies targeting to encourage
widespread; On the other hand, questions have
sustainable lifestyles among the Famagusta residents
arisenabout the factors influencing the environmental
appears as a potentially important and urgent need.
attitude as the catalyser of the environmental behavior.
Famagusta, North Cyprus is a city with high dynamics
In other words, questions emerged in order to
of growth in an uncontrolled and haphazard way. As a
understand the driving forces, the determinants and
result of the non-sustainable urban development, the
the predictors of environmental worldview. In this
city dictates a new way of living to its inhabitants that
Corresponding author: Buket Asilsoy, Ph.D., Assistant is not familiar to them in terms of local socio-cultural
Professor, research fields: sustainable landscape planning and characteristics and sensitivity to environmental values.
design and ecological city.
Understanding Environmental Worldview of Famagusta Residents and Its 545
Determinants through Survey Research
Neither the urban form and layout nor the policies and socio-demographic characteristics, etc.) on
institutions are adequate to positively influence the environmental worldview. Among these factors,
environment and environmental attitudes. In this socio-demographic variables are one of the most
regard, our hypothesis is that the validity of the need examined ones.
for ecological citizenship in Famagusta should be The correlation between socio-demographic
assessed in order to open a path towards more characteristics and environmental worldview has
consciously established strategies for sustainable been investigated by many researchers since the 1970s.
lifestyles in the city. Within the socio-demographic characteristics,
Therefore, understanding which characteristics are gender [16-22], age [23-25], education [20, 23, 24, 26]
the determinants of and to what extent these and household income [20, 23, 27] are among the most
characteristics influence the environmental attitudes examined ones as independent variables.
would be essential to be used as scientific data for the According to these past studies mentioned
possible environmentally based policies targeting the above [16-27], the existing evidence has not been a
city. At this point, as Ref. [12] argues, further studies consistent result in explaining the relations between
are needed to highlight the potential for environmental various socio-demographic characteristics and
consciousness among local people. individual environmental concern [28]. However, a
In this context, this paper aims to analyse the modest empirical data has been provided that
influence of demographic variables (age, gender, women [19, 21, 29-31], younger respondents [32-34],
education and household income) of Famagusta highly educated respondents [26, 31] and respondents
residents on their environmental attitudes. First, the with higher income [27, 35] are more likely to hold
related literature will be reviewed; Second, a user higher scores of environmental attitude.
survey will be carried out among the local residents; Essentially, the studies mentioned above mostly
Third, the results of the survey will be displayed and have an empirical work focusing on the participants in
interpreted; And finally, a conclusion will be drawn western, developed countries. The related studies
based on discussion. having a focus on those individuals in non-western
countries have a limitation in quantity. In this regard,
2. Literature Review besides seeking to find evidence that would be
Within the research field focusing on environmental essential for the possible environmentally based
behavior studies, there have been various theories for policy strategies, this study further aims at making a
understanding the nature of environmental behavior. scientific contribution for the existing literature
Derived from a considerable amount of studies focusing on the influence of socio-demographic
[13-15], it can be suggested that the “environmental variables on the environmental worldview in a
worldview” based on attitudes, are among the non-western context.
significant variables influencing environmental action. 3. Research Context
In this regard, beside investigating the factors
influencing environmental behavior, there has been a 3.1 The Case
distinctive amount of research examining the Famagusta, as the second largest city of North
dynamics of environmental worldview itself. Within Cyprus, has a population of 47,538 (TRNC (Turkish
this context, there have been researches additionally Republic of Northern Cyprus) 2011 Population and
focusing on examining the impact of various factors Dwelling Census). As a coastal city which is located
(such as environmental consciousness, political view, in the eastern part of the island in the eastern
546 Understanding Environmental Worldview of Famagusta Residents and Its
Mediterranean Sea (Fig. 1), it has a historic core and a immigrants who have come from the southern part of
harbour. the island and different parts of Turkey since 1974,
Famagusta has developed throughout seven and university staff and students from many
particular periods: countries [36]. EMU plays a significant role in the
 the early periods (648~1192); socioeconomic life of the city.
 the Lusignan (1192~1489); While increasing the commercial functions, EMU
 the Venetian (1489~1571); has been one of the main reasons of rapid and
 the Ottoman (1571~1878); unsustainable urban development. The university has
 the British (1878~1960); perpetuated uncontrollable and hasty urban
 the period between 1960~1974; development in the form of multi-storey housing,
 the period after the war in 1974. inappropriate additions to existing houses, and
The city was a significant regional centre of trade incompatible land uses scattered throughout the
and tourism before the island was divided in 1974. city [12]. Additionally, the uncertain status of Varosha
After the division, the city experienced a major Region (a region evacuated after 1974 by United
recession period and therefore, tourism and trade Nations’ demarcation decision) has caused a cease in
functions have ceased. Until the early 1980s, this terms of development and construction functions in
situation has continued. Starting from the late 1980s, nearby quarters of the city. As a result, the city as a
EMU (Eastern Mediterranean University) which was whole has a linear urban development with a scattered
founded in 1979, has created a new dynamism and a urban pattern lacking the effective use of urban open
new momentum within the city. With nearly 14,000 and green spaces and a town centre. However, streets,
students from 67 different countries, EMU has been a courtyards, squares, fruit gardens and well-defined
major factor in the overall economic and social gardens with local vegetation and landscaping were
structure of the city over the last three decades. Today, significant characteristics of older settlements in the
Famagusta accommodates a wide diversity of Cypriot towns [37]. Furthermore, due to the lack of
residents, including the local Turkish Cypriots, legislations, implementations and any master plan, urban
Fig. 1 Location of the island of Cyprus and Famagusta in the regional scale.
infrastructure facilities such as public transportation research, FAS involved several findings which are
system, waste management systems, urban ecology strongly useful to be evaluated in order to recognize the
and biodiversity are also inefficient or absent. existing situation of the Famagusta citizens as a case
These development tendencies have also affected study and to determine the appropriate framework of
the social structure of Famagusta residents. Although the research measures.
the concept of local community with close In this context, the aspects of this research were part
relationship to each other, high sense of place and of a questionnaire including a set of questions which
sensitivity to environmental values was a significant were answered under four important titles. These titles
aspect in Cypriot towns. In the new settlements, it is were as follows:
observed that the understanding of local community  environmental concern;
and environmentally based living is not supported. In  environmental attitudes;
other words, it can be suggested that this physical  environmental behaviour;
enlargement underestimating the social, cultural,  socio-demographic data.
natural characteristics of the city has produced a
4.2 The Sample
vicious circle. Such that beside the effects of
contemporary global trends, the citizens fell apart A random sample of 165 residents between 16 and
from their traditions and their environmentally 75 years old within the territory of Famagusta
responsive lifestyles with the impact of these new Municipality including all 16 quarters were chosen for
developments. On the other hand, sustainability of the user survey. The number of participants from each
these new developments has not been valuable and a of the 16 quarters was decided according to the ratio
matter of demand exactly by these same dwellers.
of the quarter’s population to the city’s whole
This new unsustainable lifestyle is revealed with
population. The respondents were selected randomly
situations like highly amounts of car per household
in each sample area for filling out a questionnaire
(mean score: 2.04) and relatively high preferences of
form. The details are shown as follows:
newly developed peri-urban quarters with low density
 Gender: 37.6% of the 165 participants were
and single function, in a scattered urban layout [38].
female and 62.4% were male (Table 1);
Within this framework, there is the necessity of
 Age: 30.9% of the participants in the study were
environmental research for fulfilling the informational
between the ages of 26~40. 28.5% were between
needs of appropriate plans and policies targeting the
16~25 and 24.8% were between 41~55 years old. The
development of both sustainable environments and
rest 9.7% were between 56~65 years old and 6.1%
sustainable lifestyles in the city.
were between 66~75 (Table 2);
4. Study Methodology  Education: The largest portion (48.5%) among the
participants had a high-school degree. 16.4% had a
4.1 Research Design
university degree, 13.3% had a secondary school
The research framework was closely related to that degree, 12.7% had a primary school degree and 7.9%
of the FAS (Famagusta Area Study), which was had a master or Ph.D. degree. A non-significant portion
directed by the second author of this paper and aimed of 1.2% was without a degree (Table 3).
to measure the quality of community life in  Household income: 42.4% of the respondents had
Famagusta based on a comprehensive survey research a monthly household income of 1,200~2,499 TL
carried out in 2007. As a study of environmental (Turkish lira), 28.5% had a monthly household income
Table 1 Participants’ gender profile (%). Environmental worldview: The environmental

Gender Frequency Percent (%) attitudes were measured with the help of NEP (New
Female 62 37.6 Environmental Paradigm) scale including 15 items [6]
Male 103 62.4
in the second section of the questionnaire. These NEP
Total 165 100
scale items were used to measure the ecocentric and
Table 2 Participants’ age profile (%). anthropocentric attitudes. According to the NEP scale
Age Frequency Percent (%) design, one of the statements refers to an ecocentric
16~25 47 28.5 attitude and the other refers to an anthropocentric
26~40 51 30.9
attitude. In total, eight items refer to ecocentric
41~55 41 24.8
56~65 16 9.7 attitude and the other seven items refer to
66~75 10 6.1 anthropocentric attitude. Likert type five point scale
Total 165 100 (strongly disagree to strongly agree) was used to
record the participants’ responses for each item. The
Table 3 Participants’ education profile (%).
answers for the eight ecocentric items were coded as:
Education Frequency Percent (%)
None 2 1.2
5 = strongly agree;
Primary school degree 21 12.7 4 = agree;
Secondary school degree 22 13.3 3 = unsure;
High school degree 80 48.5 2 = disagree;
University degree 27 16.4
1 = strongly disagree.
Postgraduate degree 13 7.9
The answers for the seven anthropocentric items
Total 165 100
were reversely coded.
Table 4 Participants’ household financial situation
Socio-demographic characteristics: Socio-demogra-
profile (%).
phic characteristics were investigated in the fourth
Financial situation Frequency Percent (%)
600~1,199 TL 14 8.5 section of the questionnaire. Among the
1,200~2,499 TL 70 42.4 socio-demographic characteristics, gender, age,
2,500~3,999 TL 47 28.5 education and household income were selected as
4,000~5,999 TL 9 5.5
independent variables to be measured.
6,000 TL+ 4 2.4
Refuse to answer 21 12.7 4.4 Procedure
Total 165 100
After participants were briefly informed about the
of 2,500~3,999 TL. 12.7% refused to answer and research, environmental awareness and concern about
8.5% had a monthly household income of 600~1,199 general environmental issues were measured in the
TL (Table 4).1 first part of the questionnaire’s first section.
4.3 Measures Awareness and concern about environmental
problems of Famagusta in particular, was measured in
The main objective of the present study was to the second part of the first section. Ecocentric and
statistically compare if there is a remarkable influence anthropocentric attitudes were examined in the second
of certain socio-demographic variables on the section in order to provide data for the existing value
environmental worldview in Famagusta. In this orientations. In the third section, environmental
respect, two main measures were determined: behavior was examined in three categories: energy
1
saving, water conservation and green consumption. In
With reference to the date of January 27, 2016 exchange rates,
1 TL = 0.34 USD. the last section, socio-demographic data was collected
in order to obtain information about the issues such as homogeneity of variances is greater than the level of
age, gender, education, marital status and housing type significance (p = 0.198 > 0.05), it is concluded that the
of the respondents. variance is homogenous and the result is given in
The administration and application of field study Table 6. Hence, independent samples t-test was
was carried out with the help of the survey firm “The conducted to estimate whether the respondents’
Management Centre of the Mediterranean”, a fully ecological attitudes results differ with respect to gender.
resourced support centre. The firm has a team of The results showed that it was not significant
highly qualified technical and administrative staff (t (163) = 0.15, p > 0.05).
working full-time and also a pool of associate experts In order to find out whether there were differences
of consultants working project basis. The field study among the age groups and environmental attitudes, first
was undertaken starting from the second week of of all, it was tested if the variances were homogenous
April 2013 until the first week of June 2013, in a time and the results indicated that variances were not
period of seven weeks (10th April~03rd June). significant and the Levene statistic was given in
After the data was collected, the research results Table 7 and the level of significance was found high
were analysed with the help of SPSS (statistical (p = 0.29 > 0.05). Hence, the test of ANOVA (analysis
package for social sciences) and displayed in the of variance) was conducted in order to find out whether
following section. the differences between the means of age groups were
significant. The results of the ANOVA test were given
5. Results
in Table 8. The results revealed that the attitudes of the
First of all, the mean score of the NEP scale was respondents towards environment were not significant
calculated as 3.52, in total. As it is accepted that an among different age groups.
NEP mean score of 3 is the boundary between an As the result of the test, the homogeneity was below
anthropocentric and ecocentric worldview [39, 40], the the level of significance (p = 0.047 < 0.05) for
result showed that the respondents had a medium level education level of the respondents, the Kruskal-Wallis
of ecological worldview. test was conducted. The Kruskal-Wallis test found that
NEP scale, the measure used in the study, was environmental attitude scores in six different education
analysed in order to test reliability and the levels did not differ significantly (x2 = 6.35, df = 4,
alpha-reliability result of the fifteen-item scale was p = 0.174) and the results are given in Tables 9 and 10.
given in Table 5. The results revealed that the scale Since the result of the test of homogeneity was
had Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.77 which showed below the level of significance (p = 0 < 0.05)
that the scale had good reliability. for household income of the respondents and given in
The aim of the study was to find out whether there Table 5 Reliability value of NEP scale.
were significant relationships between the Cronbach’s Alpha No. of items
environmental attitudes of the respondents and their 0.767 15
demographic information such as their gender, age,
Table 6 Test of homogeneity of variances for gender.
education and household income. In order to decide
Levene statistic df1 df2 Sig.
which type of analysis would be used, test of
1.673 1 163 0.198
homogeneity of variances was checked for each
demographic item and then according to the obtained Table 7 Test of homogeneity of variances for age.
results, suitable analyses were conducted. Levene statistic df1 df2 Sig.
1.258 4 160 0.289
For the “gender” item, the results of test of
Table 8 Test of homogeneity of variances for education.

Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
Between groups 1.187 4 0.297 1.007 0.406
Within groups 47.189 160 0.295
Total 48.377 164
Table 9 Test of homogeneity of variances for education. educated ones and respondents with a higher
Levene statistic df1 df2 Sig. income are more likely to hold environmental
2.308 5 159 0.047 beliefs.
Table 10 Kruskal Wallis test results for education. In this respect, applying data recently collected in
Test statisticsa, b Famagusta, North Cyprus, the correlation between age,
Enviroatt gender, education and household income as
Chi-square 6.353 socio-demographic characteristics and environmental
df 4
worldview were examined. The environmental
Asymp. sig. 0.174
worldview was conceptualized by NEP scale [6] in the
Table 11 Test of homogeneity of variances for income. study. The study results indicate that there is no
Levene statistic df1 df2 Sig. statistically significant influence of gender, age and
5.234 5 159 0 education level on environmental attitudes. Merely the
Table 12 Test of homogeneity of variances for incomes. household income has been found to achieve a
Enviroatt statistically significant effect on the NEP score.
Chi-square 9.287 According to the results, this calculated effect of
df 4 household income does not produce any directly
Asymptotic sig. 0.054
positive or negative relation with the NEP score,
Table 11, the Kruskal-Wallis test was conducted. The whereas household income has a statistically
Kruskal-Wallis test showed that environmental attitude significant nonlinear effect.
scores in different household incomes of respondent Briefly, according to the results of the research,
differed significantly (x2 = 9.29, df = 4, p = 0.054) and complementary to previous results, younger
the results are given in Table 12. respondents, women and highly educated ones do not
seem to achieve higher scores of environmental
6. Discussion and Conclusion attitudes in Famagusta. Gender, age and education are
The present study has sought to understand the found to be irrelevant as factors influencing the
impact of several demographic variables on the environmental worldview. However, former studies
environmental worldview of Famagusta residents in have modestly suggested that gender [19, 21, 29-31],
order to make a scientific contribution to the research age [32-34] and social class [26, 27, 31, 35] were
field as a study involving a non-western correlates of environmental beliefs. Therefore, a
sampling context. Such that according to the related significant part of this study, applied to a non-western
literature review based on the samples mostly from the sampling context, seems to contradict with the previous
western countries [19, 21, 26, 27, 29-35], there has studies.
been a modest evidence indicating the so-called Finally, this paper highlights the need for further
“gender effect”, “age effect” and “social class research to investigate the nature of ecological
effect”. In other words, former studies tend to citizenship which is acclaimed to be the new notion of
indicate that women, younger respondents, highly citizenship for the sake of the planet’s future.
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of Environmental Concern: Have They Changed over [40] Van Petegem, P., and Blieck, A. 2006. “The
Time?” Rural Sociology 57: 28-47. Environmental Worldview of Children: A Cross-Cultural
[34] Van Liere, K. D., and Dunlap, R. E. 1980. “The Social Perspective.” Environmental Education Research 12:
Bases of Environmental Concern. A Review of 625-35.
doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.004
D DAVID PUBLISHING
A GIS Model for Analyzing Airspace Obstructions and

Safety near Airports
Sze-Wei Chang
Department of Aviation Management, China University of Science and Technology, Hsinchu 31241, Taiwan
Abstract: The purpose of Federal Aviation Regulations Part 77, entitled “Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace”, is to identify
potential hazards and prevent adverse impacts to the safe and efficient use of navigable airspace. The OIS (obstruction identification
surfaces) represent these regulations, identify objects that penetrate these imaginary surfaces, evaluate hazardous effects, and ensure
safe separations of aircraft from obstructions. The OIS evaluation is often used for selecting airfield locations and runway orientations.
More importantly, the OIS evaluation is an airport’s safeguard against flawed urban development, especially for airports near rapidly
expanding cities. Without accurate analysis tools, hand-calculation errors on the OIS can occur and cause adverse impacts to airport
safety. Applying the GIS (geographic information system) features of geospatial data and 3D formats, this paper proposes a model
named GIS Obstruction Model which is capable of precisely calculating maximum allowable heights and creating visual imagery of
penetrating obstructions. The special features of the model include web-based design, adaptability to any airport, user-friendly multiple
inquiry methods, quick response to online inquiries, and response with 3D visual reality. The proposed GIS Obstruction Model is useful
for airport planning, architecture design, safety management or civil engineering permit review.
Key words: Obstruction identification surfaces, geographic information systems, airport design, obstruction evaluation, obstacle
limitation surfaces.
1. Introduction the safe separations between aircraft and obstructions.

The OIS evaluation is often used for new airfield
Airspace protection and obstacle clearance are vital
location selection and runway orientation
to airport and aircraft operation. Restrictions should be
determination. More importantly, the OIS evaluation is
established on the heights of buildings, antennas, trees
an airport’s safeguard against flawed urban
and other objects as necessary to protect the airspace
development, especially for airports near rapidly
needed for safe operation of the airport and aircraft.
expanding cities. Market forces often lead real estate
The methods for determining the complex airport
development interests to propose buildings in the
imaginary surfaces are the regulations of the FAR
vicinity of an airport. Building developers, of course,
(Federal Aviation Regulations) Part 77 “Objects
are interested in maximizing their return on investment,
Affecting Navigable Airspace” [1]. They are used to
which is most often achieved by developing to the
identify potential aeronautical hazards, thus preventing
“highest and best use” potential of their land, and as
or minimizing adverse impacts to the safe and efficient
such can desire to build structures of substantial height
use of navigable airspace.
above the ground. The proposed building permit
The OIS (obstruction identification surfaces), which
evaluation procedures are mainly circulated among
graphically represent the FAR Part 77 regulations, are
local government, airport authority and aviation
used to identify objects that penetrate these imaginary
administration [2]. Without accurate and handy tools,
surfaces, to evaluate hazardous effects and to ensure
hand-calculation errors on the restrictive height/area of
the OIS could occur and caused adverse impacts to
Corresponding author: Sze-Wei Chang, assistant professor,
research fields: airport design, airline management, air traffic airport safety. For example, the Taipei Songshan
control and fleet planning.
Airport (IATA (International Air Transport provide accurate location information for features and
Association) airport code: TSA; ICAO (International obstructions on and near airports. The emergence of
Civil Aviation Organization) airport code: RCSS) is GPS (global position system)-based navigation has
adversely affected by the obstructing Taipei 101 increased the demand for accurate aeronautical
Building, because mistakes in restrictive area surveyed data. NOAA and FAA are currently
calculations were made when the proposal was developing a new approach to aeronautical surveying
reviewed by the Taipei City Government and Civil in response to this need [6].
Aviation Authority [3]. The objective of this paper is to Panayotov and Georgiev [7] present a spatial model
develop a model, called the GIS (geographic of the airport navigation space with coarsening from
information system) Obstruction Model, with the the smaller cells to the larger cells. The model is
special features of precisely calculating restrictive designed as an analytic tool with the geometrical data
height/area of the OIS and creating visual imagery of in the ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute)
obstacles penetrating them. The model applies a GIS’s arc GIS environment. The model uses the concept of
features of geospatial data and 3D visualization to octree to represent the airport space as a cube. An
achieve the overall objective. octree is a tree data structure in which each parental
cube has exactly eight children sub-cubes. Octrees are
2. Literature Review and Methodology
most often used to partition a three-dimensional space
Litsheim and Xiao [4] commented that airspace by recursively subdividing it into eight octants. The
protection and obstacle clearance are vital to airport possible obstruction objects are represented with 3D
and aircraft operations. Restrictions should be octrees that are located and analyzed for a conflict with
established on the heights of buildings, antennas, trees, the airport space. Panayotov and Georgiev’s paper
and other objects as necessary to protect the airspace shows the capability to compare the obstruction and
needed for operation of the airports and aircraft. The restrictive height, no evidence of visualization of the
most commonly used criteria for determining obstructions that penetrate imaginary surfaces.
complicated airport obstacles are FAR Part 77 Panayotov et al. [8] propose an improved spatial
imaginary surfaces. Horonjeff’s textbook Planning & model which a CADD (computer-aided design and
Design of Airports, which is widely-used in colleges drafting)/BIM (building information modeling)
and graduate schools for airport related courses, module for manmade constructions is added to the
demonstrates many OIS example problems. All of previous arc GIS (for airspace runway analysis) and
these problems require detailed calculation to firstly octrees (for scalable 3D presentation of the whole
determine which surface affects any considered airport space) models. The methods are used in Denver
obstruction and then determine the restrictive (i.e., International Airport Planning Office only, not
maximum allowable) height of the obstacle. The web-based design.
calculation process is quite complicated and Ulubay and Altan [9] present an overview of spatial
time-consuming. A slight error in obstacle location can data integration from different aspects and explore the
result in large errors in the restrictive height [5]. role of visualization. They also examine the use of
The NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric analytical and visual types of derived information in
Administration) have provided aeronautical survey solving spatial problems by presenting a study related
data to the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) for to the construction of obstacle-free zones for airports.
nearly 60 years. These aeronautical survey data help OLS (obstacle limitation surfaces), the topography and
ensuring the safety of the national airspace system and man-made objects were used as cartographic input
A GIS Model for Analyzing Airspace Obstructions and Safety near Airports 555
layers in determining dangerous objects for aircraft and roaming, inquiring and answering service. Table 1
final analyses results were presented with 3D screen shows the comparison of proposed GIS Obstruction
displays. In the paper, they mainly examine the ICAO Model and previous works.
Annex 14 regulations “Obstacle Restriction and By applying the analytical and geometric method,
Removal” and OLS, which is slightly different from the proposed runway endpoints and critical points of
FAR Part 77 “Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace” the imaginary surfaces along 3D coordinates are
and OIS [10]. Although discussing the spatial data constructed according to the FAR Part 77 regulations
integration methodologies, this paper is only contented for specific category of runway. The model is
with exploring a framework for integration of complex transformed from flat surface coordinates into UTM
geographic datasets. (universal transverse mercator) coordinate system, and
The GIS Obstruction Model presented in this paper then the WGS84 coordinate system with specific
is built in a GIS environment. A GIS is a special type of elevation. The transparent imaginary surfaces with
information system concerned with geographically different colors, which graphically represent the FAR
referenced data. A GIS has two distinguishing Part 77 regulations, are generated and overlapped with
characteristics that make it different from a standard the geo-referenced stereo imagery in the vicinity of
information system. First, the data in a GIS are the airport.
spatially referenced with x-y-z or latitude-longitude-
3. FAR Part 77 Objects Affecting Navigable
elevation 3D coordinates. Second, a GIS has mapping
Airspace
capabilities associated with those coordinates. The GIS
Obstruction Model presented here is developed with FAR Part 77 establishes standards for determining
the Skyline software system. The Skyline can provide obstructions to air navigation. The standards apply to
user roaming of 3D terrain and image, modeling of existing and constructed objects, trees and terrain. The
objects near the airport and answering of 3D obstruction identification surfaces, depicting the
geo-information inquiring about proposed construction standards, are used to ensure safe separations between
objects. It allows building multiple layers of imaginary aircraft and obstructions. The dimensions of the
surfaces with geo-referenced data by using points, lines, imaginary surfaces are based on the category of each
polygons and circles. These imaginary surfaces can be runway (e.g., utility runway or runways larger than
further digitally mapping to the geo-referenced stereo utility) and the type of approach planned for that
imagery in the vicinity of the airport. Its powerful runway (e.g., visual, non-precision instrument or
network feature and terrain server technology precision instrument).
efficiently stream massive amounts of 3D geographic Fig. 1 shows the dimensions of FAR Part 77
and geo-referenced data to thousands of concurrent imaginary surfaces for various types of runway
web-site users, giving each user uninterrupted viewing, and approach [1]. As an example, the Category E, most
Table 1 Comparison of the proposed GIS Obstruction Model and previous works.
Regulations Max allowable height 3D visualization/
Methodology GIS software
applied for online inquiry obstructions penetration
Panayotov 2008 [7] Octrees ESRI arc FAA OIS
Octrees &
Panayotov 2012 [8] ESRI arc FAA OIS Yes/no
CADD/BIM
Analytical and
Ulubay 2002 [9] Unknown ICAO OLS Yes/no
visual
Analytical &
Proposed GIS model Skyline FAA OIS Yes Yes/yes
geometric
556 A GIS
S Model for Analyzing Airs
space Obstru
uctions and Safety
S near Aiirports
Fig. 1 FAR Part 77 imagin

nary surfaces [1].
[
critical OIS for the preciision instrumment runway withw  Conical suurface: extends outward and upwardd
visibility minnimums as loow as 3/4 milees, is describeed as from
m the horizonntal surface aat a slope of 20
2 horizontall
follows: to 1 vertical for a distance off 4,000 ft;
 Primaryy surface: exxtends 500 ftt on each sidde of  Approach surface:
s extennds outward and upward,,
the runway centerline annd extends 2000 ft beyond each e diveerging from the
t inner widdth of 1,000 ftt to outer endd
end of the ruunway; widdth of 16,0000 ft, at sloppes of 50:1 for the firstt
 Horizonntal surface: constructed by b swinging arcs 10,0000 ft of horrizontal distaance (nearest the runway))
of 10,000 ft radii from eaach end of thee primary surrface andd then 40:1 for the nextt 40,000 ft of o horizontall
and connectting each arc by tangent lines,
l with 1550 ft disttance;
above the esstablished airpport elevationn;  Transitionaal surface: extends ou utward andd
upward at a slope of 7:1 from the primary surface up critical points are defined by their x-y-z attributes in 3D
to the 150 ft horizontal surface, and from the approach coordinates with the origin point in the center of
surface over a horizontal distance of 5,000 ft. runway. Fig. 2 shows the imaginary surfaces and their
critical points projecting into 3D coordinates. Based on
3. Design and Features of the Model
the critical points which depict the required dimensions
Historically, airport obstruction identification was for the regulations, each imaginary surface is
done with conventional land surveying methods. constructed by applying intensive calculation [5].
Although these methods are the most accurate, they are Taking the example of the approach surface, it is
also the most costly and time-consuming. Some GIS composed of two inclined trapezoids, one elevated
obstruction models have been developed in past 10 horizontal surface and one inclined arc. Based on the
years. The previous researches create imaginary given dimensions of the Category E precision
surface models based on the TIN (triangulated irregular instrument runway, the baselines of inclined trapezoids
network) technique, instead of full DEM (digital are calculated first and shown as follows:
elevation model). The data input of TIN is flexible and cc ' = 1,000 ft in width, 200 ft in distance, 0 ft in
fewer points need to be stored than raster DEM. A TIN height;
may be less suited than a raster DEM for certain kinds jj ' = 3,250 ft in width, 7,700 ft in distance, 150 ft in
of GIS applications, such as analysis of a surface’s height;
slope and aspect. Based on these reasons, Panayotov et qq ' = 4,600 ft in width, 12,200 ft in distance, 250 ft
al. [7, 8] propose octree model for scalable 3D in height;
presentation of the whole airport space. The octree uu ' = 16,000 ft in width,50,200 ft in distance,
model is lack of features of transparent imaginary 1,200 ft in height.
surface overlapping with terrain and, consequently, EL (elevation) and HL (half runway length) have to
unable to visually identify the penetrated obstacles. be added into for specific runway.
In this paper, the proposed model generates the Since the calculation result found that allowable
multiple layers of imaginary surfaces, which represent height of segment between jj ' and qq ' is higher
the obstruction regulations, with geo-referenced data than horizontal and conical surfaces in the location, the
by using points, lines, polygons and circles. These elevated surface and inclined arc are constructed for
imaginary surfaces are further digitally mapping and approach surface. In order to generalize the
overlapping to the geo-referenced stereo imagery in the applicability of the model, the designed imaginary
vicinity of the airport. Any terrain, building, antenna, surfaces are independent of site-specific inputs of
or other object, which is higher than its relative runway length, width, location, orientation and
restrictive height, will penetrate its relative transparent elevation. Thus, the critical points are digitized as that
imaginary surface and be visually identified. the attribute x is equal to extended width, the attribute y
By applying the analytical and geometric method to is equal to distance plus half of runway length and
the specific runway and its intended operations type, attribute z is equal to maximum allowable height plus
the dimensions of imaginary surfaces will be calculated, runway elevation. In here, denotations are done as x-y-z
the imaginary surfaces along 3D coordinates will be attributes, c (500, 200+ HL, 0+ EL), j’ (−1,625, 7700+
constructed, and their critical points will be identified. HL, 150+ EL), q (2,300, 12,200+ HL, 250+ EL), u’
Each critical point represents an endpoint or cross (−8,000, 50,200+ HL, 1,200+ EL).
section between lines, circles and inclined planes Based on the same analytical and geometric method,
according to the imaginary surface affecting it. The the critical points of every imaginary surface are solved
558 A GIS
S Model for Analyzing Airs
space Obstru
uctions and Safety
S near Aiirports
Fig. 2 Imagiinary surfaces & critical poin

nts [5].
gradually. The
T x-y attribbutes are firsstly specifiedd by surffaces represent the resstrictive (i.e.., maximum m
manually-enntered flat suurface coorddinates. This 2D allo
owable) heigghts and loccations of the t potentiall
mock-up moodel in flat surface
s coorddinates is rottated obstacles for speecific runwayy and its opeerations type..
into its runw way orientatiion and projected into UTM U Witth the supportt of the DTM M (digital terraain model), iff
coordinate system. After coonverting, the the height of terrrain is higher than maximu um allowablee
geo-referencced 2D mockk-up model is transformed into heigght in its location,
l thee extra obsttruction thatt
WGS84 sysstem, which is the referrence coordiinate pennetrates the 3D transparennt imaginary surfaces willl
system usedd by the GPS S. The attribuute z is equaal to be visually iddentified. T The existing g manmadee
vertical heigght plus runw way elevatioon. By usingg the obstructions succh as buildingg, tower, anteenna or cranee
x-y-z attributtes of critical points, the im
maginary surfaaces, willl be also ideentified visuually, but nott for naturall
which grapphically reppresent the FAR Part 77 growwth trees.
regulations, are generateed. They dispplay as diffeerent Fig.
F 3 show ws the GIS Obstruction n Model forr
color of straiight lines, currves and incliined planes inn 3D preccision instruument runwaay of Taipeei Songshann
and are ovverlapping onn the geo-reeferenced sttereo Airpport (IATA airport
a code: TSA; ICAO airport code::
imagery in thet vicinity of o the airportt. The imaginnary RCSS). Combinned with existting obstructiion database,,
Fig. 3 OIS model of TSA Airport.
the terrain or building obstructions that penetrate the obstruction objects can be identified and previous
3D transparent imaginary surfaces are visually existing data can be reviewed for accuracy and validity;
identified and comparing with maximum allowable  3D visualization of the obstructions can be
height. In order to help the user to find the maximum achieved (e.g., terrain, buildings or antennas);
allowable height of the specific location in the vicinity  It owns an inquiry function that allows manual
of airport, an inquiry function is designed, as shown on entry of latitude-longitude coordinates or mouse-click
the pull-down menu on the left side (Fig .3). That is selection of the location of new proposed construction;
allowed to input the exact location with  Quick response to online inquiries of restrictive
latitude-longitude coordinates of specific location and height with both figures and visual symbols in
inquiring height. It then promptly yields the restrictive real-time stereo mode is designed for the model;
(i.e., maximum allowable) height of this location with  The model is designed with an inherently
both figures and visual symbols. Several design quantitative nature. It generates obstruction
features can be described as follows: identification surfaces precisely, calculates obstacles
 A single, web-based database system for validated location accurately, and precisely computes the
data in support of airport design and construction restrictive height of the obstacles in the location.
programs is used; With all of these special design features, the GIS
 The model is designed to be sufficiently general Obstruction Model achieves the objective of this paper
for application to different runways and allows mentioned. It represents an up-to-date obstruction
site-specific inputs for runway length, width, location, model for an airport with one runway or independent
orientation and elevation, enabling the practitioners to parallel runways. The design of the obstruction model
quickly generate an obstruction model for various uses; for airports with multiple crossing runways or
 A friendly interface support with which new closely-spaced parallel runways requires further efforts
in the future. The proposed model should be useful to hh = restrictive height of horizontal surface;
transportation infrastructure planers in determining the hc = restrictive height of selected location in conical
airport location and runway orientation, to building surface;
developers in determining the restrictive height of db = building distance to the end centerline of
proposed buildings, to government officials in Runway 28;
evaluating the proposed constructions, and to airfield dh = arc distance of horizontal surface;
safety managers in monitoring obstructions and safety rc = slope ratio of conical surface.
separations. Compared to hand calculation, using the GIS
Obstruction Model to determine the restrictive height
4. Numerical Examples and Comparison
of the building is much easier and accurate. After
In order to verify the model’s design features, the opening the web page of the Songshan Airport GIS
problem of the 101 Building obstruction to Taipei Obstruction Model, the imaginary surfaces
Songshan Airport is analyzed both with hand over-lapping with digital terrain (Fig. 3) are shown. By
calculations and this proposed model. The Songshan inputting the latitude and longitude of the building
Airport has one precision instrument runway whose location (or simply clicking to select the location) and
length is 8,547 ft and whose width is 197 ft. The inquiring height of the proposed building, the model
runway orientation is 10~28. The runway elevation determines in real time that the restrictive height is
AMSL (above mean sea level) is 18 ft. The Taipei 101 291.33 ft and visually indicates the building under
Building is located on a bearing of 184° and distance of specific surface on which the building is located. The
12,467 ft off the end centerline of Runway 28. For the proposed GIS Obstruction Model has been verified for
precision instrument runway, the dimensional standard accuracy in calculations and proved an up-to-date
of Category E is applied. Based on runway information, design.
the size and direction of each surface have to be The container terminals of Kaohsiung Seaport are
calculated and drawn in a relatively small scale map. located close to the approach surface of the Runway 09
Then, based on the building location, the surfaces of Kaohsiung International Airport (IATA airport code:
affecting the building will be determined. The building KHH; ICAO airport code: RCKH). Some types of
in the example problem is located under the conical container gantry cranes, such as super-post Panamax,
surface and horizontal surface. The maximum reach 90 m (295 ft) in total height. When their booms
allowable height of the building can be solved as are lifted in the air to clear the ships for navigation,
follows: they are higher than the maximum allowable height and
h  e r  eb  hh  hc penetrate the OISs. Using the proposed model to solve
 e r  e b  h h  ( d b  d h )  rc this problem is very simple, comparing to measure and
 18  0  150  (12,467  10,000) 
1 calculate every location of height of hundreds of cranes.
20 The nearest allowable location of 295 ft crane is the
 291 ft distance of 12,950 ft from the center of runway. From
where: GIS Obstruction Model of KHH Airport shown in
h = restrictive (i.e., maximum allowable) height of Fig. 4, it can be visually identified the OIS penetration
the building location AGL (above ground level); of hazardous obstruction if any crane is located in
er = runway elevation AMSL; horizontal surface, inner three-quarters of conical
eb = elevation difference of building location; surface or inner one-third of approach surface.
Fig. 4 OIS model of KHH Airport.
5. Conclusions the long-term goal for airport design. The proposed

model in this paper is one of the essential modules for
The OIS evaluation is often used for new airfield site
this. Even the proposed GIS Obstruction Model itself,
selection and runway orientation determination. More
it has been demonstrated as an useful tool for airport
importantly, the OIS evaluation is an airport’s
design, transportation infrastructure planning, urban
safeguard against flawed urban development,
development and airfield safety management.
especially for airports near rapidly expanding cities.
Without accurate and handy tools, hand-calculation References
errors on the restrictive height/area of the OIS could [1] FAA (Federal Aviation Administration). 1993. FAR Part
occur and cause adverse impacts to airport safety. 77: Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace. Washington,
Applying the GIS features of geospatial data and 3D D.C.: FAA.
formats, this paper develops the GIS Obstruction [2] TRB (Transportation Research Board). 2010.
Understanding Airspace, Objects, and Their Effects on
Model which is capable of calculating restrictive height
Airports. ACRP (Airport Cooperative Research Program)
accurately and creating visual imagery of penetrating report 38, 8-40.
obstructions. The special features of the model include [3] Chang, S. W., and Chin, Y. R. 2010. “Comparison of
web-based design, adaptability to any airport, friendly Obstacle Restriction and Analysis of Safety Airspace
between RCSS Airport and FAA OIS.” In 2010
multiple inquiry methods, accurate calculation, quick
Proceeding of Aeronautical & Astronautical Society,
response to online inquiring, and response with 3D 217-23.
visual reality. The proposed GIS Obstruction Model [4] Litsheim, S., and Xiao, X. 2009. “Airport Obstacle
presents an up-to-date design for an airport with one Surfaces.” Journal of Advanced Transportation 43:
347-66.
runway or multiple distant runways. An airport cost
[5] Horonjeff, R., and McKelvey, F. X. 1994. Planning and
minimization model, which combines airfield land use Design of Airport. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
and multiple runway orientation optimizations [11], is [6] Vidal, S., Graham, D., and Steele, J. 2004. “FAA Airport
Surveying-GIS Program: The Presentation to Airport GIS 321-8.

Committee.” National Geodetic Survey. Accessed March [9] Ulubay, A., and Altan, M. O. 2002. “A Different
30, 2009. http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/AERO/eAOC/p1635. Approach to the Spatial Data Integration.” Presented at
pdf. 2002 Symposium on Geospatial Theory, Processing and
[7] Panayotov, A., Georgiev, I. K. 2008. “Modelling of the Applications, Ottawa, Canada.
Airport Navigation Apace Obstructions.” Presented at 3rd [10] ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization). 2004.
International Conference from Scientific Computing to Aerodrome Design and Operations. Annex 14 to the
Computational Engineering, Athens, Greece. Convention on International Civil Aviation. Quebec:
[8] Panayotov, A., Georgiev I., and Georgiev, I. 2012. “A ICAO.
Practical Approach for Airport Spatial [11] Chang, S. W. 2015. “Crosswind-Based Optimization of
Modeling.” In Proceedings of the 13th International Multiple Runway Orientations.” Journal of Advanced
Conference on Computer Systems and Technologies, Transportation 49: 1-9.
doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.005
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Stability Analysis of Tubular Steel Shores
Fábio André Frutuoso Lopes, Fernando Artur Nogueira Silva, Romilde Almeida de Oliveira and Romildo Alves
Berenguer
Department of Civil Engineering, Catholic University of Pernambuco, Recife 51110-200, Brazil
Abstract: The design of tubular steel scaffold-type shoring is usually performed by calculating the load capacity of the elements,
taking into account their axial strength, mainly. Geometric stiffness effects and changes in the stiffness of connections are seldom
considered. This paper assesses the stability of tubular steel shores using experimental and numerical approaches that take into
account geometric nonlinearities as well as the features of the elements used to make the link between the steel tubes (pressed double
coupler—right angle). The increase in overall stiffness generated by diagonal bars used in the analyzed models was examined. The
results obtained show the importance of using P-delta analyses in this kind of structure in order to evaluate structure’s overall
stability even when compressive stresses are within acceptable ranges of code limits.
Key words: Tubular steel shores, global stability, semi-rigid connections, P-delta analyses.
1. Introduction bending at the joints can occur. This way, the effective
lengths of elements can not be calculated considering
Steel shores must be designed and built to support
exclusively the distance between horizontal coupler
the weight of structures during construction and should
elements and the stiffness generated by element
have adequate stiffness to ensure the integrity of the
geometries and their connection must be taken into
structural elements that they temporarily support.
account.
Under their self-weight, the weight of the supported
This paper discusses the importance of considering
structure and building live loads, steel shores must not
second-order effects in the design of tubular steel
display large deflections that can affect structure
scaffold-type shoring. The assembly of scaffold
functionality and should not generate stress resultants,
frames in tower structures with different overall
which have not been considered in the design.
stiffness was modeled in order to study and evaluate
The design of tubular steel scaffold-type shoring is
its flexural behavior using real in-situ features of the
usually performed taking into account the individual
connections. In the design of steel frame structures, it
elements’ axial load capacity only by adopting pin
is usual to consider the connections as flexible
support ends as boundary conditions. If the global
(perfect hinges) or as rigid ones (fully rigid), although
stability of the structure is ensured, this design
in practice joints are neither ideally hinged nor rigid.
approach is realistic enough, but depending on shore
In fact, all the joints exhibit some relative rotation
stiffness, the ultimate limit state is not governed by
between the members being joined and this is due to
the buckling of isolated compressed elements and the
the deformation of elements in the joint. Thus, it
structure’s global buckling becomes more important.
would be more appropriate to model these
In this situation, the elements’ unsupported length can
connections as semi-rigid elements (partially
not be accurately estimated because connections of the
restrained), because this hypothesis leads to potential
coupler are of varying degrees of fixity and some
economies that can be achieved from simpler
connection details, adjusting their stiffnesses to
Corresponding author: Romildo Alves Berenguer,
professor, research fields: concrete, corrosion materials and optimize the distribution of moments in the connected
structural concrete.
members. For design purposes, any joint that develops calculated using Eq. (1) and the slenderness ratio can
more than 90% of the ideal rigid joint moment can be be obtained using Eq. (2) as follows:
classified as rigid and those that develop less than Nn(L) = Øcρ(L)QAgfy (1)
20% of the ideal rigid joint moment should be KL
considered as hinged. Joints that develop bending  (L)  (2)
r
moments between these two values are considered where:
semi-rigid [1, 2]. Fig. 1 depicts this concept showing Øc = resistance factor;
in a schematic way curves for each type of connection ρ(L) =factor related to flexure buckling;
and a straight line that represents the relationship Q = reduction factor due to local buckling;
between end-moments and rotation for a simply Ag = gross area of member, cm2;
supported and uniformly loaded beam. fy = yield stress of steel, kN/cm2;
To calculate the relationship between the K = effective length factor;
end-bending moments and rotations, tests were L = length of member, cm;
performed to evaluate the efficiency of orthogonal r = radius of gyration, cm.
coupler. Table 1 shows the properties of the steel
tubes used in tests and numerical simulations. 3. Numerical Modeling
2. Load Capacity According to Brazilian To evaluate the influence of the degree of fixity
Code generated by couplers on global stability, models with
different boundary conditions were studied (Fig. 2). In
The design strength [3] for a compressed structural the analyses, the joints were modeled as semi-rigid
member subject to flexural and local buckling can be connections and their rotational stiffnesses were
Moment calculated from experimental tests described in the
next section. Software SAP2000 was used in
Rigid connection
numerical modeling [4].
Two boundary conditions were considered:
 translation restraints only on base nodes;
Semi-rigid connection
 translation restraints in all nodes on the base and
WL2 2 EI on the top.
M 
12 L
Hinged connection Fv Fv Fv Fv Fv Fv Fv Fv
Fh
Rotation
150 m
150 m
Fig. 1 Moment versus joint rotation [1].

Fh
Table 1 Properties of steel tubes used.
Nx (panel height)
Properties of the steel tubes

150 m
150 m
Outside diameter (mm) 48.30

Thickness (mm) 3.05
Cross section area (mm2) 433 50 m 50 m 50 m 50 m 50 m 50 m
Yield stress (fy) (MPa) 400
(a) (b)
Young’s modulus (GPa) 205
Fig. 2 Boundary conditions of the Models (a) and (b):
Specific weight (kN/m3) 77
(a) translation restraints only on base nodes; (b) translation
Poisson ratio () 0.30
restraints in all nodes on the base and on the top.
Stability Analysis of Tubular Steel Shores 565
P-delta analyses were performed using a where:

convergence criterion of 1% for displacements and k = coupler rotational stiffness;
force tolerance and the maximum number of iteration L = length of member connected to coupler;
was set to 10. To start the iteration process, the E = modulus of elasticity;
structures were subjected to an initial eccentricity and I = moment of inertia.
a lateral load equal to 0.1% of nodal vertical load, Fig. 4 shows details of the tests performed to
according to Ref. [5]. In the structure that has lateral calculate coupler flexural rotational stiffness. Loads
displacement restraints on the base and on the top, this were applied using a hydraulic jack with a capacity of
force was applied in a central node; and in the 200 kN, provided with a calibrated pressure
structure whose only displacement restraints are transducer cell capable of reading forces up to 40 kN.
located on its base, this nodal force was applied to a Digital deflectometers with a precision of 0.003 mm
top node. were used to measure linear displacements. Five
Applying the boundary conditions described above orthogonal couplers made with hardened forged
on Models (a) and (b) from Fig. 3 results in four spring steel were tested. When these couplers are
structures to be analyzed. One that comes from the use subjected to the tubes’ flexure, they offer a torsion
of rigid connections on Model (a) and three other reaction. The distance between the axes of the tubes
structures considering hinged, semi-rigid or rigid engaged was 65 mm. Properties of the steel tubes used
connections on Model (b). in tests and numerical simulations are those in Table 1.
The vertical load was calculated adopting a value of Vertical and horizontal steel bars used in experimental
30% of the load capacity of the tube according models have the same properties.
to Eq. (1), considering a member buckling length In order to minimize displacements due to axial
of 1.5 m. This way, the vertical and horizontal deformations during the loading process, steel tubes
load used in numerical analyses were respectively with solid cross sections were used in the tests. Fig. 3
20.4 kN and 0.02 kN. Additionally, the influence shows moment x rotation curves for each one of tested
of diagonal members on the behavior of couplers from which was derived a function M(x) to
the structure with hinged connections as calculate the degree of torsion fixity of the couplers.
compared with the other structures modeled was The secant stiffness used in numerical modeling was
studied. defined in a way that the number considered was
representative of all tested specimens. In this way,
4. Tests Performed to Calculate Rotational
it was assigned a 0.04 rad of relative rotation to all
Brace Stiffness
1,200
The degree of fixity of a connection should not be
1,000
calculated from the moment-rotation relationship only
Moment (N(x, m))
because this degree is not enough to classify the 800
connection as rigid or as hinged. This classification 600

can only be done taking into account the relationship
400
between the coupler stiffness and the flexural stiffness
200
of the elements they connect. This ratio is often
called “common stiffness” and can be expressed 00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Rotation (rad)
through Eq. (3): Bracing 1 Bracing 4 Secant
kL (3)
Bracing 2
Bracing 3
Bracing 5
Function M(x)
EI Fig. 3 Moment x rotation curves.

Model (a) Model (b)

50
Numbers of panels
Numbers of panels
40 100
30
20 50
10
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Displacement (m) Displacement (m)
Rigid connection Rigid connection
Hinged connection + diagonal Hinged connection + diagonal
(a) (b)
Fig. 5 Non-linear geometric behavior of Models (a) and
(a) (b) (b): (a) test performed; (b) pressed coupler detail.
Fig. 4 Test details: (a) test performed; (b) pressed coupler
detail. Model (b)
4
frames of the model which corresponds to a torsional

stiffness of 12.1 kNm/rad. The definition of secant 3
Number of panels
stiffness used was an approximation to represent a

safe behavior for all the couplers tested, since the use 2
of initial stiffness would generate underestimated

displacements. 1
Fig. 5 shows lateral displacements from P-delta

analysis on the nodes (where horizontal forces were 0
0 2 × 10−4 4 × 10−4 6 × 10−4 8 × 10−4
applied) versus the number of panels. One can verify
Displacement (m)
that for the two studied models, the structures with Hinged connection
Semi-rigid connection
flexible nodes with added diagonal bars exhibited Fig. 6 Behavior of Model (b) using the hinged connections
larger lateral stiffness than those structures modeled without diagonal bars and with rotational constant spring
value of the tested couplers.
considering rigid connections only.
Fig. 3 presents the second-order horizontal with hinged connections on its ends. Thus,
displacement curves derived from the analysis second-order analyses applied on Model (b) with
performed in Model (b), taking into account the hinged connections or using the stiffness torsional
hinged connection approach with a rotational constant constant obtained with the tests performed converge
spring value equal to 12.1 kNm/rad. Since the only for two panels.
torsional stiffness used in numerical modeling offers
5. Conclusions
little rotational fixity, both models presented
equivalent lateral stiffness as can be seen in Fig. 3. Based on the data developed in this investigation,
One important fact that should be observed was the the following conclusions could be drawn:
dispersion of moment x rotation curves obtained from (1) The torsional stiffness value of couplers
the tests with the couplers. This fact possibly occurred obtained from experimental tests generated for the
due to difficulties in controlling the pressure applied studied models a degree of fixity in their connections
on the screws of the coupled system of orthogonal similar to those that can be obtained adopting the
connections. hinged connections approach. However, it is
Analyzing the results in Fig. 6, one can observe that important to highlight that the couplers used on the
the connections modeled generated on the structure tests were not brand new. Conversely, they presented
stiffness similar to those obtained for a system modeled some degree of abrasion from their use and were
Stability Analysis of Tubular Steel Shores 567
chosen because they represent real conditions usually Steel Structure Connections. Rio de Janeiro: CBCA. (in
Portuguese)
found in steel shoring works;
[2] Ferreira, M. A., El Debs, M. K., and Elliot, K. S. 2003.
(2) Diagonal bars added to structures with hinged “Theoretical and Experimental Determination of
connections produced a lateral stiffness larger than Moment-Rotation Relationship in Beam-Column
that obtained on models with rigid connections Connections in Precast Concrete Structures.” Presented at
5th Symposium EPUSP (Escola Politécnica da
without diagonal bars. This increase was larger in
Universidade de São Paulo) on Concrete Structures, São
Model (b). Paulo, Brazil. (in Portuguese)
The results obtained should be applied with caution, [3] ABNT (Brazilian Association of Technical Codes). 2008.
especially those represented in Figs. 5 and 6, and must NBR 8800: Design and Construction of Steel Buildings
Structures (Limit State Method). Rio de Janeiro: ABNT.
be seen as an estimation of the lateral stiffness of the
(in Portuguese)
analyzed models. It is not possible to extrapolate [4] Computers and Structures, Inc. 2014.
directly to design situations because the load SAP2000—Integrated Finite Element Analysis and
conditions used are not those usually found in steel Design of Structures. California: Computers and
Structures, Inc.
shoring structures.
[5] Lopes, A. P., Santos, G. O., and Souza, A. L. A. C. 2005.
“Study about Different Methods of P-delta Analysis.”
References
Presented at 47th IBRACON (Instituto Brasileiro do
[1] CBCA (Brazilian Centre of Steel Construction). 2004. Concreto) Conference, Recife, Brazil. (in Portuguese)
doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.006
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Durability of Seawater Mixed Concrete with Different

Replacement Ratio of BFS (Blast Furnace Slag) and FA
(Fly Ash)
Nobuaki Otsuki1, Aung Kyaw Min2, Tomohiro Nagata1 and Cheng Yi1
1. Department of International Development Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology ,Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
2. Civil Engineering Unit, Chiyoda Corporation, Yokohama 230-0077, Japan
Abstract: Using seawater in concrete can be considered as one of the sustainable approaches in construction industry not only to
save the freshwater resource but also to promote the use of abandoned seawater resource, especially in the construction at the
uninhabited area close to the sea where the procurement of fresh water is difficult. In this study, durability against chloride attack of
seawater mixed concrete with different replacement ratio of BFS (blast furnace slag) and FA (fly ash) is discussed and the life time
until the occurrence of corrosion crack is evaluated. The results show that: (1) Chloride penetration rate of seawater mixed specimens
with BFS and FA is lower than that of freshwater mixed OPC (ordinary Portland cement) specimens; (2) Oxygen permeability of
seawater mixed specimens with BFS and FA is almost the same or lower than that of freshwater mixed OPC specimens; (3) Total life
time (corrosion incubation period and propagation period) of seawater mixed specimens with BFS and FA is almost the same or only
slightly shorter than that of freshwater mixed OPC specimens. From the results, it was confirmed that the usage of seawater in
concrete mixing is feasible in concrete with the appropriate BFS and FA replacement ratio.
Key words: Seawater, chloride attack, corrosion, durability of concrete, blast furnace slag, fly ash.
1. Introduction chloride attack [3]. Therefore, the authors conducted

this study to evaluate the durability performance of sea
The usage of seawater in concrete mixing can be
water mixed concrete with different cement
considered as one of the sustainable approaches in
replacement ratio of BFS (blast furnace slag) and FA
construction industry not only to save the world
(fly ash) against chloride attack. Objectives of the
freshwater resource but also to promote the effective
study includes: (1) investigation of material properties
use of seawater resource, for example, the construction
such as chloride ion penetration rate, oxygen
at the remote island and uninhabited area close to the
permeability; (2) investigation of rebar corrosion; (3)
sea where the procurement of fresh water is difficult [1].
prediction of life time for seawater mixed concrete
However, the usage of seawater in reinforced concrete
with different cement replacement ratio of BFS and FA.
is strictly limited in international codes and standards
due to the rebar corrosion inside concrete by chloride 2. Experiment Details
attack [2]. In general, these limitations such as
2.1 Specimen Outlines
maximum allowable content of chloride in the concrete
specified in the codes and standards are far Two types of specimen are produced to investigate
conservative than the values which can reduce the chloride attack, namely cylinder concrete specimen
actual durability performance of concrete against (φ 100 mm × 200 mm, Table 1) without rebar and
prism shape (width-40 mm × height-40 mm ×
Corresponding author: Aung Kyaw Min, M.Eng., research length-160 mm, Table 2) mortar specimen.
fields: sea water mixed concrete and corrosion of steel.
Durability of Seawater Mixed Concrete with Different Replacement Ratio of 569
BFS (Blast Furnace Slag) and FA (Fly Ash)
Table 1 Mix proportion of concrete specimens.

Unit of weight
Mixing s/a Slump Air
No. W/C (kg/m3) Cx (%)
water (%) (cm) (%)
W C BFS FA S G AW AE
0.5-OPC-T 342 0 0 764 1,052 1.4 0.017 5.00 3.0
0.5-B40-T 205 137 0 748 1,047 1.4 0.021 10.5 3.0
0.5-B55-T Tap 154 188 0 748 1,044 1.2 0.021 7.50 2.9
0.5-B70-T water 103 239 0 748 1,041 1.2 0.021 8.00 2.8
0.5-FA10-T 308 0 34 761 1,047 1.4 0.017 11.0 1.8
0.5-FA30-T 239 0 103 754 1,036 1.4 0.017 10.0 1.6
0.5 42 171
0.5-OPC-S 342 0 0 764 1,052 1.4 0.017 7.00 3.0
0.5-B40-S 205 137 0 748 1,047 1.4 0.021 13.0 3.1
0.5-B55-S Artificial 154 188 0 748 1,044 1.2 0.021 10.5 3.1
0.5-B70-S seawater 103 239 0 748 1,041 1.2 0.021 11.5 3.0
0.5-FA10-S 308 0 34 761 1,047 1.4 0.017 9.50 4.0
0.5-FA30-S 239 0 103 754 1,036 1.0 0.021 8.00 2.1
0.7-OPC-T 249 0 0 870 1,018 1.0 0.010 7.50 3.1
0.7-B40-T 149 99 0 868 1,013 1.0 0.010 7.50 2.4
0.7-B55-T Tap 112 137 0 865 1,013 1.0 0.011 10.0 2.6
0.7-B70-T Water 75 174 0 865 1,010 0.7 0.011 6.00 2.5
0.7-FA10-T 308 0 34 761 1,047 1.4 0.017 11.0 1.8
0.7-FA30-T 239 0 103 754 1,036 1.0 0.020 10.0 1.6
0.7 46 174
0.7-OPC-S 249 0 0 870 1,018 1.0 0.010 3.50 3.8
0.7-B40-S 149 99 0 868 1,013 1.0 0.010 4.50 3.1
0.7-B55-S Artificial 112 137 0 865 1,013 1.0 0.011 10.0 3.5
0.7-B70-S seawater 75 174 0 865 1,010 0.7 0.011 6.50 4.5
0.7-FA10-S 308 0 34 761 1,047 1.4 0.017 9.50 4.0
0.7-FA30-S 239 0 103 754 1,036 1.0 0.020 8.00 2.1
Note: W: water (fresh water or seawater); C: ordinary Portland cement (density: 3.14 g/cm3; Blaine fineness: 3,210 cm2/g); s/a:
sand/aggregate ratio; BFS: blast furnace slag (density: 2.89 g/cm3; Blaine fineness: 4,310 cm2/g; activity index (28 days): 94%); FA:
fly ash Class F (density: 2.23 g/cm3; Blaine fineness: 3,630 cm2/g; activity index (28 days): 84%); S: natural river sand (density (SSD
saturated surface dry): 2.60 g/cm3; water absorption ratio: 2.20%; fineness modulus: 2.59); G: gravel; AW: water reducing
admixture ; AE: air entraining admixture ; Cx: chemical admixture.
Tables 1 and 2 show the mix proportion of concrete submerged condition in water for seven days. The
and mortar specimens, respectively. OPC (ordinary moist curing periods are five days for OPC concrete
Portland cement) and OPC and OPC with cement specimen and seven days for BFS/FA concrete
replacement ratio of BFS at 40%, 55% and 70% and specimens. Curing water is used as the same type of
OPC with cement replacement ratio of FA (Class F) at water as mixing water of each specimen. Then, except
10% and 30% are used. Artificial seawater, with under surface of specimens at casting used for
chemical composition as shown in Table 3, and tap exposure surface, concrete and mortar specimens were
water are used as mixing water. The water to binder coated with epoxy resin before exposure.
ratios are 0.5 and 0.7 for both types of specimen. The
2.2 Measurements
round steel bars of SR235 (φ 13 mm × 100 mm) are
embedded in mortar specimens with 10 mm cover In this study, the lifetime of seawater mixed
thickness. Concrete specimens are cured under moist concrete is calculated with the outline of lifetime
condition and mortar specimens are cured under prediction as shown in Fig. 1. Against chloride attack,
570 Durability of Seawater Mixed Concrete with Different Replacement Ratio of
Table 2 Mix proportion of mortar specimens.

Mixing Unit of weight (kg/m3)
No. W/C
water W C BFS FA S
0.5-OPC-T 311 622 0 0 1,245
0.5-B40-T 305 366 244 0 1,220
0.5-B55-T Tap 303 272 333 0 1,210
0.5-B70-T water 301 181 421 0 1,200
0.5-FA10-T 312 562 0 62 1,249
0.5-FA30-T 307 430 0 184 1,229
0.5
0.5-OPC-S 311 622 0 0 1,245
0.5-B40-S 305 366 244 0 1,220
0.5-B55-S Artificial 303 272 333 0 1,210
0.5-B70-S seawater 301 181 421 0 1,200
0.5-FA10-S 312 562 0 62 1,249
0.5-FA30-S 307 430 0 184 1,229
0.7-OPC-T 393 561 0 0 1,122
0.7-B40-T 390 334 223 0 1,114
0.7-B55-T Tap 389 250 306 0 1,111
0.7-B70-T water 388 166 388 0 1,108
0.7-FA10-T 389 500 0 56 1,111
0.7-FA30-T 383 383 0 164 1,095
0.7
0.7-OPC-S 393 561 0 0 1,122
0.7-B40-S 390 334 223 0 1,114
0.7-B55-S 389 250 306 0 1,111
Artificial seawater
0.7-B70-S 388 166 388 0 1,108
0.7-FA10-S 389 500 0 56 1,111
0.7-FA30-S 383 383 0 164 1,095
Note: seawater: artificial seawater mixed with chemicals shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Chemical composition of artificial seawater.
Chemicals NaCl MgCl2−6H2O Na2SO4 CaCl2 KCl NaHCO3
Concentration (gram/liter) 24.54 11.1 4.09 1.16 0.69 0.2
Cracking of concrete
Corrosion
Corrosion start Corrosion rate
Incubation period Propagation period
Chloride attack
Chloride ion diffusivity
Corrosion calculated from
Corrosion threshold oxygen permeability
chloride ion content
Fig. 1 Outline of concrete life time prediction.
chloride ion penetration rate and threshold chloride corrosion incubation period and corrosion rate of steel
content for corrosion are required to calculate the bars and the conditions for cracking are required to
calculate the corrosion propagation period. 2.2.4 Oxygen Permeability and Corrosion Rate of
2.2.1 Chloride Ion Penetration Rate Steel Bar
In order to determine the chloride ion penetration The mortar specimens are used to measure oxygen
rate, concrete specimens are submerged into artificial permeability. Limit corrosion current density obtained
seawater for four months and the distributions of total from electro chemical measurement using cathodic
chloride content at different depths from the exposure polarization curves were utilized as shown in
surface are measured. Based on the measurement following Eq. (3). Corrosion rate was directly
results, the chloride ion penetration rate coefficient is calculated from ilim:
calculated using Eq. (1), Fick’s laws of diffusion: Q i
  lim (3)
  x  t nF
Cx , t   C0 1  erf   (1)
  2 D t  where, ∂Q/∂t is oxygen permeability in mol·cm2/s,
  c  
ilim is limit corrosion current density in µA/cm2, n is
where, C(x, t) is the chloride concentration at any
atomic value (= 4), F is Faraday constant (= 96,500
position x at the time t in kg/m3, C0 is the chloride
C/mol). In addition to cathodic polarization curves,
concentration on the concrete surface in kg/m3, x is
anodic polarization curves are measured.
the distance from the concrete surface in mm, t is the
time in year, erf is the error function, and Dc is the 3. Results and Discussion
diffusion coefficient in cm2/year.
3.1 Chloride Ion Penetration Rate
2.2.2 Threshold Chloride Content for Corrosion
The mortar specimens are used to determine the 3.1.1 Results for Concrete with BFS
threshold chloride content for steel bar corrosion in Fig. 2 shows the comparison between chloride ion
concrete. Chloride ion content in mortar around steel penetration rate of concrete mixed with seawater and
bar is measured when the corrosion current density tap water with different cement replacement ratio of
reached to 0.2 µA/cm2 [4]. BFS. As shown in Fig. 2, chloride ion penetration rate
2.2.3 Corrosion Current Density of Steel Bar of concrete mixed with seawater is smaller than that of
The mortar specimens are used to investigate the concrete mixed with tap water. This might be due to
corrosion behavior of steel bar in concrete. After the initial chloride content increased by seawater, and
curing, the mortar specimens are exposed into it could result in the decrease of chloride concentration
accelerated sprayed chamber with 50 °C of NaCl 5
0.5OPC 0.7OPC
solution (3.0% by weight). During the experiment
Chloride ion diffusivity of concrete
0.5B40 0.5B40
mixed with seawater (cm2/year)
period, the polarization resistance is measured by AC 4 0.5B55 0.5B55

(alternating current) impedance method using high 0.5B70 0.5B70
−20%
frequency (10 kHz) and low frequency (10 MHz) of 3
+20%
alternative current and corrosion current density is
calculated with Stern-Geary constant [5] based on 2
following Eq. (2):
K 1
I corr  (2)
Rct  S
0
where, Icorr is corrosion current density in µA/cm2, Rct 1 2 3 40 5
Chloride ion diffusivity of concrete
is polarization resistance in Ω, S is surface area of
mixed with tap water, cm2/year
steel bar which equals to 40.82 cm2, K is Stern-Geary Fig. 2 Chloride penetration rate of BFS concrete
constant which equals to 0.0209 V. (seawater vs. tap water).
difference between concrete and surrounding seawater

or seawater mixed improve the pore structure of
concrete [6].
Fig. 3 shows the influence of BFS replacement ratio
on chloride ion penetration rate of concrete. From
Fig. 3, it is confirmed that chloride ion penetration
rate of concrete using BFS is smaller than that of OPC
and chloride ion penetration rate of concrete decreases
as BFS replacement ratio increases.
3.1.2 Results for Concrete with FA
Fig. 4 shows the comparison between chloride ion
penetration rate of concrete mixed with seawater and
tap water with different FA replacement ratio. As Fig. 3 Chloride penetration rate of concrete for different
shown in Fig. 4, chloride ion penetration rate of BFS replacement ratio.
concrete mixed with seawater is lower than that of
concrete mixed with tap water which is the same
phenomenon observed in the case of BFS. Fig. 5
shows the influence of FA replacement ratio on
chloride ion penetration rate of concrete. For Fig. 5, it
is confirmed that chloride ion penetration rate of
concrete using FA is smaller than OPC and chloride
ion penetration rate of concrete decreases as FA
replacement ratio increases.
3.2 Corrosion Current Density and Threshold

Chloride Content for Corrosion
3.2.1 Results for Concrete with BFS Fig. 4 Chloride penetration rate of FA concrete (seawater
To investigate threshold chloride content for vs. tap water).
corrosion, corrosion current density changed with
time is measured. The authors adopted the current
density of 0.2 μA/cm2 as the threshold current density
which is defined by CEB (European Committee for
Concrete) [4] for structural concrete. Fig. 6 shows the
change of corrosion current density with time in the
case W/C is 0.5 with BFS. The dotted line indicates
the value of 0.2 μA/cm2, which is the threshold
current density of corrosion [4].
The corrosion starting time steadily became longer
with increase in BFS replacement ratio, because
increase in BFS replacement reduced chloride ion Fig. 5 Chloride penetration rate of concrete for different
penetration rate. Besides, in the case of OPC and BFS FA replacement ratio.
Fig. 6 Time dependent change of corrosion current density of specimen with BFS (W/C = 0.5).
Fig. 7 Threshold chloride content for corrosion in BFS specimens.
40% replaced case, duration of the mortar mixed with chloride ion penetration rate is lower than that of
seawater to reach the critical value of corrosion mortar mixed with tap water for this case. Fig. 7
current density (0.2 μA/cm2) was shorter than that shows the threshold chloride content for corrosion in
with tap water. It is considered that initial chloride mortar specimen with different BFS replacement ratio.
content increased by seawater shortened the duration From Fig. 7, it can be seen that BFS replaced
to reach the corrosion threshold chloride content. On specimens had smaller corrosion threshold chloride
the other hand, BFS 55% replaced mortar mixed with ion content than that of OPC specimens. It can be
seawater has almost the same resistance against considered that the ratio of Cl−/OH is increased with
corrosion as that of mortar mixed with tap water. It is increasing of BFS replacement ratio because high
considered that it has a longer duration to reach BFS replaced cement had low pH. Additionally, the
critical value of corrosion current density and its value of BFS 70 % replacement (in case of W/C = 0.7)
is less than initial chloride contents (dotted horizontal corrosion starting time steadily became longer with
line shown in Fig. 7) induced by concrete mixed with increase in FA replacement ratio, because increase in
seawater. It means BFS 70% replaced concrete mixed FA replacement reduced chloride ion penetration rate.
with seawater induces corrosion at the initial stage. As Moreover, duration of the mortar mixed with seawater
a result, in case of OPC, corrosion threshold chloride to reach critical value of corrosion current density
content was about 5~6 kg/m3 and in case of BFS (0.2 μA/cm2) was shorter than that with tap water as
specimens, the value was about 3~4 kg/m3. the same in case of BFS. Fig. 9 shows the threshold
3.2.2 Results for Concrete with FA chloride content for corrosion in mortar specimen
Fig. 8 shows the change of corrosion current with different FA replacement ratio. From Fig. 9,
density with time in the case W/C is 0.5 with FA. The it can be seen that FA replaced specimens have smaller
Fig. 8 Time dependent change of corrosion current density of specimen with FA (W/C = 0.5).
Fig. 9 Threshold chloride content for corrosion in FA specimens.

corrosion threshold chloride content than OPC

specimen as the same in case of BFS. As a result, in
case of FA specimens, the corrosion threshold
chloride ion content is about 3~5 kg/m3.
3.3 Oxygen Permeability
3.3.1 Results for Concrete with BFS

Fig. 10 shows the comparison between oxygen
permeability of concrete mixed with seawater and tap
water with BFS. As shown in Fig. 10, oxygen
permeability of concrete mixed with seawater is
almost the same as that of concrete mixed with tap
Fig. 10 Oxygen permeability of mortar specimens with
water. Fig. 11 shows the influence of BFS
BFS (seawater vs. water).
replacement ratio on oxygen permeability. From
Fig. 11, it is confirmed that oxygen permeability of
mortar specimen using BFS is smaller than that of
OPC specimens and oxygen permeability of concrete
decreased as BFS replacement ratio increased.
Fig. 12 shows the comparison between oxygen
permeability of mortar mixed with seawater and tap
water with FA. As shown in Fig. 12, oxygen
permeability of mortar mixed with seawater is almost
the same as that of concrete mixed with tap water.
Fig. 13 shows the influence of FA replacement ratio
on oxygen permeability. From Fig. 13, it is confirmed
that oxygen permeability of mortar specimens using Fig. 11 Oxygen permeability of mortar specimens with
FA is smaller than that of OPC specimens and it different BFS replacement ratio.
decreased as FA replacement ratio increased.

Therefore, it seems that concrete with higher
replacement ratio of BFS or FA has better corrosion
resistance against chloride attack than OPC
concrete [6, 7].
3.4 Life Time Prediction against Chloride Attack
In order to predict the life time against chloride

attack, corrosion incubation period (life time duration
until the start of steel corrosion) and corrosion
propagation period (life time duration from the start of
steel corrosion to the occurrence of corrosion Fig. 12 Oxygen permeability of mortar specimens with FA
crack) are calculated with above material properties and (seawater vs. water).
environment is defined as submerged zone, and

covering depth is defined as 70 mm.
3.4.1 Results for Concrete with BFS
Incubation period against chloride attack. Fig. 14
shows the comparison between incubation period of
concrete mixed with seawater and tap water with BFS
against chloride attack. As shown in Fig. 14,
incubation period of concrete mixed with seawater is
shorter than that of concrete mixed with tap water. It
is considered that seawater as mixing water increased
initial chloride content, and shortened the duration to
reach corrosion threshold chloride ion content. Hence,
Fig. 13 Oxygen permeability of mortar specimens with the concrete mixed with seawater with BFS is not
different FA replacement ratio. feasible when the life time is considered only for
incubation period. Fig. 15 shows the influence of BFS
assumptions. In this study, lifetime against chloride
replacement ratio on incubation period against
attack is defined as summation of corrosion
chloride attack. As shown in Fig. 15, 55% BFS replaced
incubation period and propagation period. For
concrete with W/C-0.5 shows the longest incubation
estimation of incubation period, cover depth, initial
period regardless of type of mixing water.
chloride ion content, surface chloride ion content,
Propagation period against chloride attack. Fig. 16
chloride penetration rate and corrosion threshold
shows the comparison between propagation period of
chloride content are required. By using Fick’s
concrete mixed with seawater and tap water with BFS
diffusion equation, the period is calculated when the
calculated chloride content is equal to the corrosion
propagation period of concrete mixed with seawater is
threshold chloride content. For estimation of
longer than that with tap water. It is considered that
propagation period, the corrosion rate and the critical
low corrosion rate of concrete and low oxygen
amount of corrosion product, which generates cracks
permeability mixed with seawater using BFS
in cover concrete, should be assumed. Then the
contributed to this period.
periods are calculated when the amount of the
corrosion product reaches to the critical value. In this
study, the amount of the corrosion product is
calculated with the following Eq. (4) [8]:
Wcr  1.841 (  8.6661)  145.1 1.194
(4)
 3809A0.8351  10.60 X  72.30
where, Wcr is amount of corrosion product around
steel bar at the end of propagation period (mg/cm2), φ
is creep coefficient (= 0.4), α is coefficient of thermal
expansion (= 3.2)，A is corrosion angle (360°), X is
shape function (covering depth/diameter of steel bar).
The value became 53.8 mg/cm2 in the case of 70 mm
covering depth and 13 mm diameter of steel bar. In Fig. 14 Corrosion incubation period of specimens with
order to calculate lifetime against chloride attack, the BFS (seawater vs. water).
Fig. 17 shows the influence of BFS replacement

ratio on propagation period against chloride attack. As
shown in Fig. 17, 55% BFS replaced concrete shows
the longest initiation period regardless of type of
mixing water.
Total lifetime against chloride attack. From the
results of corrosion incubation period and propagation
period against chloride attack, the total lifetime
against chloride attack, is calculated by the summation
of two periods. The results are shown in Figs. 18, 19
and Table 4.
From the results, concrete mixed with seawater
Fig. 15 Corrosion incubation period of specimens with
different BFS replacement ratio.
Fig. 18 Life time of specimens with BFS (seawater vs.

water).
Fig. 16 Corrosion propagation period of specimens with
BFS (seawater vs. water).
Fig. 17 Corrosion propagation period of specimens with Fig. 19 Life time of specimens with different BFS
different BFS replacement ratio. replacement ratio.
Table 4 Life time of concrete with BFS against chloride attack.

Initiation period Propagation period Lifetime (total)
Mixing water
Duration (year) Best mix Duration (year) Best mix Duration (year) Best mix
Ave. 13.8 Ave. 8.4 Ave. 22.3
Tap
Max. 26.2 0.5B55 Max. 14.1 0.5B55 Max. 40.1 0.5B55
water
Min. 6.0 Min. 2.5 Min. 8.9
Ave. 4.5 Ave. 12.8 Ave. 17.3
Sea
Max. 16.3 0.5B55 Max. 23.5 0.5B55 Max. 39.9 0.5B55
water
Min. 0 Min. 2.4 Min. 5.9
considered, concrete mixed with seawater has almost

the same or slightly shorter lifetime than that of
concrete mixed with tap water. Especially, in the case
of BFS 55% with W/C = 0.5, the lifetime difference
between seawater and tap water mixed concrete has
minimum value. And the estimated lifetime of
concrete mixed with seawater is about 40 years.
Incubation period against chloride attack. Fig. 20
shows the comparison between incubation period of
concrete mixed with seawater and tap water with FA
Fig. 20 Corrosion incubation period of specimens with FA incubation period of concrete mixed with seawater is
(seawater vs. water). shorter than that with tap water. Hence, the concrete
mixed with seawater with FA is not feasible when
only the life time for corrosion incubation period is
considered, which is the same as the case of BFS.
Fig. 21 shows the influence of FA replacement ratio
on incubation period against chloride attack. As
shown in Fig. 21, 30% FA replaced concrete with
W/C = 0.5 showed the longest incubation period
regardless of type of mixing water.
Propagation period against chloride attack. Fig. 22
shows the comparison between propagation period of
concrete mixed with seawater and tap water with FA
propagation period of concrete mixed with seawater is
longer than that of concrete mixed with tap water. It is
Fig. 21 Corrosion incubation period of specimens with considered that low corrosion rate of steel and low
different FA replacement ratio.
oxygen permeability mixed with seawater using FA
using BFS may not be feasible when only incubation extended this period.
period is considered. However, when total life time, Fig. 23 shows the influence of FA replacement ratio
summation of incubation and propagation periods, is on propagation period against chloride attack. As shown
Fig. 22 Corrosion propagation period of specimens with Fig. 24 Life time of specimens with FA (seawater vs.
FA (seawater vs. water). water).
in Fig. 23, 30% FA replaced concrete shows the

longest propagation period regardless of type of
mixing water.
Total lifetime against chloride attack. From the
results of incubation period and propagation period
against chloride attack, the total lifetime including
incubation and propagation periods is calculated by
summation of two periods. The results are shown in
Figs. 24, 25 and Table 5. The results of FA has the
same trend with BFS case that concrete mixed with
seawater using FA may not be feasible when only
incubation period is considered. However, when total
life time is considered, concrete mixed with seawater
Fig. 23 Corrosion propagation period of specimens with
has almost the same or only slightly shorter
different FA replacement ratio. lifetime than that of concrete mixed with tap water,
Table 5 Life Time of Concrete with FA against Chloride Attack.

Initiation period Propagation period Lifetime (total)
Mixing water
Duration (year) Best mix Duration (year) Best mix Duration (year) Best mix
Ave. 14.5 Ave. 7.2 Ave. 21.7
Tap
Max. 34.6 0.5FA30 Max. 16.6 0.5FA30 Max. 51.2 0.5FA30
water
Min. 6.0 Min. 2.5 Min. 8.9
Ave. 7.8 Ave. 8.6 Ave. 16.4
Sea
Max. 19.3 0.5FA30 Max. 17.9 0.5FA30 Max. 37.2 0.5FA30
water
Min. 3.5 Min. 2.4 Min. 5.9
especially, in the case of FA 30% concrete (0.5FA30), Performance of Constructed Facilities 8 (3): 201-12.
[2] Kaushik, S. K., Islam, S. 1995. “Suitability of Sea Water
the estimated life time of concrete mixed with
for Mixing Structural Concrete Exposed to a Marine
seawater is about 40 years. Environment.” Cement and Concrete Composites 17 (3):
177-85.
4. Conclusions [3] Nishida, T., Otsuki, N., Ohara, H., Garba-Say, Z., and
Nagata, T. 2014. “Some Considerations for Applicability
Considering lifetime of reinforced concrete against
of Seawater as Mixing Water in Concrete.” Journal of
chloride attack, maximum estimated lifetime of Materials in Civil Engineering 27 (7).
seawater mixed concrete with BFS and FA are almost [4] CEB (European Committee for Concrete) and Belgian
the same and both cases obtained estimated life time Building Research Institute. 1997. Strategies for Testing
and Assessment of Concrete Structure Affected by
of 40 years, almost four times longer than seawater
Reinforcement Corrosion. Lausanne: International
mixed concrete with OPC (0% replacement ratio). The Federation for Structural Concrete.
estimated life time of 40 years is acceptable for [5] Stern, M., and Geary. A. L. 1957. “Electrochemical
reinforced concrete structure in industrial facilities Polarization: I. A Theoretical Analysis of the Shape of
such as petro-chemical plant or liquefied neutral gas Polarization Curves.” Journal of the Electrochemical
Society 104 (1): 56-63.
plant for which the design life is usually considered as
[6] Ohara, H. 2013. “Life Time Predication of Concrete Mixed
40 years [9]. Usage of BFS or FA for concrete can With Seawater against Chloride Attack and Carbonation.”
reduce chloride ion diffusivity and oxygen Mater thesis, Tokyo Institute of Technology.
permeability and as a result, it can reduce the [7] Yi, C. 2014. “Life Time Prediction of Reinforce Concrete
Using Fly Ash Mixed with Seawater against Chloride
corrosion of steel bar in the concrete. In performance
Attack and Carbonation.” Mater thesis, Tokyo Institute of
based design and the life time is determined by both Technology.
incubation and propagation periods, it is feasible to [8] Yokozeki, K., Motohashi, K., Okada, K., and Tsutsumi, T.
use seawater and if with BFS or FA, it is much better 1997. “A Rational Model to Predict Service Life of RC
Structures in Marine Environment.” In Proceedings of
than with OPC. However, further study is needed to
Forth CANMET (Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy
control the corrosion incubation period which is Technology)/ACI (American Concrete Institute)
shorter than that of OPC concrete mixed with fresh International Conference on Durability of Concrete,
water due to the higher initial chloride content in 777-96.
[9] Matsukawa, K., Min, A. K., Kobayashi, C., and Ishikawa,
seawater mixed concrete.
S. 2016. “A Case Study on Durability Tests for Concrete
References in Construction Projects” In Proceedings of International
Symposium on Concrete and Structures for Next
[1] O’Connor, J. 1994. “Middle Eastern Concrete Generation: Ikeda & Otsuki Symposium (IOS2016),
Deterioration: Unusual Case History.” Journal of 371-8.
doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.007
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Dynamic Analysis of Historical Brick Masonry House
Hari Ram Parajuli

National Reconstruction Authority, Kathmandu, Nepal
Abstract: Brick masonry constructions are very common in many areas in the world and their failure in earthquakes has been the
cause of many deaths. Since human safety is main issue of disaster management, people are more concerned about the structural
assessment and strengthening of those constructions. One historical brick masonry house located in Kathmandu world heritage site is
modeled by FEM (finite element method) and analyzed in El Centro earthquake ground motions. Bricks are modeled as solid
elements and the interfaces between the brick units are modeled as zero thickness joint elements. Then, non-linear analyses of the
house are applied satisfying the famous Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. The result shows that the house is very weak and sustains
large deformation in El Centro 1940 Earthquake. A strengthening solution modifying the connections of existing elements and
adding wooden frame inside the house can reduce the deformations significantly.
Key words: Solid element, joint element, strengthening, FEM, brick masonry, dynamic analysis.
1. Introduction masonry temples and history of earthquakes is

compared, most of the historical temples should have
Brick made temples, royal palaces and residential
passed through severe earthquake ground motions.
houses with beautiful architectural appearances are
They should have sustained damages and later
main identity of Kathmandu Valley. It was
renovated. From this evidence, we can see some
constructed in Malla period probably 300 years ago
earthquake resistance techniques such as square
and has become one of the main sources of tourist
shaped buildings, use of wooden elements along the
attractions since then. Historical records tell that many
wall to discontinue vertical joints. However, these
earthquakes have occurred in it or its vicinity. History
simple techniques used without proper knowledge of
of earthquakes has been described since
where and how to use are not sufficient to resist
enlightenment of Budda 538 BC. Details of
severe earthquake motion which is expected to come
earthquake occurrences and damages have been
soon. Thus, strengthening of these houses against
described since 1223 [1]. Big earthquakes hit the
probable earthquake is most important task of risk
Kathmandu Valley in 1255 and 1344 which killed one
management. A historical masonry house (so-called
third of the population at that time and damaged many
Lalitapur house in Fig. 1) located in Lalitpur
temples and houses. Since then, many earthquakes
sub-metropolitan city, Kathmandu, is analyzed giving
have been reported and the most damaging one is
El Centro 1940 earthquake ground motion history
1934’s Nepal Bihar Earthquake. More than 10,000
input which is described in detail in the following
people were killed in 1934 earthquake which is the
sections.
biggest earthquake described in the Nepalese
literatures [2]. Recently, occurrence of great 2. Description of Numerical Methodology
earthquake has been revealed in 1408 which had
Masonry behaves distinct directional properties due
damaged 500 km of Himalaya [3]. If the ages of
to the interfaces between the elements. The large
number of influence factors such as interior voids,
Coresponding author: Hari Ram Parajuli, Ph.D., research anisotropy of bricks, dimension of bricks and
fields: structural dynamics, earthquake engineering and lifeline
risk management. joints, arrangement of bed and head joints and quality of
investigated on dry joint cut sawn stone masonry

walls to verify the experimental investigations. This
concept has also been applied to investigate the
effectiveness of wooden bond beams in dry stone
masonry houses [9]. Thus similar idea of modeling the
brick units as solid elements and interfaces between
them as zero thickness joint elements is employed
here. However, there are large numbers of bricks in a
house and modeling of each brick separately is very
complex and impossible. Thus simplified numerical
model is developed making equivalent eight node
elastic solid elements for brick wall blocks and eight
Fig. 1 Historical brick masonry house.
node joint elements for interfaces between stones as
workmanship make the numerical modeling of shown in Fig. 2. In Fig. 2, x, y and z are global axes
masonry very complex. Limited numbers of variables and ,  and  are local axes. Ultimate objective of
that are used in the numerical model can not catch the dynamic analysis is to solve the widely known
actual behavior of brick walls due to its varieties of equation of motion as shown in Eq. (1):
M u  C u  K u  M ug 

properties. Basically, two methods, first, DEM
(1)
(distinct element method) which considers the brick
units as non-deformable solids and their movements where, [M], [C] and [K] are mass, damping and
are evaluated through equations of motions and other, stiffness matrices, u , u and u are acceleration,
second, FEM, are used for analyzing masonry houses. velocity and displacement responses, respectively. And
FEM ranging from very simple method such as u 
g is input ground acceleration. The stiffness matrix
considering masonry as single phase material, to very for the system is obtained assembling individual solid
complex method such as considering each element and joint element matrices. Formulation of stiffness
and joint separately, have been widely used and well matrix for solid element is refereed to Chandrapatla
accepted tool. and Belgundu [10]. The displacement of joint element
FEM has been used in the field of rock mechanics

by Zienkiewicz et al. [4] since 1970. Recently, this
concept has been also used in brick masonry by
Tzamtzis and Nath [5], and Tzamtzis and Asteris [6] 
Top element
to simulate time dependent sliding and separation
along mortar joints. Three dimensional finite element 
models were formulated by considering the relative
displacements between the top and the bottom of the
Joint element
base elements and constitutive relationship based on
material properties containing shear and normal
stiffness which can be found from stress displacement z Bottom element
curves of mortar. A brick masonry wall was analyzed
y
in static and dynamic loadings and found capable to
predict appropriate response. Using similar x
approaches, Lourenco et al. [7] and Senthivel et al. [8] Fig. 2 Formulation of solid and joint elements.
Dynamic Analysis of Historical Brick Masonry House 583
depends upon relative movement of top and bottom most important parameter on the basis which stiffness
solid elements (Fig. 2), and corresponding stiffness matrices for solid and joint elements are formed. Thus,
matrix for zero thickness joint elements is given in a non-destructive testing technique using acoustic
Eqs. (2) and (3) as formulated by Tzamtzis and wave emission was done. Then shear wave velocities
Nath [4-7]: for single brick and for wall were found to be
1 1  1,530 m/s. and 410 m/s, respectively. Unit weight and
K ej     N  k N det J d  d  
T (2)
 1 1  coefficient of friction were measured 19 kN/m3 and
 k sx 0 0  0.3, respectively. Cohesion is taken zero. The stiffness
(3)
k    0 k sy 0  constants for shear and normal were calculated by
 0 0 k sn 
using Eqs. (4) and (5). The concept of joint element is
where, ksx, ksy and ksn are components (shear stiffness to represent the non-linear behavior of the adjacent
along x direction, shear stiffness along y direction and elements. The model has elements with varying
normal stiffness) of material property matrix [k] of thickness thus separate values of coefficients are
joint, [N] and [J] are shape function, and Jacobian required depending upon their depth. However, in this
matrices, and  and  are local coordinates. Normal study, an average value of depth 25 cm has been taken
and shear stiffness are calculated considering the wall and corresponding values of normal and shear
as series of two vertical springs, one representing by stiffness coefficients are 3.4 × 106 kN/m3 and
the stone unit and other representing by joint 1.4 × 106 kN/m3, respectively. Unit weight and
following Lourenco et al. [7] which leads the modulus of elasticity for wooden elements are
Eqs. (4) and (5): 4.47 kN/m3 and 8.1 × 106 kN/m2, respectively.
1 (4)
kn  Regarding damping, very limited information is
 1 1 
h   available in linear solid mechanics problem, and even
 Ewall Eunit  very less information is available in non-linear
kn dynamic analysis. For problem under consideration,
ks  (5)
21    the coefficients are α = 0.0174 and β = 0.172 are taken
where, kn is normal stiffness of joint, ks is shear maintaining damping approximately 3% following
stiffness of joint, h is height of element, Ewall is Wakai and Ugai [11].
Young’s modulus of elasticity of wall, Eunit is Young’s
2.2 Constitutive Relationship
modulus of elasticity of brick unit, and  is Poisson’s
ratio. In order to get damping matrix (Eq. (6)), mass The joint is characterized by fully elastic-perfectly
and stiffness proportional Rayleigh damping is used: plastic and incapable of taking any tensile forces. The
C    M    K  (6) idealized constitutive relationship shown in Fig. 3 is
where,  and  are coefficients selected to control the used to take the sliding and opening of joint. Separation
damping ratios of the lowest and highest modes occurs when the normal strain is greater than zero
expected to contribute significantly to the response. because joint can not take any tensile stress and both
normal, and shear stiffness are set to zero. Contact
2.1 Parameters
occurs when normal strain is less than zero, and normal
Material properties such as modulus of elasticity for forces will restore according to normal stiffness of joint.
wall, coefficient of friction, cohesion, Rayleigh In Fig. 3, y is yield shear stress, n is normal stress; s
damping coefficients are necessary. No exact values is yield shear strain and; n is normal strain. Sliding
for these parameters have been reported in the occurs when the shear at joints exceeds value given by
literatures. Among them, modulus of elasticity is the Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion:
n
y
Tension
n
s Compression
y
Contact Separation
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 Constitutive relationships for joints in: (a) shear and (b) normal.
and roof, and their component-bricks, windows, doors,

 y  c   n tan  (7)
posts are extremely complicated job. Thus, wall is
where, c is cohesion (assumed equal to zero) and discretized into small numbers of solid brick elements,
tan is coefficient of friction. vertical post are modeled as wooden solid and the big
window place in the front side of upper storey is model
3. Description of Model House
as solid elements. Total solid elements are 2,995,
The historical brick masonry house (Fig. 1) located solids are 1,189 and joint elements are 1,809.
in Lalitpur Municipality of Kathmandu City, is
modeled by finite element method as explained just
4. Conclusions
before. The house (Fig. 1) is two storeyed, 16.5 m in Since the wooden elements and bricks are
length and 5.6 m in width. Wall is made of traditional inter-connected at floor and roof levels, they behave
brick with thickness of 60 cm at bottom and 50 cm at like rigid floor diaphragm. If these elements are
top tapering slightly from bottom to top. Thus for considered separately, the model becomes very
analysis, average thickness of 55 cm is taken. It was completed. Thus the masses are lumped at wall where
constructed 300 years ago. It sustained damages in the floor and roof rest. Separate color can be observed
earthquakes and repaired many times. Recently, its in the model (Fig. 4a). During lateral loadings, floor
original roof has been replaced by corrugated acts rigidly and the corresponding solid elements at
galvanized iron sheet which rests over wooden plans floor and roofs are assigned rigid with same material
and battens and wall interior has been plastered by properties. Joint elements are provided to connect the
cement sand mortar. The floor has been recently floors with walls. Total loads of floor and roofing was
replaced by concrete which rests over wooden boards calculated 1.5 kN/m2. Then, static analysis was
supported by planks and beams. Now, it looks like applied for vertical loads and self weights. And
completely repaired hiding its original construction obtained stresses were used in dynamic analysis as
and has been using as public purpose. The building has initial stresses. In second step, using El Centro 1940
very large opening in the front side. Wooden posts are Earthquake as example, dynamic analysis was done.
supporting the wall of upper storey. In the upper storey, Equation of motions (Eq. (1)) was evaluated at 0.01
there is big wooden window placed at mid span of wall, interval of time by New Mark’s beta method
which is slightly projected outside showing nice considering the constitutive relationship shown in
aesthetic view. Thus separate modeling of walls, floor Fig. 3. Since the residual forces obtained from deducting
Dynamic Analysis of Historical Brick Masonry House 585
(a) (b)
Fig. 4 FEM model and its behavior in earthquakes in existing condition: (a) simplified FEM model; (b) response in El
Centro 1940 Earthquake (unit in m).
(a) (b)
Fig. 5 FEM model and its behavior in earthquakes after applying strengthening measures: (a) wooden beam and column
added model; (b) response in El Centro 1940 Earthquake.
actual force developed and permissible force of brick is 23 cm, and, if its deformation is 30 cm, it
calculated from constitutive relationship produce completely dislocates by its original position.
non-linear deformation at the joints which are However, it is arbitrarily assumed value and one can
evaluated by Newton Raphson method, in full three take its own definition and value. The purpose of
dimensional analyses, there is possibility of obtaining termination of analysis is just to save time only. The
tensile and compressive forces right from the model house experienced more than 30-cm
beginning. So, the house experiences tension at some displacements when the analysis reaches 9 s. The
areas likely near openings and at other weak zones deformations are shown in Fig. 4b. The deformations
which go on iteration and find non-linear deformation. of elements are shown in different colors. The
If the residual forces are big, iteration takes very long maximum displacement is 27 cm. The reason why
time and ultimately computation becomes very there is only 27-cm displacement shown in Fig. 4(b),
lengthy. Thus a ceiling with 30-cm displacement has while it was set 30 cm in the numerical model, is the
been set in the program. In the brick masonry, if the output was written only after 10 steps. Since
displacement exceeds 30 cm, it is supposed to be El-Centro 1940 Earthquake is first recorded
unstable and analysis beyond this value might be earthquake and 40% houses have been damaged, it is
meaningless and just taking time only. Normal length quite reasonable to say that this brick masonry house
sustains very large cracks and deformations and can of Nepal.” Presented at 2000 Fransco-Nepal Conference
on People, Environment and Landscape of Himalayas,
not survive.
Kathmandu, Nepal.
Being historical house, it has heritage value and [2] Rana, B. S. J. R. 1935. Nepal’s Great Earthquake 1934.
should be protected against future earthquake. There Kathmandu: Sahayogi Press. (in Nepali)
are many methods that can be used for strengthening [3] Bilham, R., and Ambraseys, N. 2005. “Apparent
Himlayan Slip Deficit from the Summation of Seismic
of traditional houses using various materials such as
Moments for Himalayan Earthquakes.” Current Science
FRP (fiber reinforced polymer), steel in various forms 88 (10): 1658-63.
such as beams, columns, meshes, etc., PP [4] Zienkiewicz, O. C., Best, B., Dullage. C., and Stagg, K.
(poly-propylene) bands, woods, etc. However, G. 1970. “Analysis of Non-linear Problems in Rock
Mechanics with Particular Reference to Jointed Rock
archeologists and conservationists do not allow
Systems.” In Proceedings of 2nd International
intrusion by all kind materials such as concrete, steel, Conference on Rock Mechanics, 501-9.
FRPs, etc. Thus, there are very few options remaining, [5] Tzamtzis, A. D., and Nath, B. 1992. “Application of
for example, addition of wooden beams and column Three-Dimensional Interface Element to Non-linear
Static and Dynamic Finite Element Analysis of
internally could be one of the possible options. Thus,
Discontinuous Systems.” Engineering System Design and
looking at the weak zones, near the openings and top Analysis 47 (1): 219-22.
of shorter walls, as strengthening measures, joints [6] Tzamtzis, A. D., and Asteris, P. G. 2004. “FE Analysis of
between the wooden posts are made fixed, the floor Complex Discontinues and Jointed Structural Systems.”
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 2004 (1):
elements are made connected with the wooden frame
93-107.
placed around the openings, and wooden beam and [7] Lourenco, P. B., Oliveira, D. V., Roca, P., and Orduna, A.
columns as shown in Fig. 5a are added. Then, the 2005. “Dry Joint Stone Masonry Walls Subjected to
house is analyzed again in the same earthquake In-plane Combined Loading.” Journal of Structure
Engineering 131 (11): 1665-73.
ground motion. During full cycles of analysis, it gets
[8] Senthivel, R., Lourenco, P. B., and Vasconcelos, G. 2006.
maximum displacement 3.4 cm (Fig. 5b). It shows “Analytical Modeling of Dry Stone Masonry Wall under
that simple method of strengthening can contribute Monotonic and Reversed Cyclic Loading.” In
significant strength and reduce the large deformation. Proceedings of 5th International Conference on
Being old brick masonry, the wall is already stressed Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions,
999-1006.
and propagation of crack is obvious even in small [9] Parajuli, H., Kiyono, J., and Ono, Y. 2008. “Effectiveness
deformations. Though it might not be serviceable after of Wooden Bond Beams in Dry Stone Masonry Houses.”
earthquake, it may protect the lives. And also, wood is Journal of Applied Mechanics 11: 615-23.
easily available in local areas and easily acceptable by [10] Chandrupatla, T. R., and Belegundu, A. D. 2002.
Introduction to Finite Element Methods in Engineering.
the heritage conservation community.
New Jersey: Pearson Education.
[11] Wakai, A., and Ugai, K. 2004. “A Simple Constitutive
References
Model for the Seismic Analysis of Slopes and Its
[1] Pant, M. R. 2000. “A Step towards Historical Seismicity Applications.” Soil and Foundation 44 (4): 83-97.
doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.008
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Car Ownership and the Impact of Built Environment,

Demographics and Transport Systems
Rolf Moeckel1 and Di Yang2

1. Department of Civil, Geo and Environmental Engineering, TUM Institute for Advanced Study, Technical University Munich,
80333 Munich, Germany
2. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
Abstract: Auto ownership is one of the most important linkages between travel demand and land use. Residents in denser, urban or
more transit accessible neighborhoods tend to own fewer cars. Car ownership influences almost all aspects of travel behavior,
including travel frequency, travel distances, mode choice and time-of-day choice. At the same time, car ownership affects residential
location choices, as households owning cars are less likely to choose urban neighborhoods than households without cars. This paper
describes a new microscopic auto-ownership model that has been estimated with survey data. The model is fully integrated with a
land use and a transportation model to capture: (1) how owning a car affects travel behavior and location choice; and (2) how the
built environment and the transportation needs affect auto-ownership decisions. The model has been validated against census data
and is fully operational.
Key words: Auto ownership, vehicle ownership, discrete choice, logistic regression, land-use/transport interactions.
1. Introduction recipients in Tennessee and found that access to car

increases the probability of being employed and
Auto ownership is a driving force for travel
leaving welfare dependency. Car access also enabled
behavior. It influences the number of trips, the chosen
survey respondents to find better-paying jobs.
destinations, the mode of travel and the time of day of
This paper reviews the state of the art and develops
out-of-home activities [1]. On the other hand, car
the design of a new car-ownership model. A logistic
ownership is influenced by the built environment.
regression is estimated and the interactions between
Ewing et al. [2] found that households in low-density
transportation and land use through car ownership are
areas own 0.5 cars more than households in
explored in detail.
high-density areas, even after controlling for income.
This makes car ownership a crucial link between 2. State of the Art
transportation and land use.
To the knowledge of the authors, the first
In addition, household characteristics play in key
computational auto-ownership model ever published
role in the decision to purchase a vehicle. Household
was applied to Leeds, U.K. in the 1960s [4, 5].
income, size, number of workers and number of
Income and residential density were used as
children are positively correlated with the number of
independent variables in a linear regression, of which
cars owned by a household.
the former explained 12% and the latter explained
Car ownership also has a significant impact on
54% of the variation. Nowadays, most models report
economic opportunities. Gurley and Bruce [3] studied
income as the most influential variable. It is possible
longitudinal surveys of current and former welfare
that in the 1960s, auto ownership was affordable for
high-income households only (there were 84 autos per
Corresponding author: Rolf Moeckel, Assistant Professor,
research fields: land use and transport modeling. 1,000 households in Leeds in 1960, compared to 430
in 2011), which could explain the overwhelming car access over car ownership. Particularly for
importance of residential density in Beesley and households in lower income groups, it is not
Kain’s model. uncommon to have more workers than autos in a
In the late 1990s, Dargay and Vythoulkas [6] household, creating competition for the use of the car.
estimated an auto-ownership model using expenditure The person not having access to the car has very
surveys in the UK. They developed a linear model to similar travel behavior as a person in a 0-car
estimate the average number of autos, subject to household. Also, ride-sharing becomes much more
income, household composition, transportation costs relevant for households with fewer autos than
and area type. Despite finding fairly good model fits, workers.
the authors admit that income and car ownership are A good overview of auto-ownership model types
not linearly related to each other. In fact, Blumenberg has been published by de Jong et al. [10], including
and Pierce [7] found that car ownership rises quickly models that could be used for World Bank investment
from very low-income households to low-income decisions, tax revenue forecasting, energy
households, but an income increase from medium consumption forecasts and transport demand. While
income to higher income has less effect on car this paper focuses on the latter only, it is notable that
ownership. Using a linear relationship between such models have been used in very different contexts.
income and car ownership is likely to misrepresent The authors define nine model types, and the model
this impact. discussed below fits best into the type called “static
Bhat and Guo [8] developed a joint mixed disaggregate ownership models”. It should be noted,
multinomial logit-ordered response structure model to though, that this particular model is not static but fully
estimate residential location choice and auto integrated with a land use and a transportation model.
ownership jointly in one model. They found that De Jong et al. concluded that this particular model
household demographics are more important to type is strong for long-term forecasts while using solid
explain car ownership than the built environment theory with modest data requirements, though the
variables, such as density or accessibility. They distinction of vehicles types is very limited when
identified household income as the dominant factor in using this model type.
car ownership. While the authors explained Most auto-ownership models described in the
theoretically that residential self-selection suggests literature distinguish the impacts of household
benefits of estimating location choice and auto attributes and the impact of the built environment.
ownership in one model, they concluded that separate Analyzing the effects of the built environment on auto
models are equally adequate if residential location ownership bears the problem that households may
choice accounts for sorting effects of demographics. have selected a certain neighborhood to live because
Zegras [9] estimated a multinomial logit model of of its preference to own or not to own cars. In other
household motor vehicle ownership for Santiago de words, a household may have moved into a dense
Chile. He found that by far the most dominant urban neighborhood with good transit access because
independent variable for vehicle ownership was it prefers not to own a car. In this case, the built
income, though he also found statistically significant environment would not cause the auto choice. This is
built-environment variables, such as auto-to-bus called self-selection [11] and blurs the analysis of the
access ratio, proximity to metro stations and the impact of the built environment on auto ownership.
distance to the CBD (central business district). Mokhtarian and Cao [12] analyzed seven methods and
Gurley and Bruce [3] emphasized the relevance of their capabilities to account for self-selection effects.
Car Ownership and the Impact of Built Environment, Demographics and Transport Systems 589
Ultimately, they argue, conventional methods are

unable to account for the impact of self-selection.
Alternatively, they propose to either conduct true
panel studies with residents who relocated or to set up
natural experiments to test the impact of the built
environment. Neither one was accessible for this
research, which is why the methods presented can not
truly account for a possible self-selection bias.
The majority of the models described in the
literature estimate average number of cars. While this
is sufficient for aggregate analyses, this paper
develops a microscopic approach that was needed for
full model integration. In microscopic auto-ownership
Fig. 1 Auto-ownership model as link between land use and
models, the number of vehicles is modeled separately
transport.
for each individual household, which allows
accounting for detailed household attributes when For this reason, both highway and transit congestion
choosing the number of vehicles owned. Models are heavily influenced by car ownership.
found in the literature that are capable of predicting Both land use design and the transportation system
discrete number of vehicles tended to work with a heavily influence auto ownership, which in turn has
rather limited number of independent variables. Those substantial impact on congestion and urban growth
models tended to focus on income and density at the patterns. By fully integrating the auto-ownership
household’s residence. While these are crucial factors model with a land use model and a transportation
to explain auto ownership, most models ignore transit model, most of these interactions are represented
accessibility. Zegras [9] included auto-to-bus access explicitly in the model described below.
ratio, proximity to metro stations, but fell short of To account for land use/transport interactions
using potential accessibility [13] by transit. The model through auto ownership, the model described here has
described here is fully integrated with a transportation been integrated with a transportation model and a land
model and a land use model, including both linkages use model. The MSTM (Maryland Statewide
to the built environment and to travel behavior. Transportation Model) [15] models travel behavior
and the microscopic SILO (simple integrated land use
3. Links between Land Use and Transport
orchestrator) land use model [16] simulates land use
The auto-ownership model developed here forms a changes.
crucial link between land use and transportation.
4. Model Design
Wegener [14] identified car ownership to be driven by
activities a household wants to pursue and costs As auto ownership is a major driver for travel
associated with travel (by all modes). Fig. 1 shows a demand and may influence household location choice,
selection of household attributes and neighborhood a model was developed that would model the number
attributes that drive the car-ownership decision. At the of vehicles subject to household and neighborhood
same time, car ownership is one of the most crucial characteristics. Given that SILO is designed as a
factors that drive travel behavior [1], and thereby microsimulation, it was necessary to simulate the auto
affecting the overall transport system performance. ownership for each household individually as well.
The literature review described various forecast auto ownership to 2040. As a consequence,
auto-ownership models. Most applied some form of only variables could be included that either can be
regression analysis. Such models are appropriate if the forecasted or otherwise could be reasonably assumed
average number of vehicles shall be modeled, such as to not change over time. Household variables
how many cars do households with a certain income considered include household income, household size
level own in a given zone on the average. If the auto and number of workers. Neighborhood characteristics
ownership is applied as a microsimulation, however, a tested include population density, employment density,
discrete number of vehicles needs to be modeled for auto accessibility and transit accessibility. Densities
each household. In particular, there are three were included as they do not only represent the
econometric methods suitable to estimate discrete opportunities that can be reached by walking or biking
values, namely discriminant analysis, contingency in the neighborhood, which could reduce the need to
analysis and logistic regression. Contingency analyses own a car, but also because they serve as a proxy for
require independent variables to be nominal, a scarcity of parking that is likely to affect auto
restriction discriminant analysis and logistic ownership. Zegras [9] found a small but significant
regression do not carry. Discriminant and contingency impact of street network density. This model, however,
analysis are strong at revealing linear relationships, predicts car ownership for a large metropolitan study
while the logistic regression uses the s-shaped log area and works with a simplified network, which
function, which is assumed to better represent precluded the authors from using street network
psychological processes and values of density as an independent variable. Zegras also found
decision-making [17]. The discriminant analysis that broadband internet access is positively correlated
further requires: (1) independent variables to be with auto ownership. While this might be a curiosity
normally distributed; (2) identical variance-covariance of Santiago de Chile, Zegras explains that broadband
matrices in each case distinguished as a dependent access may serve as a “lifestyle” proxy. While this is
variable. The logistic regression is more flexible and an interesting variable, it was not included in this analysis
does not carry such limitations [18], and thus, was
chosen as the preferred method of analysis for this
auto-ownership model.
The 2007~2008 TPB (Transportation Planning
Board)/BMC (Baltimore Metropolitan Council)
household travel survey was conducted in the
Washington/Baltimore metropolitan region. 14,365
households were surveyed, and both household
characteristics and travel behavior were recorded.
Fig. 2 shows the study area covered by this survey.
Based on the literature review and team
brainstorming, several independent variables were
defined that are expected to explain auto ownership.
Those include both household level variables and
neighborhood variables. In contrast to other models
Fig. 2 Survey area covering the Baltimore and
reported in the literature, this auto ownership model Washington, D.C. metropolitan areas.
was expected to be used in an operational model to Source: ©Open Street Map and contributors.
because internet access was not a variable surveyed different, and the sudden change in parameters
here, nor could it be reasonably forecasted into the between zones with and without transit access was
future. deemed to be unrealistic. This led to the idea to use
The model has the following logistic form: categories for transit accessibility and density. In other
words, these variables were converted from metric
 
u h ,a  exp  c a    k ,a  v k ,h  (1) variables into ordinal variables. Three density
 K  categories and three transit accessibility categories
where: were defined. Estimating the model with these
uh,a = utility for household h to own a number of independent ordinal variables led to coefficients that
autos (1, 2 or 3+); had the expected sign (+ or −) and seemed to have
ca = constant for unincluded attributes for a number reasonable values.
of autos; Yet, three categories for density and for transit
αk,a = parameter of attribute k for a number of accessibility appeared to be fairly coarse. Values for
autos; these variables would have to change a lot to have an
vh,a = value of attribute k for household h. impact on auto ownership. For example, in some cases,
As households that own more than three vehicles transit accessibility could double, but the category
are rare (1.4% in Maryland and 0.9% in Washington, would not change, and therefore, probabilities for auto
D.C. according to census data), four auto-ownership ownership would remain unchanged. Hence, transit
levels are distinguished: 0, 1, 2 and 3+ vehicles. accessibility was moved back into a metric variable
Utilities for owning 1, 2 or 3+ autos are calculated in and only density was applied as an ordinal variable.
comparison to owning no auto. Probabilities are Parameters remained very reasonable. Finally, the
calculated as follows: number of density categories was increased
A systematically from 3 to 10 density categories. While
ph,a  uh,a  A
1
and ph,0  1 p h,a (2) 10 density categories produced the best model fit, a
uh,a
1
a1
a1 diminishing return was found for additional number of
where, Ph,a = probability of household h to own a categories (Fig. 3). Therefore, 10 categories were used
number of cars. to account for density. The revised model is fully
In an earlier version of the model design, a positive sensitive to even small changes in transit
coefficient was estimated for transit accessibility. This accessibilities.
outcome was unexpected: The estimation suggested
550 Nagelkerke
that households would own more cars in Cox and Snell
neighborhoods with higher transit accessibility, the 500 McFadden
opposite of what is proposed in the literature. At that

Model fit
450
time, density was used as a continuous (or metric)
400
variable. Using multi-collinearity analysis, it was
found that transit accessibility and density correlated 350
with each other, leading to unrealistic coefficients. In 300

a first attempt to solve this issue, different models
250
were estimated for zones with transit access and zones 2 4 6 8 10
without transit access. While this led to reasonable Number of employment density categories
parameters in each model, parameters were quite Fig. 3 Model fit with 3, 4, 5 and 10 density categories.
While designing the auto-ownership model, it was were included. Table 1 shows the estimation results.
considered to distinguish federal employees from Owning no car is used as the base case, and the three
other employees. Federal workers receive transit columns show the parameters to estimate the
passes at lower costs. This leads to higher transit probabilities to own 1, 2, or 3 or more cars.
shares among federal employees, despite The impact of income on car ownership proposed
above-average incomes of this population segment. by Blumenberg and Pierce [7] was confirmed with
However, after careful consideration, this idea was this model estimation. Income affects car ownership
abandoned. Even though the household travel survey almost linearly below $60,000 (Fig. 4). For higher
distinguishes between federal employees and other income groups, income has much smaller impact on
employees, it would be very challenging to forecast auto ownership. The data suggest that an income of
the number and spatial distribution of the federal $60,000 is a turning point. Up to $60,000, additional
workforce over the next decades. While the federal income is likely to be invested in transportation.
government traditionally has been an economic engine Zero-car households with higher income are unlikely
of the Washington, D.C. region, ongoing calls for tax to have opted against car ownership for financial reasons,
cuts and reduction of government make it uncertain Table 1 Model estimation results.
how many workers will be employed by the federal Parameter 1 car 2 cars 3+ cars
government in the future. Multi-worker households Intercept 2.421 0.668 −2.529
would add the additional complication if some Household size −0.121 0.689 0.801
Number of workers 0.327 0.652 1.378
household members work for the federal government
Transit accessibility to
and others do not. It is acknowledged that not −0.022 −0.051 −0.054
employment (scaled)
representing federal workers explicitly might slightly Household income
Less than $10,000 −3.783 −6.348 −7.007
overstate car ownership in the Washington, D.C. area.
$10,000~$14,999 −3.134 −5.724 −6.637
Blumenberg and Pierce [7] have shown that $15,000~$29,999 −2.423 −4.734 −5.315
low-income households rapidly exchange rising $30,000~$39,999 −1.964 −3.918 −4.858
income for higher auto-ownership rates, while $40,000~$49,999 −1.374 −3.027 −3.639
higher-income households are less likely to spend $50,000~$59,999 −0.811 −2.110 −2.522
$60,000~$74,999 −0.996 −2.168 −2.589
additional income on auto ownership. Once a certain
$75,000~$99,999 −0.913 −1.930 −2.283
middle-income level has been reached, car ownership $100,000~$124,999 −0.716 −1.376 −1.706
does not change much with rising income. If a $125,000~$149,999 −0.271 −0.609 −0.827
household’s annual income rises from $15,000 to $150,000~$199,999 −0.236 −0.432 −0.382
$200,000 or more 0 0 0
$20,000, this household is much more likely to spend
Employment density 1 (lowest) 2.678 4.720 6.978
additional money on transportation than another
Employment density 2 2.306 4.085 5.802
household whose income rises from $50,000 to Employment density 3 1.412 2.742 4.163
$55,000. A linear relationship would misrepresent the Employment density 4 1.461 2.749 3.909
impact of income on car ownership. Instead, the 12 Employment density 5 1.121 2.213 3.231
income categories provided by the survey were used
in the estimation directly as an ordinal variable. Employment density 8 0.471 1.096 1.920
5. Estimation Results Employment density 10
0 0 0
(highest)
In this model estimation, only parameters that Note: Nagelkerke’s pseudo R square: 0.544; Cox and Snell’s
turned out to be significant at least at the 0.1% level pseudo R square: 0.500.
Household income area.

$0 $50,000 $100,000 $150,000 $200,000 $250,000
0 Fig. 7 compares the average number of autos per
−1 household modeled versus observed by jurisdiction.
−2
The model matches auto-ownership rates for the entire
Parameter
−3
study area and for Maryland very well. Auto
−4
ownership is overestimated by 0.2 autos per household
−5
−6 1 car 8
2 cars 7 1 car
−7
3 cars
6 2 cars
−8
Fig. 4 Relationship between auto ownership and 3 cars
Parameter
5
household income. 4
3
and thus, an increase in income is less likely to result
2
in owning more vehicles. Such households have other
1
reasons not to own a car, such as living in a
0
neighborhood with sparse parking or personal travel 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000
Employment density (log)
preferences that do not include owning a car. Fig. 5 Relationship between auto ownership and
Fig. 5 visualizes the density parameters. Density employment density.
curves are exponentially shaped (note the logarithmic 1,400,000 Census total
x-axis). In rural areas, most households own at least Model total
1,200,000
one car. In denser areas, car ownership tends to be
Number of households
lower, which is in line with estimation results found 1,000,000
elsewhere in the literature review [6, 9]. In other 800,000

words, if a household moves from a somewhat rural
600,000
neighborhood to a more rural neighborhood, the
400,000
probability to own cars rises sharply. By contrast,
households moving from a very urban neighborhood 200,000
to a somewhat less urban show a much smaller 0
0 car 1 car 2 cars 3+ cars
increase in car ownership.
Fig. 6 Number of households by number of vehicles.
6. Model Validation
2
Census Model
The model was estimated using the TPB/BMC 1.8
Number of cars per household
1.6
household travel survey and is applied to the MSTM
1.4
study area, which includes all of Maryland, Delaware,
1.2
the District of Columbia, and parts of Virginia, West 1
Virginia and Pennsylvania. Census data were used as 0.8
independent data for model validation. 0.6
The number of autos per household is validated in 0.4
0.2
Fig. 6. The model slightly overestimates households
0
with one auto by 2% and underestimates households Total Maryland District of Delaware Virginia (in
Columbia MSTM area)
with three or more cars by 3%. Overall, the model Fig. 7 Validation of average number of vehicles per
replicates auto ownership well in the MSTM study household.
in Washington, D.C. and underestimated in Delaware the built environment on car ownership. In this
and parts of Virginia that are covered by the MSTM modeling suite, a land use model has been integrated
study area by 0.1 autos per household. with a transportation model to model self-selection.
A likely explanation for overestimating car The survey data, however, only shows the resulting
ownership in the District of Columbia might be that car ownership, not allowing the analyst to spell apart
race has not been represented explicitly in this the impact of self-selection versus built environment.
estimation. Blumenberg and Pierce [7] found that Panel surveys that interview the same households
African-Americans are less likely to purchase before and after household relocation are needed to
automobiles, even after controlling for income. In the identify the impact of the built environment on auto
District of Columbia, 49% of the population identified ownership.
themselves as African-Americans [19], which is a
Acknowledgements
much higher share than other jurisdictions shown in
Fig. 7. With the support of the Technische Universität
Another factor disregarded in this model is the costs München Institute for Advanced Study, funded by the
for parking. Within the District of Columbia, parking German Excellence Initiative and the European Union
is much more expensive and difficult to find than Seventh Framework Programme under grant
anywhere else in the study area. Tam and Lam [20] agreement No. 291763. This research was partly
found that parking constraints have a significant funded by the Maryland State Highway
impact on auto ownership. Unfortunately, parking Administration. Highly appreciated is also important
feedback on model design and performance given by
capacity is difficult to measure and was not included
Rick Donnelly and Leta Huntsinger (both Parsons
in this research. However, density served as a proxy
Brinckerhoff), Fred Ducca (University of Maryland)
for parking costs. Finally, governmental workers who
and Subrat Mahapatra (Maryland State Highway
may have access to free transit passes were not
Administration).
represented explicitly. This simplification may have
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doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.009
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Urban Participatory Design through Technology: Birloki

System, a Network of Interactive Interfaces
Juan Sádaba1 and Sara Lenzi2

1. Nerei Emotional Intelligent S.A., Singapore 068574, Singapore
2. Lorelei Sound Strategies, Pte. Ltd, Singapore 079903, Singapore
Abstract: By 2050, the UN (United Nations) expects the number of city dwellers to reach 6.3 billion and the balance of humans in
cities to rise to about 70%. At the same time, the vertiginous development of information technologies opens up a new world of
possibilities to improve the quality of life of citizens. Our research is focused on the possibilities of work in the urban design and public
realm that these new information technologies are starting to open up. Based on the concept of urban acupuncture and on the so called
u-pad methodology, we create a network of interactive and adaptive points that put together the three fields of technology, design and
emotion to create information and activation points on the city. The prototypes of the Birloki system BL1-r01-tp01 and BL1-r01-tp02
are already built and being tested to be operative in the streets of Bilbao (Spain) as a first testbed. The project deploys seven Level 1
(BL1) and 10-12 Level 2 Birloki points over the Old Town (the medieval centre of the modern city (in Spanish: Casco Viejo)), focusing
on residents and visitors. They will convey and collect information and data and interact with the users, utilizing combinability, interactive
devices, augmented reality, i-beacon technology and others. These data can be collected and re-input in the flow to improve the system
and therefore the experience of the user/citizen.
Key words: Interactive furniture, smart cities, interaction, urban design.
1. Introduction governments to research and develop scenarios for

smarter cities that will be able to face the challenges
By 2050, 6 billions of out of the 10 billions’ world
involved in this unprecedented change in human
population will live in cities (Fig. 1). This new urban
history.
environment will also be the centre of the world
In the words of Carlo Ratti, from the MIT
economy. As a 2012 study by MacKinsey [1] points out,
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Senseable
by 2050 the 600 biggest cities in the world will account
Cities Lab: “Four numbers characterize the importance
for the 60% of global GDP (gross domestic product).
of cities: 2-5-75-80. Globally, cities are only 2% of the
On the other hand, cities will also be doomed to
planet’s surface, but are home to 50% of the population
produce the highest percentage of the CO2 emissions
and are responsible for 75% of energy consumption
and therefore highly contribute to the climate changes
and 80% of carbon dioxide emissions. We do not need
that are already on their way. At the moment, cities
to wait until 2050, we have to work on cities today” [3].
contribute to the 70% of the carbon emissions of the
The currently envisaged state-of-the-art solutions
planet [2]. In this scenario, the urban environment will
are built on three distinct and separate approaches:
progressively absorb the natural one, creating a
 digital, IT (information technology) based
continuous landscape that will include urban areas and
solutions;
green areas seamlessly.
 architecture and infrastructure planning and
These figures have put a pressure on the world
building solutions;
Corresponding author: Juan Sádaba, chief innovation  policies of citizens’ inclusion in the
officer, research fields: urban design, interactive design, new decision-making process, that covers a wide range of
cities, territorial planning, mobility and product design.
Urban Participatory Design through Technology: Birloki System, a Network of Interactive Interfaces 597
Fig. 1 Percentage of urban population [4].

Source: image “Urban World” by the Guardian.
E.g. roads, buildings, energy grid,

Physical bike lanes, district heating and
cooling, sewage system
E.g. standardized
coding language, Communicative Digital E.g. broadband, cloud
open interfaces,
computing, fiber optic cables,
open source
sensors, smart phones, mobile
technology,
networks, databases
citizen inclusion
through ITCs
Fig. 2 Components of urban interaction.

Source: the image is inspired by the CCC (Copenhagen Cleantech Cluster) 2012, including the definition of the three components of the
urban interaction: physical, communicative and digital.
initiatives from bottom to up, interactive IT solutions, 2. Interactive Urban Furniture: The
immersive and enhanced experiences in the urban Network, Urban Acupuncture
environment.
In this varied and rapidly evolving scenario, we
Our proposal’s current industry landscape therefore propose an integrated solution that combines urban
includes three distinct industries and markets (Fig. 2): design, IT solutions and emotional design. The
 urban design; underlying concept of this solution is “urban
 information and communication technologies; acupuncture”.
 emotional and experiential design. Urban acupuncture is a term that relates directly to
598 Urban Participatory Design through Technology: Birloki System, a Network of Interactive Interfaces
Asian culture and to a holistic point of view that emotions flow freely and balancing the seamless
engages perfectly with our vision of the future. These connectivity and interactivity of the smart city of the
two words have already appeared timidly to describe future.
punctual little actions to solve urban problems with a In the last few years, since the smart city concept
bottom-up approach. But acupuncture infers a much appeared in our lives, we have been looking for a city
more comprehensive conception of the world and that reveals intelligent but also gives the citizen the
therefore of urban design. Acupuncture understands opportunity to deal with the city in a closer range. The
the body (the city) as a whole, as a balanced network of search for the optimization of resources and the
streams and flows, each of them with a specific sense efficiency and control of facilities, made us forget
and function. In this sense, we go a little further than many times the day-to-day life of the citizens. There
the concept used by the politician and urban planner are things in the city that are as important as these and
Jaime Lerner [5]. that can be unveiled only from the street point of view.
Urban design analyzes the diverse flows of energy of We introduce a new concept (Fig. 3) to tackle the urban
the city (mobility, power supply, social connections…) space solutions in the city. Urban acupuncture is an
and identifies possible lacks of energy, points where the innovative approach that blends together urban
flow is broken or can be enhanced (by strengthening or hardware and urban software to provide a plug and play
lowering it). interactive way to address our cities. Birloki system
We have designed interactive, user friendly and offers a new way of thinking urban furniture.
ergonomic needles, creating a network of points that Interaction with our own personal devices has become
enables creating a more vivid, liveable and efficient familiar and we expect the same level of real-time
city. personalization with the sphere of public objects on the
When the “needles” are on and connected, the streets. Birloki system has been awarded at the
streams of information such as efficiency, transport and 2010 International Concept Design B_Awards. In 2012,
Physical
Experiential
interactive
public space
Birioki system
Communicative
Public Analysis and
participation visualization
and contents of data
Digital
Fig. 3 The Birloki system lies at the centre of the communicative-physical-digital components of the future city.
it was selected as finalist innovative initiative in the a modular and adaptive object/device: augmented
Smart City World Congress Awards and again in 2014 reality Apps that identify the object or spots from the
nominee for the Media Architecture Biennale Awards. elements, iBeacon Bluetooth based technologies, etc.
These two legs, the communicative and the physical
3. Implementation: The U-Pad Method
aim to improve the participatory possibilities of the
The confluence of this three pillars over the urban citizens.
realm will most probably give birth to a new or, at lest, The third part of the flow is the data collection and
renewed urban science. In that case, it feels utterly analysis. Part of it is open and consulted by anyone.
important to develop a valid scientific method that can Some other data belong to the city analysis and the
provide both a theoretical and practical support, municipality managers. The u-pad method puts the
scalable in any case. Based on this three legs, the stress on participation and the human side of the smart
digital, the communicative and the physical limbs (as cities and therefore we also collect “subjective” mood
defined before: urban design, IT, emotional and data through moodboards located at the Birloki points
experiential design), we defined what is called the themselves and on the Apps. Only architecture that
u-pad method. The u-pad method is based on the pad considers human scale and interaction can be
(pleasure, arousal, dominance) framework for considered good architecture [7]. Once the data are in
describing and measuring individual differences in the flow and analyzed, they feedback the system,
temperament [6]. allowing it to optimize. That is why we developed a
It is also key and necessarily remarkable the fact that resilient and adaptive system for the physical side: the
this method rises to tackle the problem of urban design Birloki.
and smart cities’ issue from a mostly bottom-up
4. Birloki System: Urban Space Activator
perspective as opposite to the usual top-down approach
of the big corporations, as we have known it so far. The core of the proposed solution is the interactive
The u-pad method establishes a circular system in outdoor piece of furniture “Birloki” (Fig. 4). It is a
which each of the aspects nurtures and gets also fed by highly flexible, adaptable and fully customizable
the other two stages of the cycle, enabling a continuous interface between the city and the citizens. The system
feedback in order to optimize the system. We might consists on a simple base element that works as a street
start from a analog or digital collection of contents and connector onto which different functional elements are
public participation data, via workshops or open city plugged. The concept of the solution is similar to the
data Apps that allow people to add information on top “Lego”: It consists of interlocking parts that can be
of those proposed by the municipality or the manager connected, assembled and re-assembled in many ways.
of the space itself. Once these data are incorporated to The composition of each Birloki can be changed and
the system database and into the digital repository, they adapted regularly and seamlessly (Fig. 5), following
flow into the network of points over the city, where the metamorphosis of the cityscape and the needs of the
they will be taken by the users, who can also add other stakeholders (governments, agencies, citizens). The
kinds of data. This way, the Birloki points act as city urban acupuncture healing process relies on the
interfaces that communicate personally with both potential of an endless open recombination of the
visitors or residents. The way these points create elements.
immersive and interactive experience is by means of It consists of a modular system of plug and play
technology, ad it adapts to new technological devices that can be used independentlyto activate public
possibilities as they appear, on the basis that we created spaces with interchangeable plugs. It is a simple base
Fig. 4 The Birloki modular system and the u-pad approach to urban space.
Fig. 5 The Birloki modular system, detail of the product.
element that works as a street connector onto which we performances according to the needs of the city in each
can plug the different functional elements. Over the slot of time and specific space. However, the
base element, you have the possibility of making your possibilities are infinite and there is the root and key of
own, fully customizable composition. Up to the the project, that grows and evolves with the city itself.
maximum height of 4 m, you make your own Basically, it consists of a base element that provides
combination with the different components combined a power point connected to the city facilities and a data
and spacers between them when wanted, up to the connection. This connection can also be done through
desired height [8]. wifi 3G or 4G. Inside the base, we install the electric
During the development process, we have been panel and the central unit, that will talk both to the
testing different components to enable diverse functional elements in the limbs of the Birloki and to
the network. Mechanically, there is a simple fast study of the correct experience of the user (UX/UI).
connection that permits the different parts of the The challenge is interesting , because it has not only to
Birloki to be placed rapidly and with no technical work as a finished prototype, but also runs properly
problems, so that they can be readapted fast as it is when new functionalities are inserted and the
required by the circumstances. The approximate combination reassembled. The physical and
diameter of the base is 600~700 cm, with a height of mechanical parts are manufactured in steel (Fig. 8a)
40~45 cm to perform as a sitting element and each of and fiberglass ( the base) (Fig. 8b).
the units carrying the funcional elements has a height
6. Bilbao Testbed
of 40 cm. The combination of them has been calculated
to a maximum height of 4 m, as previously stated, As a urban testbed, as a “urban prototype”, the
which is a standard value for urban lamps. It has been Birloki system will be deployed on the streets of Bilbao.
developed, studied and calculated to comply legally This action will provide the research team with high
with all the outdoor antivandalic, sustainability and value data on the performances of the elements and
performances requirements. also, even more interesting, the real interaction of
To complement the performance of the system so far people with the network. We will be able to monitor a
presented, we developed an additional layer of human pulse of the city and parametrize the flows of
elements, which was defined as Level 2 and would movement and mood variations of the visitors relating
improve the experience of the user on the city by them to specific real meeting points. “… Project
creating much more interactive and interesting routes. planners and urban designers assume they can create a
As seen in Fig. 6, these Level 2 Birloki points use promenade simply by mapping one in where they want
iBeacon technology to push information onto the user’s it, then having it built. But a promenade needs
App and guarantee a better experience and promenaders” [9].
understanding of the spaces you walk through. The Bilbao Municipality, enabling a bottom-up PPP
(private public partnership) deal and being really
5. Prototyping
supportive with their own innovative people and brave
Birloki system has different parts and components about being an avant-garde city as for participatory
(Fig. 7), starting from the mechanical side and being methods, is going to test the u-pad method and Birloki
complimented by the software, the hardware and a points over the Old Town (in Spanish: Casco Viejo).
Fig. 6 The two levels of the birloki system: the system and the iBeacons + Apps network.
Fig. 7 Different parts and components of the Birloki system, preliminary sketches.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8 Manufacturing of the Birloki system prototype: (a) steel; (b) fiberglass.
Strategically, in this case, the approach of the project beacon inserted inside a carcass and stuck to the
will be done from the touristic point of view, focusing wall. They will be clearly visible and will push
mainly on the visitors to the city but not forgetting the messages to the users, regarding touristic spots,
permanent inhabitants. municipal information or retails and bars offers. All
Seven main Level 1 elements will be implemented thses information data can be updated through a CMS
on the six main open spaces of Casco Viejo plus one at (client management software) and the data can be
the Tourist Information Center located at Plaza stored and reused for the improvement of the general
Circular. These points will be composed by the base system and to optimize the quality of the experience of
element and some components on top that provide the the visitors.
following features as shown in Fig. 9. As seen in Fig. 11, there will be an online platform
They will host an interactive tactile screen, that will provide real-time information on the
environmental sensors, sound, iBeacons, and AR parameters of the sensors and the location of the
(augment reality) detection. There will be an App, different Birloki points (both Levels 1 and 2).
downloadable anywhere online or at the Birloki point This platform can be consulted on the Birloki point
hotspot itself. A diagram of the network architecture is screens, the Internet and the App. A mood board at
shown in Fig. 10. each of the points will generate a global mood plan of
Complementary to this, we are deploying around the city with colors over a map of the Casco Viejo,
10~12 Birloki Level 2 points to be added to the taking an important spatial on the collection and usage
possible routes that the visitor might walk on the of subjective human parameters related to the urban
Casco Viejo street. These Level 2 points consist of one realm. Fig. 12 illustrates the locations.
604 Urban
n Participatorry Design thrrough Techno
ology: Birlokii System, a Network of Intteractive Interfaces
Fig. 9 Birlok
ki system featu
ures implementted in the Bilbao testbed.
Fig. 10 Netw
work architectu
ure of the Bilbao testbed.
Fig. 11 On line platform for sensors reading.
Fig. 12 Locations chosen for the Biloki points in the Bilbao testbed.
7. Conclusions  The implementation of the Birloki network

together with the mobility services allows a better
From a general point of view, one of the most
understanding of the components and processes that
important aspects and conclusions we want to reach in
conform the design of advanced services;
this research is to achieve the establishment of a
 The implementation of the Birloki network allows
coherent methodology for urban interactive
us to know better the attractive of the points of interest
design. The u-pad method showed as an appropriate
in the Casco Viejo of Bilbao.
theoretical and practical method. And for the
validation of data, we establish the following References
objectives: [1] MacKinsey Global Institute. 2012. “Urban World:
 strengthen in a local and international scale the Mapping the Economic Power of Cities.” MacKinsey
analog and digital identity of the territory; Global Institute. Accessed February 12, 2014.
http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/urbanization/urban_w
 make a serios bet on a higher permeability and
orld.
communicability between the visitors/citizens and the [2] The World Bank. 2010. “Cities and Climate Change: An
city itself; Urgent Agenda.” The World Bank. Accessed February 12,
 provide better services referred to human mobility, 2014. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTUWM/Reso
urces/340232-1205330656272/CitiesandClimateChange.p
identifying and managing data regarding both
df.
objective/functional and emotional/subjective aspects. [3] Euroasiancities. 2015. “Smart Cities Series: Exclusive
As for the collection of data, we are going to work Q&A with MIT’s Senseable City Lab Director, Prof. Carlo
with the following hypothesis that will be monitored, Ratti.” Euroasiancities. Accessed June 14, 2015.
http://www.euroasiaindustry.com/article/smart-cities-ser
measured and applied a value: ies-exclusive-q-and-a-with-mits-senseable-city-lab-direct
 The implementation of the Birloki network or-prof-carlo-ratti.
improves the management of people mobility; [4] Fernandez, M. 2013. “Smart Cities: Research and Civic
Engagement in a Networked Society.” Presented at the
 The implementation of the Birloki network
Know Cities 2013 Final Conference, San Sebastián, Spain.
improves the interaction between people and the [5] Lerner, J. 2014. Urban Acupuncture. Washington, D. C.:
advanced mobility services; Island Press.
 The implementation of the Birloki network [6] Mehrabian, A. 1996. “Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance: A
General Framework for Describing and Measuring
improves the access of people to the retail network and
Individual Differences in Temperament.” Current
boosts economic activity; Psychology 14 (4): 261-92.
 The implementation of the Birloki network [7] Gehl, J. 2010. Cities for People. Washington, D. C.:
improves the relationship between the persons and the Island Press.
[8] Nerei. 2015. “Birloki System.” Nerei. Accessed July 16,
city council;
2015. http://nerei.org/all-service-list/birloki/.
 The implementation of the Birloki network allows [9] Jacobs, J. 1961. The Death and Life of Great American
to learn the emotional status of people; Cities. New York: Random House.
doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.010
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Mass Tourism and Air Transport, an Inevitable

Relationship: The Case of Canary Islands
Victor S. Pescador
Art City and Territory Department, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 35001, Spain
Abstract: The tourist industry, as global mass phenomenon, is inextricably linked to the evolution of air transport systems and air
carriers, in turn, depends on tourism to ensure stability in routes and prices. Therefore, both sectors must face the new challenges
together, the transport industry is heading a problem of energy and cost overruns, that inevitably will affect tourism in the short term.
The first energy crisis that they are starting to live, has been mitigated by changes in three parameters: (1) the international regulation
of commercial aviation; (2) the connectivity and business (birth of low cost companies) models; and (3) the new policies for climate
change and gas emission. So far, the rapid growth of the tourist industry has being held on a fast and cheap access to transport energy
resources based on the false belief of unlimited access to energy. The article is a review of the state of the art, and the research papers
published on air transportation, relating to tourism and the emergence of low cost airlines, in order to give a global vision for the
decision makers of mass destinations, as it is the case of the Canary Islands that we will use as a reference.
Key words: Air transport, low cost, energy cost, island tourist destinations, sustainability, kerosene price, oil peak.
1. Introduction tourist package. This causes short term loss of the

quality of the offer, with the consequent deterioration
The increase of the oil prices, the investments made
in infrastructure, following the pattern of the Gauss
in the field of aviation safety from the terrorist attacks
campaign with a peak and a fast decline of the tourist
of 9/11, the use of new technologies to purchase
destination.
online and inquiry of air services, the Open Skies
Although the present work can move globally, it is
Treaty and the global economic crisis, were all factors
contextualized in the Canary Islands as a relevant
that have pushed airlines to processes of fusion,
tourist destination, putting data that can help the
disappearance or transformation, irrespective of its
understanding of the problems posed.
way of operating: regular, charter or LCC (low cost
company). These changes in the market has brought 2. The Energy Scene in Air Transport
with it new management models, depending on the
The air transport is one of the sectors that has most
type of company, on the basis of cost-cutting,
suffered the structural changes that are taking place in
reducing the number of operations and the closure of
the global economy since the oil price crisis in
unprofitable lines in some cases, and transforming the
2006/2008, during which the barrel climbed to high of
marketing of the product with supplementary income
$142. A standard plane consumes an average of 3.5l
payments for services, and kilo transported in others.
of kerosene per 100 km and seat offered on long-haul
The continuous increase of primary energy has direct
routes, such as the case of the Canary Islands, from
reflection on air transported prices transferred to
center European markets issuers [1].
tourists, making it necessary to reduce costs at
A total of 47 of the major European airlines operate
destination in order to remain competitive in the
in the five large island airports, with 166 air
connections throughout the year without tourist
Corresponding author: Victor S. Pescador, Ph.D., architect,
seasonality due to the climate conditions. Making a
research field: sustainable tourism.
basic study of flying costs in relation to competitors, prices increases. The influence of transport spends on
and based exclusively on the costs per unit of the average expenditure per tourist and day (Table 1),
displacement in main issuing markets, reflected in is more than evident. Every year the origin spending
Fig. 1, you obtain an average cost per passenger per increases, the destination spending decreases, as well
100 km distance of €11.92 for the Canary Islands as the cost per day of overnight hotel stays. This
destination, €12.70 for destinations in Spain mainland, means that the cost of the tourist package has grown
€14.13 for Croatian coast and €10.12 for Turkey (all in relation to transport without having the demand the
Canary Island competitors). ability for rising the spending, therefore, the
The difference of price per unit between destinations differential cost is taken on destination. If the average
is not very significant which reflects clearly the expenditure per tourist and day is €128.28 with a 9.9
weight of the fuel front overhead cost. However, the nights stay, and the transport cost is €46.05 per tourist
distance is substantially greater on flights to Canary and day, is immediate that 37% of the total is destined
Islands, representing a 40% increase in the cost of for air transport (Table 2), and therefore, any variation
transportation with respect to its competitors, and in fuel prices will affect directly on this, with
obviously, both lines will not remain parallel as the oil an important weight on total expenditures. It is essential
€800.00
€700.00
€600.00
€500.00
€400.00
€300.00
€200.00
€100.00
€0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
Destination Canary Island Destination Spain main land Destination Croatia Destination Turkey
Fig. 1 Transport costs according to destination.
Table 1 Transport costs according to destination [2].

Average total expenditure per person and day (unit in Euros)
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Total expenditure 113.23 117.13 118.71 124.11 129.64 128.28
In origin 73.89 79.07 81.40 86.83 101.81 100.32
In Gran Canaria 39.34 38.05 37.3 37.28 27.84 27.96
Extra accommodation 5.36 5.29 3.06 3.98 2.94 3.06
Public transport 2.43 2.02 1.96 1.76 0.89 0.83
Car rental 1.42 1.82 1.13 1.10 1.86 1.80
Food and shopping 4.48 6.35 6.32 7.08 4.04 4.22
Restaurants 10.21 8.60 9.18 8.88 5.58 5.98
Souvenirs 4.32 6.73 6.98 7.50 6.34 6.29
Leisure 7.11 5.30 5.19 5.03 4.53 4.33
Other concepts 4.02 1.94 3.50 1.96 1.66 1.44
Mass Tourism and Air Transport, an Inevitable Relationship: The Case of Canary Islands 609
Table 2 Origin expenditure distribution. more expensive to process, become competitive in

Spending Percentage (%) economic terms, such as fracking or tar sands. This
Accommodation 27
circumstance has consequences that the decrease on
Air transport 37
Tourist package 6 cheap oil consumption, the reduction of exports, and
Restaurants 14 therefore, the OPEC (Organization of Petroleum
Leisure 16 Exporting Countries) incomes. In order to regain
then to assess the evolution of the energy prices market share, the only possible way to be competitive
in the future as a key indicator of again is reducing prices, stimulating again the market.
competitiveness in the economic development of the This circumstance, in the medium term, it would
destination. stress the oil resource, and in the coming years, it will
The evolution of kerosene (airplane fuel), has been generate a saw-tooth graphic that manifest the ups and
linked to oil prices as a primary energy source. The downs of the barrel prices in origin trying to keep on
price of kerosene reaches its peak in 2008 (American the market.
banking crisis and collapse of Lehman Brothers). This The evolution of primary energy prices by the
first energy crisis has been drawn in part by the more curves of the decline of oil production, according to
efficient new management model of the LCC, and the theory of the Hubbert peak, shows a scenario of
partly due to the liberalization of Open Skies Treaty reduction of the amount of primary energy, and a rise
(as you will see later), which seems to have stabilized of prices due to the increasingly complicated
and even decreased the final bid prices. However, extraction of the new sources, which leads to the raise
looking at the evolution of the average crude oil prices, of energy prices in general, and inevitably the
(Fig. 2), since the 1980s, the upward trend is kerosene in particular. The production in the area of
continuing pushing the kerosene prices up. In the last the Middle East, it would have reached its “peak”
year, we have seen a sharp decline in oil prices, which point at the end of the last decade and the beginning of
has a straightforward explanation of the already the present, the maximum peak of all reserves has
exposed, and that it will probably repeat it in the been reached in the year 2010.
medium term. Rising oil prices in origin has meant Therefore, they are faced with a dizzying scenario
that other alternative energy sources or fossil fuels, for the next 30 years, of a progressive increase of the
160
140
120
Dollars per barrel
100
80
60
40
20
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Fig. 2 Evolution of the oil barrel price.
Source: the US Federal Reserve Bank.
fuel prices which will affect the cost of the airlift. Also, established in Helsinki in 1992 aims to liberalize the
global energy demand is growing at a considerable rate air space control that passes reside in each of the
of 5% annually. And according to predictions from states parties, to be regulated by European control
the IEA (International Energy Agency), 1 it will centers, ending bilateral agreements between countries
increase more to one-third of the current in the year in terms of air traffic and protectionism of national
2035, by the higher energy needs of developing flag companies, with free competition enabling more
countries. By then, it is expected that the global modest companies to operate between countries at
contribution of fossil primary energy would be set at lower cost and also in local routes, although the
75% compared to today’s 81%. The energy demand undoubtedly impetus that has been in the air transport
for transport is expected to increase from 87 million market, still leaves some doubts about its
barrels per day in 2011 to 99 million barrels per day in administration, far from the U.S., due to the large
the year 2035. However, the offer forecasts moves on number of control centers that translates into the needs
an opposite scenario, with a stable production in the of more resources and a higher cost.
coming years to start a gradual descent to the 68 The original low cost model business was born in
million barrels in 2035, expecting to cover the United States from the Southwest Airlines Company,
differential with alternative sources that, by the targeting transport routes within the State of Texas
moment, are not available to the aviation sector. operating in secondary airports with the slogan fly is
The direct impact in commercial aviation and fun, this LCC air model moved to Europe in 1995
tourism that causes the rise of oil prices is noted by through Ryanair, spreading up to 95 companies
following graph in Fig. 3. The data from Canary existing today, which are responsible for
approximately 650 million passengers, 24% of the
Islands, reflects the number of tourists received by the
total, with over 6 million flights, favoring the opening
Islands in the period 2000~2012, and during the years
turn of more than 1,200 new routes in Europe since its
2008, 2009 and 2010, can be seen a decrease in the
birth by communicating secondary airports, today,
number of arrivals in parallel to the rise of fuel prices,
controls almost the 50% of European airspace.
recovering artificially in the years 2011 and 2012 by
Fig. 4 shows the evolution and distribution of air
the irruption of the so-called Arab spring in competing
transport since the 1990s and clearly reflects the
countries of North Africa and continuing with an
influence of the two exposed events. The rapid initial
upward trend due to the lower oil prices.
growth from 1995 that occurs in all companies, is due to
3. Open Skies Policy and Expansion of Low the opening of the European airspace, while the LCC
Cost Companies were born under cover of the new regulation by copying
the American model. From the year 2000 until 2008, 13
To understand how the airline industry is being able
million tourists pass to travel in Europe on LCC, with a
to sort the beginnings of this energy crisis, and in
decrease in the traditional companies of 3 million
addition, propel its growth in the midst of a global
passengers, so there was not a significant shift toward
economic slowdown, it is necessary to know two
the LCC, rather the new low cost management model
fundamental facts ranging from hand, the Open Skies
enabled the entry into the market of 10 million new
Treaty of the EU and the emergence of a new business
tourists from lower economic resources, that otherwise
model—the low cost companies.
not have been able to travel. Again in 2008, the
The Open Skies Treaty of the EU which was economic crisis and the rise of the oil prices paralyzed
1
the market that still does not give signs of recovery, and
Information from several World Energy Outlook reports on
the official website of IEA (http://www.iea.org). opens the debate of the possible market saturation.
Evolution number of passengers per year

12,000,000
Number of passages
9,000,000
6,000,000
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
Years
Fig. 3 Evolution of number of passengers per year.
55
50
45
Millions of seats
40
35
30
25 LC
Others
20 Flag companies
15 Total
10
5
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Fig. 4 Intra-European air transport [3].
The low cost airlines business model is based capacity to reduce the cost per passenger (the average
essentially on three pillars which have their Ryanair’s capacity has risen since 2004, when it
repercussions on the tourist market: operated with the Bae 146 of 110 seats, to the
 an efficient management control of expenditure; currently 189-seat B737), will imply future routes
 point to point flights in short distances; connected with stopovers, which inevitably will bring
 local governments aid policies. up a drop in the frequency of flights. If this is the
(1) Costs management should be paid attention. On saving strategy undertaken by the LCC, you must
one hand, the airports have to adapt to the requirements adapt to them and take them into account when
of companies in terms of capacity, cost (fee reduction) designing the tourism strategies [4];
and functional requirements (minimum time stop and (2) The market segment of this business model is
hitch 20/25 min), fast check-in without flight the transportation of short stay family visit, students
connections, good transportation connectivity and good and city and coastal tourism. This paper focuses only
commercial services. Also, the choice of underused on tourism. Its radius of action, therefore, focuses on
second line airports allows them to a more efficient short journeys between cities with connection point to
exploitation under their control. Competition between point, and using secondary airports. However, with
airports and local governments leads to the continuous the Open Skies Treaty of the EU, and the extension to
change of airport on the basis of the best offer. Morocco and North Africa, the range has increased
On the other hand, the expansion of the airplanes considerably to expand the business to routes that
were never thought it could be part of this model, contributed to the increase of the tourist market, now
Canary Islands, despite of their remoteness, in 2012 well, public subsidies received and the decrease of
was the third community in LCC passengers receiving airport costs, leaves out the market—the traditional
6.2 million (61.4%), mostly from United Kingdom companies that are forced to close the less profitable
and Germany, experiencing a growth of 24% over the routes by the lack of competitiveness. This trend,
previous year; although is initially positive to increase the tourist
(3) Under the expectation of a considerable increase attraction, in the long run, causes a direct dependence
in passengers on direct flights without stopovers and on monopolistic companies who also make market
competitive prices, local governments are willing to decisions in very short time, abandoning the
ensure the requirements of the companies both by destinations without reaction time. In Canary Islands,
investment in airport facilities and by promoting this process is already underway, the number of
policies that include indirect economic aid. From the regular routes with the Spanish main land, has been
Canary Islands-Morocco tourist competition point of drastically reduced in recent years as a result of the
view, the open skies agreements between EU and the arrival of these companies, which offer seats of
Kingdom of Morocco do not prohibit state aids to around €0.10 per km, almost half than the traditional
companies, under the guise of initially ensuring the ones (it is important to know that the second value in
subsistence of some local companies that otherwise defining the quality of an airline company is the price).
would disappear. With this argument, it is justified the This increase in the number and frequency of routes,
granting of these aids contrary to the Treaty of Rome and the decline in prices had brought with it a change
and the laws of free competence of the EU. This in trends in the tourist market, and the profile of
agreement has enabled Morocco to enhance from tourists, traditionally a unique holiday period, towards
4.3 million tourists in 2000 to 10 million in 2010, multiple outputs per year, which reduces the average
expecting growth up to 20 million by 2020. With stay period and the expenditure at destination. From
these conditions, Ryanair has set up 42 new routes the point of view of the market at a current panorama
with Morocco, which reveals the existence of a tourist of transport handed out to 50% between traditional
market clearly in expansion. The increase in number companies and low cost, it is essential to know both
of operations and flights in Morocco has been rapid passenger profiles, based on an input-output economic
since 2004 until the emergence of the so-called Arab impact analysis that allows a better adaptation to the
spring in 2009, being the LCC responsible of the 87% changes by the destinations [6]. From the data
of the growth. Moroccan air lines are being doubly published in the tourism expenditure inquest [7] by
benefited by Open Skies Treaty with Europe and the Institute of Tourism Studies (Tables 3-5), a
United States, establishing a hub with Africa for both distinction is made between tourists arrived in Spain
continents in Casablanca [5], which guarantees a by LCC or traditional.
stable and continuous air traffic which favors the According to these data, you can create a profile for
country’s tourism development. each type of company, LCC preferences correspond to
In general terms, the irruption of the LCC has young people and pensioners, with low incomes or
Table 3 Tourists arrived in Spain by plane, age and company [7].

Percentage over total air lines companies (2012) (%)
< 15 years old 15~24 years old 25~44 years old 45~64 years old > 64 years old
Low cost companies 5.00 13.00 42.50 31.60 8.00
Traditional companies 4.50 11.15 46.80 30.60 6.70
Table 4 Tourists arrived in Spain by plane, income and company [7].

Percentage over total by income level (2012) (%)
Low Med/low Medium Med/high High
Table 5 Average expenditure per tourist reached Spain by plane and company [7].
Average expenditure over air lines companies (2012) (unit in Euros)
Transport Accommodation Restaurants Shopping Others
Table 6 Average expenditure per tourist according to the type of company (unit in Euros) [7].
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Traditional 973 1,018 932 967 967 1,010 1,041 1,060
LCC 854 765 794 806 780 806 821 849
Variatión (%) −14 −33 −16 −20 −24 −25 −27 −25
middle low mostly, and that made less spending on shorten the deadlines for its commercial availability.
destination. On the other hand, traditional companies’ However, these ongoing technologies are today far
users are in the age group between 25 and 44 years old, from being applied on commercial aviation.
with medium high and high incomes, and capable of The differential energy cost is not assumable by the
more spending. If we transfer the data to an tourist industry, which has made a remarkable effort
expenditure per tourist table in recent years (Table 6), in the last decade to improve the management of its
you have a 25% difference in favor of the traditional, resources, and the monetary union no longer allows
even with a 30% saved cost on transport tickets by the the countries to maintain the competitiveness by
LCC users. This less demand in consumption by the devaluating the currency. As soon as an alternative
low cost airlines tourist translates into a reduction of energy source it is not found, one of the ways
GDP (gross domestic product) and hence a decrease in whereby the industry opted to lower the
jobs in destination. cost/passenger is expanding the capacity of the aircraft,
which is already happening, and that will require the
4. Conclusions
adaptation of the airport facilities for bigger aircraft.
As the world energy market is coming up, it can be The main manufacturers have been long working on
concluded that air transport costs will increase two fronts: on one hand, the design of aircraft
gradually in the coming years, driven by the rise in the operating at high altitudes which reduces consumption
prices of primary energy, focusing on sun and sand and significantly reduces the time travel (stratoliner);
mass destinations, which moved the greater number of and on the other, the increase in load capacity to
tourists with very cheap all-inclusive packages. As decrease the cost per passenger and miles (the NASA
transport costs increase, therefore, tourist packages (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
prices rise, then a gradual decline in number of “double bubble” D8 or the new airbus).
tourists will occur. The aeronautical industry tries to The irruption of the LCC may be good at first stay
find new alternative substitute oil sources compatible for tourism, but there are two nuances to consider:
with current and future technologies, such as First, the monopolization in certain destinations by
lignocellulosic materials research, the hydrogenation companies may result in higher prices and a reduction
of fats or the production of alcohols, in order to in flights in the medium term, decreasing connectivity
in less profitable routes, by pushing out of the market management models, have brought with them that
the less efficient companies, creating instability in tourist demands change rapidly, so tourist destinations
tourist markets; And secondly, the number of are going to require a greater dynamism and
passengers that appears in recent years by offering adaptability to move in an unpredictable economic
low prices, belongs to a segment of minor economic environment.
resource, and as the price of fuels increases, as you
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doi: 10.17265/1934-7359/2016.05.011
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Spatial Quality of Social Housing for Seniors: Village of

the Elderly in São Paulo (Brazil)
Rosio Fernandez Baca Salcedo1, Renata Cardoso Magagnin1 and Talita Cristina Pereira2
1. Architecture, Arts and Communication Faculty, UNESP (Univ. Estadual Paulista), Bauru 17033-360, Brazil
2. Architecture and Urbanism, UNESP (Univ. Estadual Paulista), Bauru 17033-360, Brazil
Abstract: This paper presents the quality assessment of the built environment in the social housing for seniors “Village of the
Elderly”, located in the central area of São Paulo (Brazil) and it is the case study analyzed here. This multi-method study aimed to
evaluate the quality of the built environment through the following indicators: community public facilities in the neighborhood,
accessibility, safety and quality of housing. The results showed that “Village of the Elderly” was designed to house residents with
income of up to three minimum wages, however, for lack of specific technical knowledge on human aging, some problems related to
accessibility and safety of residents were neglected. The research contributes to studies on the quality of the ambience of constructed
space and the results can support public policies, programs and projects of social housing for the elderly.
Key words: Social housing, Social Rental Program, built space quality, central area.
1. Introduction group represented 11.7% [3]. Faced with the sharp

pace of population aging, the demand for housing and
According to data provided by the UN (United
community public facilities also increased,
Nations) [1], the world is going through a
exacerbating the housing shortage for the elderly.
demographic transition caused by the aging
According to Monteiro [4], there is a global trend in
population and the declining fertility rate.
the reduction of seniors living with their own children.
According to the Pan American Health
Research shows that a significant part of this
Organization [2], the ageing index in Brazil in the
population is living alone, a phenomenon known as
coming decades will have a higher rate than in other
single person household. According to Census 2000,
countries; By 2025, this rate will be five times greater
19.4% of São Paulo’s elderly lived alone [3].
than that presented in 1975. It is estimated that in
Moreira [5] explains that the reasons for this growing
2050 the Brazilian population aged 65 and over will
phenomenon in the country are:
represent 20% of the total population (approximately
 the weakening of the family base as support in
50 millions). This value is greater than currently
old age;
found in any European country. “So Brazil will be
 the neglected contribution to social welfare
faced with the difficult situation of having to assist an
programs;
increasingly aging society in a much shorter period
 the debilitated institutional forms to support the
than that experienced by developed countries” [2].
elderly and which place policies, programs and social
The analysis of the population data of São Paulo City
projects in the background.
showed that in 2000 people aged 60 and over
The elderly, when faced with the insufficient
accounted for a total of 9.32% and in 2010 this age
implementation of public policies that meet their
needs, struggles with difficulties in overcoming the
Corresponding author: Rosio Fernandez Baca Salcedo,
Ph.D., professor, research fields: social housing, architectural
negative consequences of social segregation due to the
and urban heritage, dialogic architecture and historic center.
declining conditions of their health, physical capacity designed for the elderly [9].
and limited income after retirement, compromising In other countries, other solutions for housing the
their well-being [6]. elderly are not associated with nursing homes. The
Bestetti [7] states that housing demand is a reality United States, Canada and Europe have housing
and it requires project solutions that offer more programs termed as residential senior which can
flexible designs to attend the elderly users in terms of afford partially or totally the population over 60 years
their daily needs. According to Bestetti [7], most old.
project guidelines are conducted with reference to the Bestetti [7] presents the various types of housing or
physically disabled resident and not the elderly. The accommodation available for this age group: assisted
exception relates to the Brazilian Technical Standard living, independent housing, congregated housing,
NBR 9050/2004 which incorporates some elements continuing care retirement community, clinics and
aimed at the elderly. clinics specializing in Alzheimer Mal.
The challenge of the housing sector in Brazil is to To understand the problems that older people may
insert this population in low-cost housing programs have in their everyday activities in housing, it is
since a significant part of this population currently necessary to know the physical and psychological
lives with an average monthly income of up to three constraints related to this age group. According to
minimum wages. Tilley cited from Bestetti [7], the physical changes
The concept of SH (social housing) is understood as that occur with advancing age of the elderly hinder
a broader concept of “habitat” and it is to meet not their motor skills, factors are as follows:
only the function of safe shelter and conditions for the  Eyesight tends to worsen, reaching less than half
development of basic needs, but also the cultural and the 80 years;
economic needs, understood by the Brazilian  It is difficult to distinguish the colors violet, blue
Government as an instrument of social inclusion and and green (due to yellowing of the lens);
access to citizenship [8].  Joints becomes stiff;
The need to provide housing for the elderly through  Most body size decreases;
housing programs of the federal government only  Weight can increase 2 kg every ten years;
gained strength with the enactment of Federal Law  The strength of the hands is reduced 16%~40%
12,418 of 2011, known as the Elderly Statute. Article and the arms and legs is reduced 50%;
37 of this law points out that “The elderly have the  Lung capacity decreases by about 35%, and the
right to decent housing within the natural family or nose and ears increase in width and length.
surrogate, or unaccompanied by their families, when Research has shown that the quality and design of
so desired, or even in public or private institution” [9]. the built environment affect in its use and frequency
Article 38 of the Elderly Statute states that in social as well as in users’ psychological, social and physical
or subsidized housing by public fund programs, the aspects. Therefore, the quality of architectural design
elderly enjoys priority in the acquisition of property should be determined by physical, psychological,
for own house, observing a booking of at least 3% of social, cultural and economical characteristics of the
residential housing units that should preferably be elderly added to the physic-spatial factors, the
situated on the ground floor, funding criteria environment, the urban regulations and the laws of the
consistent with pension and retirement of the elderly, place. Quality must come from the purposeful stage
elimination of architectural and urban barriers to their (project) to the construction technique (execution).
accessibility and implementation of urban equipment Importantly, the quality of the built must be
Spatial Quality of Social Housing for Seniors: Village of the Elderly in São Paulo (Brazil) 617
understood not only as a physical condition of the No. 7,341 of October 22, 2010, the community public
architectural object, or as a function of trial by an facilities are the facilities and spaces of urban
expert in this area, but also as a condition of infrastructure for public health services, education,
satisfaction, cost-effectiveness and appropriateness of welfare, culture, sports, leisure, public safety, supply,
built space according to user expectations [10]. funeral services and the like.
When built spaces do not meet the users’ needs and Most daily activities of the elderly population are
expectations, the dissatisfaction created with the held in the vicinity of the residence and in the
building may become a source of environmental stress neighborhood through the walking mode, so the
and when experienced daily, the disturbance can cause distance from the residence to trade, and community
frustration, irritation and tension and the following public facilities should allow its full spatial
effects may occur: physiological (decreased immune accessibility [12]. In addition, the offer of trade and
resistance, abnormal heart rate and respiratory rate) or community public facilities outside the residence
behavioral (decreased cooperation, increased hostility should allow daily activity, autonomy and mobility of
and aggressiveness, poor body posture and reduced the elderly and may determine their satisfaction with
facial contact) performance change (attention and the neighborhood and city life in general [12].
memory deficits) [10]. Still, with respect to housing, proper housing and
Jones and Kinnan cited from Elali [10] indicate the good neighborhood are essential to the well-being of
following problems as the main stressors of the the elderly. For the elderly, proximity to family
relationship with the physical environment: noise members, services, trade and transportation can mean
levels above the tolerance, high density, insufficient the difference between positive social interaction and
or excessive lighting, very low or very high isolation.
temperature, difficulty with furniture According to Bestetti [7] a housing project for the
(ergonometric/anthropometric problems) and little elderly should take into consideration the following
contact with the natural environment (considered spatial aspects:
important restorer of physical and mental balance).  access (visibility and distance);
On accident prevention, Jacob cited from Bestetti [7]  circulation (type and size);
points out that inside the house, the path and stairs  dimensions (rooms and equipment);
should be properly illuminated, handrails should be  architectural barriers (stairs, gaps, security
placed at the point of imbalance and floor mats should system);
be removed or fixed. Out on the street, as a pedestrian,  environmental conditions (lighting, ventilation
the elderly should wear colorful clothes and stable and heating, acoustics);
shoes, observe the surface irregularities, the crossing  finish (texture, temperature and padronage);
points, put attention to road signs and vehicles.  maintenance conditions (easy to clean, adequacy
Therefore, the construction standards should take and accessibility);
into account the health and safety needs of older  psychodynamic aspects (color, line and size);
people. In houses, the obstacles that increase the risk  technological aspects (communication system,
of falls must be corrected or removed [11]. fire safety and insolation control) and other aspects
On the other hand, the quality of the built social (visual warning bells, adequacy of facilities for
housing for the elderly is not only limited to the computers and emergency lamp).
building itself, but also covers the neighborhood and Given this reality, it is necessary that cities,
their community public facilities. According to Decree including those with tourist character, provide
qualified built spaces for the elderly. Therefore, it is government has implemented urban policies of
up to the public administration of the cities to set up revalorization and renewal of these central areas. In
policies, programs and projects to the needs of the the case of the City Hall of the Municipality of São
elderly. The City Hall of São Paulo through the Social Paulo City, we highlight the program “Living in the
Rental Program built the housing complex “Village of Center”, which is a set of integrated municipal
the Elderly”, aimed at housing people over 65 years interventions coordinated by Housing Secretariat (in
and with a monthly income of up to three minimum Portuguese: SEHAB (Secretaria de Habitação)),
wages. In this context, this paper aims to analyze the which aims at improving the living conditions of the
spatial quality of the built environment of Village of centre’s residents, enabling adequate housing for
the Elderly. The manuscript should be in MS Word people who live or work downtown, avoiding the
format, submitted as an email attachment to our email process of expulsion of the poorest population which
address. often occurs in the political rehabilitation of urban
centers [16].
2. Housing Policy in Central Areas
This program had four areas: social rental housing,
Over the past decades, the central regions of rental grant, integrated habitat rehabilitation
Brazilian cities have undergone processes of real perimeters (in Portuguese: PRIH (Perímetro de
estate depreciation and spatial degradation, with Reabilitação Integrada do Habitat)) and rental
consequent reduction of the resident population. This program [14]. According to Shimbo [14], this
emptying of the central area can be justified by the program resulted in the construction of 1,120 units by
following reasons: Residential Rental Program (in Portuguese: PAR
 population displacement to other areas of the (Programa de Arrendamento Residencial)) and social
city; rental housing, 1,387 grants from the Rental Grant
 changes of uses and functions; Program, and the beginning of the rehabilitation
 displacement of public institution buildings; projects of integrated habitat rehabilitation
 environmental degradation caused by pollution; perimeters-Luz and Glicério.
 public investment in urban infrastructure
3. Social Rental Program and Its
elsewhere in the city;
Implementation in the Housing Set “Village
 funding for the production and marketing of real
of the Elderly”
estate in other areas of the city, among other
reasons [13, 14]. The Social Rental Program began from the State
Facing the evacuation and loss of residents of the Law 10,365 of September 2, 1999 and the CFMH
metropolitan downtown areas, the lever for the (Municipal Housing Fund Council) Resolution No. 23
recovery of these areas are the housing programs. dated June 12, 2002 of the Municipality of São Paulo.
According to Maricato [15], the rehabilitation falls to Under this act, the objective of the program is to
governments and agents taking as a first step the meet the housing demand for sectors of the population
recovery of buildings and public spaces through the who do not have conditions to participate of other
recycling of existing buildings or the construction of programs involving the purchase or rent. The units
new ones when the old ones do not justify any built through this program, with funds from the
intervention. Municipal Housing Fund, are owned by the
In order to reverse the problem of space government.
degradation, loss of residents, among others, the The beneficiaries of the Social Rental Program are
the single persons and families whose income does The architectural design of the building was
not exceed three minimum wages and belong developed by the Office VIGLIECCA & ASSOC. and
primarily to the following groups: seniors over 60 was inaugurated in 2007. The four-story building
years old, the homeless, people with special rights and features the following architectural program: 145
residents in risky or unhealthy areas. apartments, 88 kitchenettes (30 m²) and 57
In Social Rental Program, the rent value of the one-bedroom apartments (42 m²), three ballrooms,
apartment paid by residents is assigned according to three elevators, library, community garden, boules pitch
the family composition and family monthly income, (unfinished), large green area and a water mirror in the
ranging from 10% to 15%. The amounts paid by the center of the lawn. On each floor, there is a lounge with
beneficiaries of social rentals are returned to the room to watch TV or play cards (Figs. 1 and 2).
Municipal Housing Fund.
4. Materials and Methods
The municipal authorities of the City of São Paulo,
during managements from 2001 to 2004 and also from Studies developed by Ornstein [17], Bestetti [7],
2005 to 2008, implemented the Social Rental Program Alucci [18] and Salcedo [19] were used as reference
in the construction of the housing complex “Armando to evaluate the environmental quality of the built
Amadeu”, better known as “Village of the Elderly”. spaces of “Village of the Elderly”.
The building is located at 840 Carlos de Campos This analysis allowed evaluating this complex
Avenue, in Pari neighborhood. The architectural through multimethod: relationship between the
design of “Village of the Elderly” is pioneer in Sao building and the public facilities of the community;
Paulo and it satisfied the demands of the GARMIC accessibility to buildings and unbuilt spaces (by
(Coordination Group for the Housing Achievement assessing the internal and external environments of
for Senior Citizens of the Capital), which works in the building, as well as points of access and
partnership with the Municipal Council of the Elderly. circulation); safety and quality of housing.
Entrance hall/
administration
Adapted
kitchenette
Common area
Adapted
apartament
Fig. 1 Implantation of Village of the Elderly.

Kitchenette type
Common area
Apartment type
Fig. 2 Village of the Elderly: plant-type.
The analysis of the relationship of the building of corners and wide doors. These elements can
“Village of the Elderly” with the existing public facilitate the life of the elderly.
facilities in the neighborhood was carried out from the For the analysis of spatial accessibility of the
location of the building and the accessibility to public internal environment of the apartment type and
transportation means and equipment for trade, health, kitchenette, elderly with reduced
leisure and culture. mobility—wheelchair users were taken into
The analysis of spatial accessibility in “Village of consideration. For this analysis, it was used as
the Elderly” was evaluated by on-site observations, reference the study by Pereira [21] and the Brazilian
photographs and by defining a list of indicators using Technical Standard NBR 9050 [20]. The first step was
as reference the Brazilian Technical Standard NBR the analysis of the linear displacement range and the
9050 [20]. The indicators enabled the evaluation of minimum area for a 360° rotation or a wheelchair
internal and external spaces of the building. They maneuver. A width of 0.90 m was adopted for the
were evaluated by a checklist where the evaluation linear range, and a diameter of 1.50 m for the
criteria consisted of checking whether the rated space wheelchair rotation or maneuvering (360°).
was appropriate or not according to the accessibility The housing quality of “Village of the Elderly” was
standard. analyzed according to the following parameters:
The analyses of accessibility and security are constructed area per unit, type and size of rooms,
presented as important factors to evaluate the spaces number of people per bedroom, insulation, ventilation
for the elderly, since they must consider the spatial and lighting.
needs associated with aging, taking into account the The analysis of the area of the rooms was carried out
degree of dependence of the elderly user. The aspects according to the ergonomics for the elderly. The data
to be incorporated in these residences are: inclusion of that formed the basis for the proposals are the result of
support bar in bathrooms, slip-resistant flooring, the intersection and analysis of various anthropometric
adequate lighting, placement of handrails, presence of tables in the book Human Dimension & Interior
ramps substituting stairs, reversed locks, elimination Space [22], which presents two basic types of
dimensions, static and functional or dynamic. Table 1 placement of the openings, will be evaluated from the
shows the scale values for the ideal area for rooms. data in Table 2.
For the analysis of the quality of the bedroom, the As the office responsible for the project provided
evaluation was made according to the number of only the floor plans, the actual area of the windows
persons per bedroom, thus, the established value range was obtained from the Resident’s Guide from one of
is: the users during one of the visits to the building.
 excellent-one resident or a couple/sleeping room;
4.1 Application of Questionnaires to Residents
 good-two residents/sleeping room;
 regular-three residents/sleeping room; The questionnaires were given to residents during
 bad-four residents/bedroom; the second half of 2011. From a universe of 145
 awful-more than four [19]. beneficiaries, 67 were interviewed. Taking as
The ideal orientation for each type of room has reference the simple random sample table for 95.5%
been established according to the thermal stress and confidence level [16] with a population raging from
latitude of São Paulo [18], the actual orientation of 151~200 and with an error margin of 10% to more or
each room window was taken from the floor plan of less, the required minimum sample size would be 67
the apartment of the housing project. The scale of people. The questionnaire consisted of three parts, the
values is excellent when the window has the ideal first on the socioeconomic characteristics of residents,
orientation. the second on the housing characteristics and the third
For multiple uses and bedrooms, they face north, comprised open questions related to the perception of
northeast, east and southeast; for kitchens, they face users about their housing [23].
east, southeast, south and southwest; and for laundries,
5. Results and Discussion
they face east, north and west. It is bad when the
orientation of the window does not meet the ideal The analysis of the results is presented in the
orientation and awful when the environment has no following order: socioeconomic characteristics of
window or the window is facing a corridor. The residents, community public facilities in the
lighting, a factor that also depends on the size and neighborhood, accessibility and security to buildings
Table 1 Scale for the ideal area of the rooms.

Scale
Type of rooms Ideal area (m²)
> 25% (excellent) ≥ 25% (good) ≤ 25% (bad) < 50% (awful)
Eating room, kitchen laundry 18.65 ≥ 23.31 18.65~23.30 13.99~18.64 ≤ 13.98
Living room 14.50 ≥ 18.13 14.50~18.12 10.88~14.49 ≤ 10.87
Living room/single bedroom 12.09 ≥ 15.11 12.09~15.10 9.07~12.08 ≤ 9.06
Double bedroom 15.17 ≥ 18.96 15.17~18.95 11.38~15.16 ≤ 11.37
Adapted bathroom 6.42 ≥ 8.03 6.42~8.02 4.81~6.41 ≤ 4.80
kitchenette 37.16 ≥ 46.45 37.16~46.44 27.87~37.15 ≤ 27.86
One bedroom apartment 54.74 ≥ 68.43 54.74~68.42 41.05~54.73 ≤ 41.04
Table 2 Scale of natural lighting.

Scale
Type of room
Excellent (%) Good (%) Bad (%) Awful (%)
Multiple use ≥ 18.8 15.0~18.7 11.3~14.9 ≤ 11.2
Kitchen ≥ 12.5 10.0~12.4 7.60~9.90 ≤ 7.50
Laundry ≥ 12.5 10.0~12.4 7.60~9.90 ≤ 7.50
Bathroom - - - -
and unbuilt spaces and housing quality. of the elderly.

Nonetheless, the nearest subway station is the
5.1 Socioeconomic Characteristics of Residents
“Armenia”, located about 2 km away, which hinders
Residents of Village of the Elderly were the access of the elderly. In the immediate
characterized by age, gender, family income and surroundings, apart from commercial and service
previous condition of housing. The 67 respondents buildings, there are many residential houses. The
and their families make up a total of 90 people. Most Strategic Master Plan of São Paulo 2002, aiming to
are women (56.67%) and a minority, men (43.33%). revalue the District Pari implemented social housing,
The larger sample group consisted of women aged improved the quality of community facilities and
between 70 and 79 years old (25.56%), followed by transport [24] (Fig. 3).
the group of men in this same age group (23.33%).
5.4 Accessibility and Security to Buildings and
Regarding the income of residents, 97.01% has up
Unbuilt Spaces
to 1 minimum wage, 1.49% up to 2 minimum wages
and 1.49% up to 3 minimum wages. Therefore, The first assessment in “Village of the Elderly” was
residents have incomes up to 3 minimum wages and conducted through an interview with the architect
comply with the requirements for selection of Social responsible for the project. It was asked: “How the
Rental Program. With this question, it was also criteria for accessibility of disabled people, security in
possible to verify that the residents were satisfied with the building, emergency routes in case of fire,
the low rents, for being able to pay for their housing sustainability (solar collection, recycling and
brings the elderly a sense of well-being and storage of rainwater) influenced the architectural
contentment. design?” According to Héctor Vigliecca, all “these
criteria are already a constraint of the architectural
5.2 Environmental Quality of the Built Area of Village
party” [25, 26].
of Elderly
Still regarding the spatial accessibility, the residents
The environmental quality of the built space of were asked to rate the degree of accessibility of the
Village of the Elderly is analyzed by the following building, through a scale ranging from “poor, fair,
indicators: community public facilities in the good or excellent”. For 34.33% of residents, the
neighborhood, accessibility to buildings and unbuilt building has excellent accessibility, while 55.22%
spaces (by assessing the internal and external considered it “good”. Only 10.45% of residents
environments to the building, as well as the access considered it “regular”. Most residents of Village of
points and circulation), housing safety and quality. the Elderly mentioned the presence of elevators as a
positive element in relation to accessibility. For them,
5.3 Community Public Facilities in the Neighborhood
the presence of three-column lifts at strategic points of
The building “Village of the Elderly”, built in Pari the building (its “vertices”) is suitable, requiring little
neighborhood, central area of São Paulo, is in an area horizontal displacement for access. It is reported that
with a consolidated infrastructure and with their maintenance is constant, even when there is a
considerable supply of commercial establishments, problem; The distance between the elevators is not
community public facilities for social, cultural and very big. In addition, for those who have more
educational assistance as well as leisure and health physical disposition, the presence of stairs facilitates
assistance with easy access to public transportation the path to all floors of the building.
(bus), allowing daily activity, autonomy and mobility The analysis of spaces for housing the elderly was
Legend:
Social assistance
Culture
Education
Leisure
Health
Fig. 3 Location of the community public facilities surrounding “Village of the Elderly”.
Source: Technical Development Center of the Municipality of São Paulo City (in Portuguese: CEDTEC-PMSP (Centro de
Desenvolvimento Técnico-Prefeitura Municipal de São Paulo), 2012).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4 Access to the building: (a) overview of the horizontal circulation of the building; (b) ground floor circulation area.
based on the following criteria: internal circulation of jeopardize the entry of any elderly to the building
the building (horizontal and vertical), and analysis of (Figs. 4a and 4b);
the housing unit (apartment type). (2) Vertical circulation: Access to floors can be
The first analysis refers to the access to the building. accomplished either by stairs (which have body
These areas were examined under the optical guards in accordance with accessibility standards) or
displacement of physically disabled people, the by elevators (Fig. 5);
wheelchair user and the visually impaired. In this (3) Horizontal circulation: The areas of horizontal
analysis, the following problems were identified: circulation (corridors) are wide. They have
(1) Access to the building: The access to the dimensions compatible for wheelchair traffic aided by
apartments does not show unevenness that could an escort (Fig. 6a);
side support bars near the areas of the shower and the
toilet (Figs. 7a and 7b).
Due to the profile of users, the second phase of this
research examined the remaining housing units—
apartments and kitchenettes, defined as Types I and II
(Figs. 8a and 7b).
Analysis showed that the plants of the apartments
Types I and II do not consider that aging brings some
mobility restrictions (temporary or permanent). In the
layout proposal by the authors of the project, it is
visible the lack of space or useful area for
Fig. 5 Access to the elevator.
maneuvering a wheelchair (Figs. 8a and 8b).
(4) Gateway of apartments: Access to the interior of One of the most challenging environments is the
the apartments have doors with dimensions suitable bathroom (Figs. 8a and 8b). In units Types I and II,
for the disabled. Wheelchair users and the inner doors there is no area for wheelchair displacement. The
of the apartments are also in accordance with the NBR 9050 says that the minimum diameter for a 360°
Brazilian Technical Standard NBR 9050 maneuvering of a wheelchair with no displacement is
(Figs. 6b and 6c). 1.50 m. There is no room area for transference to the
The analysis of the types of apartments detected toilet and/or to the shower area. The dashed lines
that the project included the construction of only nine shown in Figs. 8a and 8b show the wheelchair rotation
apartments (one bedroom) and 16 kitchenettes (on the of 360° without displacement. The lack of foresight
ground floor) with adaptation to people with limited on the proposed layout future adaptation in the project
mobility. stage makes any future changes nonviable when any
In these units, the internal space was designed for adaptation is needed.
wheelchair movement. The bathroom was designed in Table 3 shows the comparative analysis of
accordance with the references presented in the environments on the maneuver or rotation area for the
Brazilian Technical Standard NBR 9050, that is, it had wheelchair.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6 Access to the apartment: (a) circulation area; (b) stairs; (c) gateway of the apartment.
Table 3 Summary of evaluations of the maneuver or

rotation area of wheelchair user.
Environments Apartment Type I Apartment Type II
Entrance–main door Adequate Adequate
Living-room - Adequate
Kitchen Inadequate Inadequate
Hall/circulation Inadequate Inadequate
Bathroom Inadequate Inadequate
(a) Bedroom 1-master - Adequate
Bedroom 2-single Adequate -
In the apartment Type I, analysis can be seen that

the kitchen and bathroom are inadequate to this user
(resident), depending on the square footage of the
environments and the furniture arrangement because
there is no space for a wheelchair user to move freely
in apartment. Regarding the environments in
apartment Type I, 60% of them are considered
adequate and in apartment Type II, 50%.
Regarding the external spaces, Village of the
(b) Elderly is designed to meet the needs of interaction
Fig. 7 Project of accessible units in the apartments of among residents, through a community experience.
Village of the Elderly: (a) Type I; (b) Type II.
Accesses to the common living areas are performed in
level, as shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
As over the years the elderly begin to gradually lose
sight, reflection and mobility, it is necessary that all
units provide spatial accessibility and security.
However, only 17.2% of the apartments and
kitchenettes of this condominium is inclusive, the
(a) other units do not provide full accessibility and
security (Table 4).
As regards the analysis of accessibility, this paper
deals only with the evaluation of the space issue,
however, for further consideration, other issues such
as lighting and furniture of the apartments need to be
analyzed.
5.5 Housing Quality
The quality of housing of Village of the Elderly

was analyzed according to the following indicators:
 built area per unit;
(b)
Fig. 8 Floor plan of apartments of Village of the Elderly:
 built area per room;
(a) Type I; (b) Type II.  built area per inhabitant;
Fig. 9 Common area. Fig. 10 Main entrance.
Table 4 Synthesis of the accessibility diagnosis.

Adaptation to the accessibility standard (NBR 9050)
Environment
Yes No
Access to the building √
Width √
Horizontal circulation
Floor type √
(corridors)
Tactile floor (warning and directional) √
Type of floor √
Stairs Warning and directional signs √
Vertical circulation Handrail √
Gap between floors √
Elevator
Warning signs √
Kitchen √
Apartment
Bathroom √
Types I and II
Bedroom √
Communication and visual signaling √
 number of people per bedroom; follows: Of the 67 visited housing units, 226 rooms
 environmental comfort; studied in the building showed that 21.24% have
 level of satisfaction with current housing. rooms with areas that were classified as “good”,
The quality of built area per housing unity is shown compared to the ideal areas, while 38.05% rated “bad”
as follows: The real area of 30 m2 kitchenette is bad and 40.71% “awful”.
compared to the ideal area of 37.16 m² (living The quality of number of people per bedroom is
room-bedroom: 12.09 m², pantry-kitchen-laundry: shown as follows: The analysis of the number of
18.65 m² and adapted bathroom: 6.42 m²), and the people per bedroom and the area available for each
area of the one bedroom apartment of 42 m2 is also resident in his apartment is an important factor to
bad compared to the ideal area of 54.74 m² (double evaluate the comfort of the users. Of the 67 units
bedroom: 15.17 m², living room: 14.50 m², visited, 97.01% shows the number of people per
pantry-kitchen-laundry: 18.65 m² and adapted bedroom classified as “excellent” (and of this 97.01%,
bathroom: 6.42 m²). Both the kitchenettes and the 71.64% of the dormitories were intended for a single
one-bedroom apartments have insufficient areas that person and 25.37% for a couple). It was classified as
make it difficult to carry out activities and restrict the “regular” (91.49%) the apartment that housed three
mobility of the elderly. people per bedroom (actually the living room was
The quality of built area per room is shown as used as bedroom) and as “awful” (1.49%) the one
housing five people per bedroom (in this case the 6. Conclusions
living room was also used as bedroom).
The housing complex “Village of the Elderly”
The quality of environmental comfort is shown as
implemented by the municipal government of São
follows: Analysis of the item “insulation” in the
Paulo City through the Social Rental Program has
rooms evaluated in the building showed that 51.33%
delivered some of the requirements of the elderly
of the windows of the rooms were properly oriented
needs such as: accessibility, safety, proximity to
relative to the sun, being rated as “excellent”. Other
public transportation (bus), commerce and community
30.09% were classified as “bad” for having openings
public facilities, rental value proportional to the
with inadequate guidelines (west or south), and
monthly income of the beneficiary and group
18.58% of the rooms had insulation classified as
socialization activities. However, the housing units
awful for not having openings. In the bathrooms of “kitchenettes and one-bedroom apartment” do not
kitchenettes, the ventilation is performed by pipelines. meet the needs of the elderly due to their insufficient
The evaluation of the item “lighting” is an areas for the performance of daily activities, for the
important aspect to assess the health of housing. accommodation of furniture and for restrictions to
11.06% of the analyzed rooms were classified as mobility, causing dissatisfaction, stress and accidents
“excellent”, while 11.06% accounted for the option, to users.
“good”; 18.58% option, “bad” and 59.30% option, The recommendation to the governments of the
“awful”. These data show that most of the area of the cities is to create policies, programs and social
openings is insufficient to illuminate the environments housing projects for the elderly in consolidated
as well, the lack of openings directed outwards in the neighborhoods with community public facilities,
bathrooms of kitchenettes also contributed to the housing units with a minimum of one bedroom and
increase of the unsatisfactory percentage. collective spaces of preventive health and
The degree of satisfaction with housing is shown as socialization. Projects must meet the physical,
follows: Regarding the users’ perception of their psychological, social, cultural and economic
homes, one of the items discussed was the degree of necessities of the users, they should consider access,
satisfaction of the users in relation to their current circulation, suitable coatings, maintenance conditions,
housing compared to their previous housing. So when size of the rooms that allow the accommodation of
they were asked: “Has your housing improved from furniture, use and circulation with wheelchairs,
your previous one?” Most respondents said that they heating and ventilation as well as psychodynamic and
were satisfied and many of them also mentioned their safety aspects.
satisfaction to be able to pay a fair price for the space
Acknowledgments
they inhabited.
Regarding the perception of the built space of their The authors thank FAPESP (Process No.
current residence, the majority of the respondents 2010/16424-6) for the aid granted to the research, the
claimed to have pleasant sensations (64.18%); Only to residents of Village of the Elderly, the Municipality of
19.40% of them, their homes brought negative images São Paulo and the office VIGLIECCA & ASSOC.
(lack of space, lack of some environments, desire to
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Journal of Civil Engineering

David Publishing Company

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563 Stability Analysis of Tubular Steel Shores

581 Dynamic Analysis of Historical Brick Masonry House

Tourism and Sustainable Development

A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Quality at the

Mohamed Mostafa and Robert W. Peters

1. Introduction Rosetta branch daily receives more than 3 million m3

Table 2 ANOVA terms (interaction between organic and solid factors).

treated industrial and domestic wastewaters, in

samples collected along the Rosetta branch, results 50

showed NO3− concentrations greater during winter and 40

the nitrification rate (converting ammonium to nitrate) 10

may drop due to decreased microbial and bacterial 0

The nature of correlations among the different 70

parameters is provided in Tables A3-A6 in the 60

between pH values and all studied parameters for all 30

values showed positive correlations with all selected Station

Fig. 3 Water quality index for collected water samples in

seasons, except pH and temperature; This finding 30

quality and illustrated the extent of the link between 0

constitutes the main cause of the poor water quality 40

TSS, COD, BOD and TOC concentrations and to a 0

decrease in DO and pH levels. Station

Fig. 5 Water quality index for collected water samples in

Table 4 Results of two-way ANOVA with replication at the Rosetta branch.

Acknowledgments Characteristics of the River Nile at Delta Barrage with

Landfill Siting Using GIS and AHP (Analytical Hierarchy

1. Introduction different aspects of landfill management, particularly

Suitable site selection for

Hydrological Topographiical Lannd Acceessibility Social-cultural

Table 1 Description of buffer zones criteria values.

Table 2 Summary of the input layers used in the analysis.

Railways (m) Elevation (a.m.s.l.)

(a) (b) (c)

Urban centers (m) Archaeological (m)

Gas pipelines (m) Oil pipelines (m) Power lines

Table 3 The fundamental scale of absolute numbers [48].

elements in row i. Saaaty [12], by dividing thee value of CI C by the RII

Final model (AHP)

Understanding Environmental Worldview of Famagusta

Buket Asilsoy1 and Derya Oktay2

Key words: Environmental worldview, demographic variables, survey research, Famagusta.

1. Introduction regard, beside socio-psychological [1-5] dynamics and

Table 1 Participants’ gender profile (%). Environmental worldview: The environmental

Table 8 Test of homogeneity of variances for education.

Acknowledgments [13] Ajzen, I., and Fishbein, M. 1980. Understanding

A GIS Model for Analyzing Airspace Obstructions and

1. Introduction the safe separations between aircraft and obstructions.

Fig. 1 FAR Part 77 imagin

Fig. 2 Imagiinary surfaces & critical poin

Fig. 3 OIS model of TSA Airport.

Fig. 4 OIS model of KHH Airport.

5. Conclusions the long-term goal for airport design. The proposed

Surveying-GIS Program: The Presentation to Airport GIS 321-8.

Stability Analysis of Tubular Steel Shores

Fig. 1 Moment versus joint rotation [1].

Properties of the steel tubes

Outside diameter (mm) 48.30

P-delta analyses were performed using a where:

because this degree is not enough to classify the 800