How a Tyre is Made

Tyre manufacturing is a complex technical process, which, for the sake of simplicity can be broken down
into eight manufacturing stages:
1) Mixing
Various grades of natural and synthetic rubber are blended in an internal mixer (commonly known as a
Banbury) and mixed with carbon black and other chemical products. This blend is called the
"masterbatch" and its make-up is carefully constructed according to the desired performance parameters
of the tyre
2) Calendering
Textile fabric or steel cord is coated with a film of rubber on both sides. Calendered textiles such as
rayon, nylon and polyester are used for the casing and the cap plies. Steel cord is used for the belts.
3) Tread and Sidewall Extrusion
The tread and sidewalls are constructed by forming two different and specifically designed compounds
into tread profiles by feeding the rubber through an extruder. Extruders produce continuous lengths of
tread rubber which are then cooled and cut to specific lengths.
4) Bead Construction
The bead core is constructed by coating plated steel wires, which are wound on a bead former by a given
number of turns to provide a specific diameter and strength for a particular tyre.
5) Tyre Building
Tyre building is traditionally a two-stage process. Although modern tyre factories now use a certain
number of single-stage building machines, two-stage building is still widely used, particularly for the more
standard sizes. In the first stage, the innerliner, the body plies and the sidewalls are placed on a building
drum. The beads are they positioned, the ply edges are turned around the bead core and the sidewalls
are simultaneously moved into position. In the second tyre building stage, the tyre is shaped by inflation
with two belts, a cap ply and the tread being added. At the end of this stage the tyre is now known as a
"green tyre".
6) Curing
The green tyre is now placed in a mould inside a curing press and cured for a specific length of time at a
specific pressure and temperature. The finished tyre is then ejected from the mould.
7) Trimming
Excess rubber is removed from the cured tyre on a trimming machine.
8) Inspection
Before the tyre is allowed to go to the despatch warehouse, it is inspected both visually and electronically
for quality and uniformity.
Tread Pattern Types and Functions

Rib shape : Tread patterns dominated by multiple circumferential grooves.

• Advantages include lower rolling resistance plus good directional stability and
steering control thanks to lateral resistance. Rib type patterns are suitable for
sustained high speeds thanks to their low levels of heat generation.
• Key disadvantages are poor braking & acceleration grip on wet roads.
• Application: For paved road surfaces and truck or bus steer axles

Lug shape : Tread patterns with the groove arrangement perpendicular to the circumference of the tyre
• The main advantage of lug patterns is excellent braking power and traction.
• The biggest disadvantage is a tendency towards high noise when driven at high
speed. Indeed, lug patterns are not suitable for high speed driving due to their
high rolling resistance.
 • Application: For dirt roads, rear wheels of buses, industrial vehicles and dump
trucks .

Rib-Lug shape : A combination of Rib and Lug designs

• Key features are a rib in the centre providing directional control whilst a shoulder
lug gives good braking & driving power.
• Application: Good for both paved and dirt roads. Usually used in both front &
rear wheels of trucks and buses.
Block-shape : Patterns consisting of independent blocks divided by circumferential and lateral grooves.

• Block patterns provide good steering control and stability on snow covered and
wet roads as well as good water dispersal properties in the wet.
• However, because the tread blocks are smaller, tyre wear tends to be heavy.
• Application: Suitable for winter or all-season passenger car tyres as well as for
the rear wheel use in ordinary applications.

Asymmetric pattern : Tread patterns which differ on either side of the tyre.
• Asymmetric tyres have been designed to optimise the opposing requirements of
dry grip and water dispersal. They are good for high speed cornering due to the
greater contact area which helps reduce treadwear on outside of tyre.
• Asymmetric tyres must be positioned them the right way around.
• Application: High performance and motorsport tyres.
Directional pattern : Tread patterns characterised by lateral grooves on both sides of the tyre which

point in the same direction.

• Advantages of directional tread patterns are good driving force and braking
performance. In particular directional patterns provide good water dispersal
meaning stability on wet roads.
• Directional tyres must be mounted in the direction of the tread pattern.
• Applications: Passenger car tyre for high speed use
Load Indices
The load-index figure imprinted on the sidewall of the
tyre denotes the maximum load capacity of a tyre
when driven at maximum speed. A list of load indices
and maximum weights is give below:
Li kg Li kg
65 290 94 670
66 300 95 690
67 307 96 710
68 315 97 730
69 325 98 750
70 335 99 775
71 345 100 800
72 355 101 825
73 365 102 850
74 375 103 875
75 387 104 900
76 400 105 925
77 412 106 950
78 425 107 975
79 237 108 1000
80 450 109 1030
81 462 110 1060
82 475 111 1090
83 487 112 1120
84 500 113 1150
85 515 114 1180
86 530 115 1215
87 545 116 1250
88 560 117 1285
89 580 118 1320
90 600 119 1360
91 615
92 630
93 650

Speed Ratings
All tyres carry a speed symbol in the form of a letter indicating the maximum speed for which the tyre is
intended. The table below shows which speed goes with each letter.
Speed symbol Maximum speed
km/h mph
N 140 87
P 150 93
Q 160 99
R 170 106
S 180 112
T 190 118
H 210 130
V 240 149
W 270 168
Y 300 186

Maximum speed
Speed category
km/h mph
ZR 240 149
and above
Sidewall Markings
On the sidewall of a tyre you will find various codes and markings. The list below aims to simplify the
coding system and allow you, the user, to understand the valuable information imprinted on the sidewall.
Tyre Sizes
Tyre sizes are made up of a number of different numbers and letters. For example tyre size 175/70 R 13
82 T is made up of the following information:
175 The tyre section width in millimetres
The aspect ratio in % (the height of the sidewall divided by the
70
tyre’s width)
R Denotes the tyre’s construction type - in this case it’s a radial
13 Rim diameter in inches
82 Load Index
T Speed Rating
Tyre Age
Tyres carry a three digit age code on the sidewall indicating the month and year of manufacture. For
example 129 means the tyre was manufactured in December 1999.
Other Markings
M&S - Identifies Mud and Snow tyres
DOT Codes - Coding satisfying the requirements of the US Department of Transportation contain a
mixture of letters and numbers such as DOT DVDE MTA 129
E-Marks - Tyres for sale in the European Community must carry an E -Mark in accordance with ECE Reg
30 - eg E4 027550
Aspect Ratio

Aspect ratio is the ratio of a tyre’s width to it’s height. A 70 series tyre, therefore, is a tyre whose height is
equal to 70% of its width. Lower Profile Tyres hence have lower series numbers.

Low Profile Tyres - Performance Characteristics

Compared to conventional passenger car tyres, low profile car tyres have greater width ratio to cope with
the demands of higher performance vehicles.
The key performance advantages are:
• Improved handling and grip
• More traction and braking power
Disadvantages are:
• Increased road noise
• A harsher ride
 • Less resistance to aquaplaning due to the amount of rubber on the road
Low Profile Tyres - Performance Characteristics
Compared to conventional passenger car tyres, low profile car tyres have greater width ratio to cope with
the demands of higher performance vehicles.
The key performance advantages are:
• Improved handling and grip
• More traction and braking power
Disadvantages are:
• Increased road noise
• A harsher ride
• Less resistance to aquaplaning due to the amount of rubber on the road

Summer Tyres

The main characteristic of the summer tyre is excellent driving and braking performance on both dry and
wet roads, in temperatures above freezing throughout the spring, summer, autumn and winter. A simple
block-shape tread pattern ensures the tyre’s contact area remains as rigid as possible, ensuring
maximium grip at all times by optimising friction with the road surface. If the tyre has any special
indication on it, it means this tyre is for summer usage.

Winter Tyres

This type of tyre is suitable for snow and ice covered roads. The tread pattern features a heavily siped,
fine-block design with grooves that are deep and wide, providing excellent driving traction and braking
performance on winter road surfaces. The tread rubber used in winter tyres provides good friction
characteristics and suppleness even in low temperatures. At present, winter tyre design is focused toward
braking performance and driving control on icy roads. Recent developments in tyre pattern design and
rubber technology have greatly improved winter tyre performance.

All-season Tyres
These tyres are designed to be used all year round to save having to change the tyres to suit the season.
All-season tyre patterns are more complicated than those of the summer tyre because of the longer
block-edge for winter usage. More sipes appear in the all-season tyre than summer tyre to improve the
braking and driving performance by maximising the effect of edge. It is important to remember that in
regions where winter temperatures are very low and heavy snow falls are frequent, braking performance
will rarely be 100 percent so it is safer to use winter tyres. All-season tread designs will provide good all-
around traction for varing road conditions, but still provide good treadwear and tyre noise characteristics.

Tyre Rotation
Tyre wear rates differ depending on the axle on which the tyres are fitted and whether the vehicle is
front or rear wheel drive. To extend the life of your tyres it is advisable to change tyre positions on a
regular basis. Different tyre manufacturers may recommend different rotation periods, ranging from 2-
6,000 miles. It is advisable to switch tyres from left to right periodically as well as from the back to the
front of the vehicle.Certain high performance tyres are position specific and should not be rotated. If in
doubt, contact a specialist tyre dealer.
If you are replacing two worn tyres, the new tyres should be fitted on the rear of the vehicle.
"Up-Stepping" by Fitting Low Profile Tyres

Vehicle performance can be improved without the necessity of changing wheels

simply by selecting a tyre with a lower profile. This means maintaining overall
diameter while lowering aspect ratio and correspondingly increasing the tyre width.
Put simply, a tyre with a lower section height and wider tread has better cornering
force and grip, thus improving steering stability.
In order to attain the maximum performance out of your vehicle, larger and wider
wheels are recommended. Although high performance is our goal, there are certain
safety guidelines that must be observed. This means that wheel size and type, and
tyre height and width must fall within certain limits. When selecting a high
performance tyre the following must be observed.
Clearance
Wheel well clearance must be maintained. Failure to do so would most likely
severely cut the tyre when turning, if not lead to a puncture. The vehicle
manufacturer can provide the maximum tyre width permissible. Otherwise consult a
specialist high performance tyre dealer.
Speedometer Error
With a constant wheel diameter, overall tyre diameter will decrease proportionately
with aspect ratio. This smaller overall diameter will result in speedometer error.
Wheel Selection
It is often the case that new wheels are required. This can be because either a
larger rim width and/or larger rim diameter is called for. When choosing high
performance wheels ensure that they have the correct offset and pitch circle
diameter (P.C.D.) for your vehicle.
Up Stepping to High Performance
Maximizing your car’s performance by selecting a lower profile tyre/larger size rim
combination is referred to as "up-stepping." Plus-one or plus-two tells you how much
larger the rim size is. This "up-step" approach to improving performance came into
being because, although it is possible to get higher performance without changing
rims, it is often necessary to increase tyre width to the point that steering geometry
is affected, with the result that a change in driving style or habits becomes
necessary.
So to fully maximise your vehicle’s performance (which includes preserving the
steering geometry) the "up-step" approach is highly recommended. By fitting a larger
rim, increases in tyre section width are properly managed while correct overall
diameter is maintained. This maximizes cornering force and grip without sacrificing
any other handling parameters.

Tyre Safety Tips

1. Do not use tyres with a tread depth of less than 1.6mm. Apart from being illegal, tyres with low levels of
tread will slide easily, suffer from extended braking distances and will be more susceptible to rupturing. In
wet conditions the vehicle will aquaplane making braking and handling almost impossible.
2. Make sure your air pressures are correct. Low air pressure generates heat which can result in the
rubber and cord separating, which in turn leads to the cord becoming cut and puncturing the tyre. Low
pressure also results in excessive wear on the edge of the tyre, shortening the tyre’s life. Excessive
pressure, meanwhile, results in unpredictable handling in addition to which, if the tyre suffers an impact,
it’s easily ruptured and cut. If you brake hard, the tyre may skid, which reduces tyre life as the centre of
the tread becomes worn. Check tyre inflation pressures at least twice a month. Always check pressures
when tyres are cool and maintain the pressure recommended by the vehicle manufacturer.
3. Don’t drive with damaged tyres. If you drive with materials such as stone in the tread groove, or with a
nail stuck in the tyre, the tyre can become punctured or ruptured. You should change the tyre immediately
on discovering any damage to avoid any further damage to the carcass.
4. Treat abnormal tyre wear immediately. To assure normal wear you should check air pressures and
alignment and rotate the tyres regularly. In addition you should avoid bad driving habits such as sudden
acceleration, braking and cornering.
5. Check the spare tyre. Make sure you regularly check the spare tyre’s air pressure, existence/non
existence of damage and the depth of remaining groove regularly.
6. Never mount radial tyres on the same axle as non-radial tyres or radial tyres on the front axle when
non-radial tyres are mounted on the rear axle. These conditions are likely to cause vehicle instability
resulting in a sudden loss of control and serious injury.
7. Check regularly that wheel nuts are securely tightened.
8. Never overload your tyres. The maximum load and inflation pressure of the tyres are moulded into the
sidewall. Also, remember; the tyre is capable of carrying the maximum load only if it is inflated to its
maximum air pressure.
9. Do not use detergents or chemicals containing petroleum products for cleaning or polishing your tyres.
10. Avoid prolonged use on bad surfaces.
11. Never fit used tyres unless you are sure of their past history. Tyres age even if they have not been
used or have only been used occasionally. Cracks in the tread or in the sidewall rubber, sometimes
accompanied by deformation of the carcass, are a sure sign of aging. Have your old tyres checked by a
tyre specialist so that you can be certain they are still suitable for further use.
12. If you get a puncture, stop as soon as possible and change the tyre. Besides the obvious safety
considerations, continuing to drive on an under-inflated tyre can cause structural deterioration. Punctured
tyres must always be removed from the wheel to check for secondary damage
13. If it is necessary and feasible to repair a tyre, it must be carried out by a tyre specialist as soon as
possible to avoid any structural deterioration. All tyre repairs must be entrusted to a tyre repair specialist .
Wheel and Tyre Fitting Check List

Before fitting tyres on aftermarket wheels check:

1. that the stud/bolt hole pattern is correct.
2. that the wheel fits freely onto the hub without
interference and that there are no screws, rivets or
retaining clips which may interfere with a firm, flat
location of the hub against the wheel mounting
face.
3. that the wheel rotates freely and truly on both
front and ear hubs
4. when fastened to the hub, that no part of the wheel can make contact with
the brake drums or calipers or any other part of the steering or
suspensionCheck nuts and bolts. Correct fitting is vital. Be sure1. that the
thread form is correct (fit nuts without wheels).2. that the nut/bolt seating is
correct.3. that the stud length is adequate for minimum thread penetration of
approximately 1 x stud diameter and not too long as to permit "bottoming" of
the stud in the nut.4. that the threads are rust free and not over-lubricated5.
when sleeve nuts are used, that the shank diameter is correct and that the
bearing washers are always used.When fitting the tyre

1. make sure that the rim size is compatible with

tyre size.
2. be wary of scratching the protective lacquer
coating (on aluminium wheels and some chrome
wheels). Aluminium corrodes very easily once
exposed to atmosphere, water or chemicals.
3. where possible always use the adhesive type of
balance weight, as these help to avoid scratching
of the wheel finish.
Finally Check
1. that the wheel and tyre assembly does not contact any part of the
suspension or body work by carrying out full ’bump’ and lock to lock tests
before driving the vehicle away from the fitting bay.Do not take risks. Wheel
security is vital. Check with experts if you have any doubt. (

Wheel and Tyre Fitting Check List

Before fitting tyres on aftermarket wheels check:

1. that the stud/bolt hole pattern is correct.

2. that the wheel fits freely onto the hub without
interference and that there are no screws, rivets or
retaining clips which may interfere with a firm, flat
location of the hub against the wheel mounting
face.
3. that the wheel rotates freely and truly on both
front and ear hubs
4. when fastened to the hub, that no part of the wheel can make contact with
the brake drums or calipers or any other part of the steering or
suspensionCheck nuts and bolts. Correct fitting is vital. Be sure1. that the
thread form is correct (fit nuts without wheels).2. that the nut/bolt seating is
correct.3. that the stud length is adequate for minimum thread penetration of
approximately 1 x stud diameter and not too long as to permit "bottoming" of
the stud in the nut.4. that the threads are rust free and not over-lubricated5.
when sleeve nuts are used, that the shank diameter is correct and that the
bearing washers are always used.When fitting the tyre

1. make sure that the rim size is compatible with

tyre size.
2. be wary of scratching the protective lacquer
coating (on aluminium wheels and some chrome
wheels). Aluminium corrodes very easily once
exposed to atmosphere, water or chemicals.
3. where possible always use the adhesive type of
balance weight, as these help to avoid scratching
of the wheel finish.
Finally Check
1. that the wheel and tyre assembly does not contact any part of the
suspension or body work by carrying out full ’bump’ and lock to lock tests
before driving the vehicle away from the fitting bay.Do not take risks. Wheel
security is vital. Check with experts if you have any doubt. (

Technical Aspects of Alloy Wheels

Wheel Size
Two measurements, the Rim Diameter and the Rim Width, normally determine the wheel size. This is
best explained with reference to the diagram shown on the right:

Cross Section of Wheel

Offset

The ‘Offset’ of a wheel measures the distance between the wheel centreline and the wheel mounting
face and is measured in millimetres. It is extremely important that wheels of the correct offset are used in
order to maintain the correct track of the vehicles.
Offset can be Positive or Negative and is best illustrated in the two diagrams on the left. Most Modern
vehicles are front-wheel drive, and as such generally require positive offset wheels. The main exception
to this rule is 4x4 vehicles, which often use negative offset wheels.

Clearance
It is, of course, extremely important that the clearance of both the vehicle body work and
steering/suspension components are maintained. Failure to do so would most likely cause damage to
both the tyre/wheel assembly as well as the body of the vehicles. Clearance is achieved by selecting a
wheel of the correct size and type of tyre. Quality alloy wheel suppliers can give such information.

Pitch Circle Diameter (PCD)

The P.C.D. can be defined as the diameter (in millimetres) of an imaginary circle drawn through the
centre of the stud holes on the wheel and/or the vehicle wheel hub.

When new wheels are required, it is essential that they have the correct P.C.D. for the vehicle concerned.

Wheel Location on Hub

 Motor vehicle manufacturers use a central location collar on the stub axle hub in order to accurately
locate the wheel. The wheel collar diameter varies, depending on the make of vehicle.
Many replacement allow wheel manufacturers use an adapter (spigot ring) to vary the diameter of the
locating hole. In this way, a particular wheel can, by changing the spigot ring, be used on a variety of
vehicles.

The adapter/spigot ring arrangement is illustrated in the diagrams to the left.

As an example, TSW Spigot rings should always be fitted without he tapered edge facing the vehicle hub.
This is to allow easy and accurate location of the ring onto the hub collar.

Upstepping to High Performance

Vehicle performance can be maximised by selecting a lower profile tyre and larger wheel diameter
combination. Care must be taken to select the appropriate replacement wheel / tyre combination to avoid
problems.
For example, it is a legal requirements that the tyre and wheel assemblies stay within the body of the car.

The fitting of larger diameter replacement wheels is referred to as ‘up-stepping’. ‘Plus One’ or ‘Plus Two’
denotes how much larger the wheel diameter is.

This approach of ‘up-stepping’ allows the tyre section width to be increased whilst maintaining the correct
overall diameter. This allows the optimisation of cornering force and grip whilst maintaining the original
gearing of the vehicle. One example of this is:

195/60 R 14
14 inch diameter
Original size

205/50 R 15
15 inch diameter
Plus One

205/45 R 16
16 inch diameter
Plus Two

205/40 R 17
17 inch diameter
Plus Three

All of the above have an overall rolling diameter which is within an acceptable tolerance.

Aspect Ratio
Aspect ratio is the ratio of section height to section width. It should be noted that in general, tyres with a
lower section height (i.e. where the aspect ratio is lowered) have a higher cornering force and therefore
improved performance-handling characteristics.