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Human Resource
Volume One:
Organizing Projects for Success
Skills for the
Project Manager
Volume Two: Volume Two
Human Resource Skills for the
Project Manager Vijay K. Verma, i?Eng., M.B.A.
Volume Three:
Managing the Project Team
14 ---
Hirinatt Rcsoirrce Skrlls f o r t l ~ eI'ro~ectM a t i q e r
Interpersonal Communication
It's not what you say, it's how you say it. Figure 1.1 The Comrnunication Processes
-Anonymoirs
Comrnunication is a two-way effort, irivoIviiig tlie transmission of iiifor- Sources of Perceptual Differences
Words
rnation and understanding from orie person or group to anotlier through
the use of comrnon symbols. These common syrnbols can be verbal o r
nonverbal, written, graphic, o r rnultimedia. T h e information represented
by the symbols-expressed as thoughts, ideas, facts or figures-is useful
only if it conveys meaning or knowledge to the receiver. Therefore, both
1 + 7
Field of Experience
1
Emotions
i -
Field of Experience
1
sender a n d receiver should seek an exact mutual understanding when
c~mrnunicatin~.'
Sender
By using cornrnunication skills, project managers help to plan, direct,
control, and coordinate their operations throughout the project life cy- Message
idea Encoding (~nitiated)
cle. Most of the communication activities of project managers involve in-
terpersonal communication and project communications, sharing infor-
rnation with project team members and other stakeholders (as distinct
frorn rnachine-to-rnachine comrnunication for automated tasks). Peter
Meaning Decoding
Drucker emphasizes the importance of communication for nianagers, and
points out that cornmunicating ability is essential for s u c ~ e s s H
. ~e states
that one's effectiveness is determined by one's ability to reach others
through the spoken or written word, and this ability is perhaps the most
irnportant of all the skills an individual should possess.
In project rnanagement, the importance of communication is enipha-
sized by Sievert, w h o says that a high percentage of the frictions, frustra-
tions a n d inefficiencies in working relationships are traceable to poor
communication. In almost every case, the misinterpretation of a design order to reacli this iinderstandiiig, each person must know the other's
drawing, a rnisunderstood change order, a missed delivery date, or a fail- riiea~iirigarid iiiteiit. T'iiis requires fecdback.
ure t o execute instructions are the results of a breakdown in communica- O n e or both parties inay need to ask qiiestions to determine exactly
. ~ engineers and technical personnel typically sperid 50-75 per-
t i ~ n Even \vIiat the other person rneans. The serider may ger feedback to a message
cent of their time in communicating verbally-although most discount the by asking the receiver in a non-threatening manner (such as what he or
importance of this aspect of their w ~ r k . ~ > ~ stie iiiiderstood, rather tlian ruhetlier he or she understood) and ask the re-
ceiver to respond to it ir1 a way that will reveal \vtietlier or not a conirnon
Goals of interpersonal communications iiriderstariding lias becii renched.
All comrnunication shoiild be aimed at producing one o r more of these
responses:' H o w interpersonal communication w o r k s
Understanding the exact meaning and intent of others Interpersonal communication is the process of sharing information wirh
Being understood by others otlier iiidividiials. It has three basic elements (see Figure 1.1):
Gaining acceptance for yourself andíor your ideas 1. Tlie seiider/eiicoder of informatiori
Producing action or change. 2. The sigiial or tlie message
All of these goals indicate that, to ensure that niessages are received and 3. Tlie receiver/decoder.
understood clearly, two-way communication is necessary. When commu- Wilbur Schrarnrn's classic \vork6 explains the role of these three ele-
nicating in a project environment, both the sender and receiver have a diity nients. Tlie sender deterriiiiies what informatiori he or slie intends to share,
t o seek cornmon understanding-to be understood and to understand. In ericotles tliis inforniatiori in ttie fortil of a niessage, and then transmits the
riiessage as a signal to tlie receiver. The destination decodes the transmitted
18 .-
Hilttrarr Kesoirrce Skills for ihe Project Maringer 19
A Xcy to Projcct Si/cccss
Co)?ir)~~r>iicaiio~i:
.
the resulting ambiguity of t h e message will frustrate tearn members. Of
course, the best way to avoid such ambiguity is t o "Walk your talk": to
mean w h a t you say and say what you niean.
Written communication In a project erivironment, written comrnuni-
cation includes reports, plans (strategic and tactical), proposals, standards,
Figure 1.2
P7
here. Project managers and tearn rnembers should review the ample mate-
rials available and get some training in written communication. However,
the major steps (as shown in Figure 1.2) are summarized below.13 3. Prepare draft
Establish the basic purpose of the message. This means defining the
general o r specific purpose of the message. T h e general purpose may be to During
writing
direct, inform, inquire o r persuade, while the specific purpose may require
more thought, data, and/or analysis. In the case of a major report, propos- 1 4. Check overall structure I I
s
a1 o r plan, project managers should work closely with their project tearn
members to develop a consensus on the basic purpose of the message.
Collect and organize material. This includes collecting and analyzing
the facts and assumptions that have a bearing on the purpose of the mes-
sage. Organize the material into topics and subtopics and then develop a 5. S e n d the m e s s a g e L
logical sequence or grouping.
Prepare draft. The effort required in this step depends iipon the com-
plexity of the message. De prepared to go through severa1 drafts for com- Also, the three stages outlined earlier (introduction, explanation and
plex, major documents and reports. Check for spelling, grarnmar, punctua- sumrnary) should be used in any verbal or written method to comrnuni-
tion, format, abbreviations and the use of the right words and phrases. Use cate a message or idea to a project team.
active voice rather than passive voice. After the draft is finished, evaluate it. Send the message. Use the appropriate mediurn to send the message.
The following questions should be addressed t o in~provethe quality:13 Both oral and written rnethods of communication are useful, but their de-
1s it objective and logical? gree of effectiveness varies according to the situation. An oral message
Are facts and assumptions valid and justifiable? followed by a written one is usually most effective because it clarifies and
Did you say what you intended to say? reinforces tlie message. Table 1.2 shows tlie effectiveness of oral andlor
1s there information overload (or lack of)? written communication in various situations.
Does the main text flow srnoothly in a clear, direct and logical manner? By following the above steps diligently, project participants will in-
Are a11 the words used essential to the purpose of the message? crease the chances that the receiver will get the message clearly.
Have you used language that will appeal to your audience? Improving your written messages. Writing bid proposals, progress re-
Check the overall structure. If the rnessage is a report, make sure that ports, training manuals, etc., is an important part of project management.
it follows the conventional structure, which contains: The following guidelines should help improve any type of written message.14
Executive sumrnary (main ideas and conclusions) Deternzine w h e n to put your i7zessages iiz ~ u r i t i i ~ Written
g. communica-
Introduction (synopsis, background, o r main issues) tion is effective in the following cases:
Main text and observations When conveying coniplex information or data
Summary, conclusions o r recommendations. When communicating information requiring future action from team
mernbers
Mu-or
Lack of Infomation
\
1 Lack of Opennesr and twrt
i"sks or rel~tionships~
Preoccup~tion
merrage competitionl
Organizational climate. Minimize the difficulties associated with status
and ego in the organization. Create an atmosphere of openness and trust
by talking with, rather than down to, people.
Number of links. Reduce the niimber of transmission links. T h e more
Project
links there are in tlie chain, the more opportunities there are for distor-
Objectives tion t o creep into the message.
Communication micro-barriem These barriers obstruct successful com-
Management of Scope.
Cost, Time, Quality. Human
munication in a specific situation. These barriers relate to the communi-
Resources and Contracts cated message itself, to tlie sender and/or to the receiver. Communication
micro-barriers include:16
Perceptions ~ n d
Penonalities
Perceptions. Both the sender and the receiver may have their own per-
Hear W a t You
ExpecftoHear Knowledge of W h a t
ceptions about each other's knowledge and skills.
You Wsnt to Say
itoo much or too limel
Seuder's v i e w of the receiver. Senders communicate differently de-
pending on how tliey perceive the receiver's leve1 of knowledge and
ability to iinderstarid tlie rnessage. Senders shoiild not imply any neg-
Barriers to successful communication
ative attitudes towards the receiver tlirough communication behavior.
... there isn't anyone who does trot apprcciate kitrd7ress atrd cotnpassiotr. \Ve T h e receivcr's v i e ~ uof t l ~ csolder. Persoiial feelings (based o n
must build closer relationships of tnutital trirst, rrtrderstanditrg, respect, atrd
help, irrespective of differences of cultrrre, philosophy, religion or faith. sender's expertise) towards the sender may influence how carefully
- The Dalai Lattra the receiver listeris to the sender. If negative, these feelings may
If any of the ingredients o r elements of the communication process are cause the receiver to ignore the niessage, resulting in the loss of
defective in any way, clarity of meaning and understanding will be re- valuable inforniation. I f overly positive, these feelings may inhibit
duced. Severa1 macro-barriers and micro-barriers to commiinication can the receiver's jiidgment.
arise that will lead t o bottlenecks and unsuccessful communication (as Such perceptions influence the interpretation of a message and differ-
shown in Figure 1.3). ing interpretations result in unsuccessful communication. To overcome
Communication macro-barriers. These are elements of the communi- percept~ialdifferences, make messages specific and unambiguous.
cation environment that hinder successful communication in a " general Message competition. Communicate only when you have the total at-
sense. Communication macro-barriers, and suggestions for renioving tention of the recipient, otherwise your message will be competing with
them, include: l5 whatever the other party is preoccupied with at that time, either mental-
Amount of information. T h e efficiency of team communications can ly o r physically. Try to minimize noise or other factors contributing t o
be increased by providing sufficient information but limiting the amount message interference.
of information transmitted to project team nieiribers, minimizing infor- Project jargon arid terminology. Define the project terminology used
mation overload. Follow the principie of KISS (keep it simple and short). in messages. Project team members (collectively) should try to use words
Lack of subject knowledge. Since rnutual understanding is based on a in the way the receivers use them.
shared field of experience, a lack of such shared experience can inhibit Many of these micro-barriers derive from the macro-barriers. For in-
communication. Acquire a thorough knowledge of your subject matter, and stance, perceptions can derive from cultural differences, and jargon
ascertain what your audience's knowledge leve1 of the subject might be. from subject knowledge. Project managers must understand both macro-
Cultural differences. D o not overlook cultural differences. esoeciallv and micro-barriers tlioroughly in order t o maximize communication
in international projects and joint ventures. Meanings and interpretations
2 L
success. They must create an environment that mininiizes the impact of
may vary in different cultures, which can influence the commiinication these barriers to con~inunicationso that project objectives can be effec-
process. Encourage project team members to learn each other's cultures tively accornplished.
-
I I I I , managers must be aware of these factors and use them appropriately t o
I I 1
Concept Detail Execute Finish manage meetings effectively.
Guidelines for rnanaging rneetings effectively. Well-planned and well-
tPlan Produce managed project meetings can be productive. Effective meeting manage-
Project Life Cycle inent takes place bcforc, dduriq and after the meeting, as discussed belo^.^^
Before the meeting. Follow the question-and-answer process oiitlined
above to determine i f tlie meeting is really necessary. Then:
Reducing the number of meetings: a practical process. Before calling a Determine tlie purpose of the meeting; hold progress or status review
meeting, the project manager should address the following q ~ e s t i o i - i s : ~ ~ meetings separately from problem-solving meetings.
What is the main issue (problem or opportunity) requiring the meeting? Set the ground rules for the discussion.
What are the facts or assumptions causing the problem o r suggesting Determine who really needs to be present and invite only those people.
the opportunity? Notify participants well in advance of the meeting's purpose, location,
What are the potential alternatives and their costs versus benefits? and time.
What specific recommendations can be proposed to tlie n-ieeting partic- Distribute an agenda in advance.
ipants to deal with tlie problems o r opportunities at hand? Make notes and rehearse your presentation.
What are the likely consequences of not holdirig the meeting? Start and end tlie meeting on time.
Answering these questions may reveal that the meeting is not absolutely During the meeting. In order to keep meetings as brief as possible, yet
essential. prodiictive:
H o w t o rnanage project rneetings. Managing a meeting is an impor- Specify a time limit and stick to it.
tant management function that incliides planning, organizing, directing Begin by identifying tlie specific objectives of the meeting.
and controlling. A well-nianaged project meeting is an efficient way to Gatlier input from tlie participants (listen more tlian talk).
share information, clarify directions and ambiguities, coordinate pro- Keep things n-ioving; discourage participants from getting off the subject.
ject team efforts, and obtain immediate feedback o n project issues. it Use visual aids to get your point across, and encourage other partici-
brings a collective approach t o project issues and opportunities. T h e pants to d o the same.
chairperson of the meeting creates the proper team environment by Periodically sumniarize the results of the discussion in terms of con-
planning, hosting and leading the meeting. H e o r stie must clarify the sensiis acliieved or disagreenients still i r i progress.
expectations for the meeting. T h e chairpersori must guide, stimulate, Wlieri fiirther work is required, assign action items to team members.
clarify, control, summarize, enhance aiid evriliiate the nieeting's oiit- After the meeting. Most of the real work, of course, takes place outside
come in terms of attaining project goals and objectives. Meetings are of meetings. Therefore, follow up on the individual action items assigned
likely t o be ineffective if the chairperson does most of the talking. T h e and distribiite concise minutes and use them at the next meeting to mea-
chairperson's influente depends upon how positively the participants siire results.
34 .
42 43
Httr?zafi Resoitrce Skills for tlie Project Manager Conrnriirzicatiort: A Key t o Project Sirccess
Body language plays a significant role in the cornmunication process, PROJECTMANAGERS MUST BE AWARE of these barriers to effective lis-
especially in listening. Effective listening involves listening to the message tening that rnight be caiised by interpersonal conflict, distractions, man-
in terrns of not only what is said but how it is said. Just as people try to agement response to new ideas o r the overall project clirnate. They should
"read between the lines," project managers rnust be willing to "listen be- try to minirnize these barriers by nurturing better understanding and good
tween the words." Listen and watch for the intent of what the speaker is working relationships necessary to effective comrnunication among pro-
trying t o communicate. Even in a seemingly trivial exchange, a team ject participants.
member may be expressing frustration in getting part of the job complet- The role of perceptions. To rnost people, perceptions are irnportant
ed, which may indicate a global problern. sirnply because they are tl-ieir own-feelings and beliefs about themselves,
others and the world that are based on their cultural backgrounds, past
Barriers to effective listening
experiences, jirdgments, values, ernotional reactions and personalities.14
T h e mismatch between our speed of talking (100-400 words per
minute) a n d o u r speed of thinking (approx. 6 0 0 words per rninute) These perceptions play a very significant role in cornrnunication. For ex-
aniple, different people get different rneanings from tlie same rnessage be-
makes effective listening tough. In addition, there are numerous barriers
t o effective listening such as differing perceptions, personality differ- cause of differences in their perceptions. Powerful as they are, however,
ences, lack of trust o r mutual understanding, fear of conflict, and inap- perceptions can be irifluenced by proper comrnunication (written, verbal
or nonverbal). Figure 1.1 shows how some of the cornmon sources of per-
propriate environment.
Some of the personal and environmental barriers that stand in the way ceptual differences irnpact the comrnunication process, and how the effect
of effective listening and influence the effectiveness of overall comrnuni- o f perceptual differences is reduced when individuais share cornrnon ideas
cation i n ~ l u d e : ~ ~ and experiences.
Poor listeners In the absence of good listeners, people d o not talk Perceptiial differences infliience the behavior of people, which in turn
freely, which inhibits effective communication. And only one bad listener can affect success in cornrnunication. For example, when perceptual dif-
is required t o impair the flow of cornrnunication in the human chain. ferences occiir, people tend to:14
Poor listeners communicate their lack of attention via body language, dis- Jurnp to conclusions
couraging future attempts to comrnunicate. O r they rniss the main idea Confuse facts with opinions
Make frozen evaluations (those that cannot be easily changed).
and end u p paying more attention to details instead.
Resistance to the rnessage. People don't like to listen to something
Overcorning differences in perceptions. h4istaken perceptions (regard-
that is contrary to their preconceived ideas. When they should be listen- less of the reason) often lead to cornrniinication problems and poor rela-
ing, they concentrate instead on preparing their response o r defense. Lis- tioriships among project participants. Many people make judgrnents based
tening may uncover some unexpected problems regarding project status o n their own perceptions, especially when the atmosphere is tense and
in terms of schedule o r cost overruns, s o if top managernent is inclined there is already misunderstanding and lack of trust. However, it is possi-
not t o listen to bad news, tearn rnembers may not present all of the facts, ble to overcome perceptual differences by handling situations appropri-
censoring themselves to the detriment of the project. ately. Here are some ideas that can be used to overcorne differences in
O u r emotions act as aural filters, allowing us to ignore what we don't perception as a listener o r a speaker:14
want t o hear. Some situations in which people have difficulty listening As a listener, check your perceptions continually, by stating your ob-
inci~de:~~ servations aboiit body language and yoirr interpretation of it and asking
Dealing with a conflict situation for verification or clarification: "I noticed you covered your niouth with
Feeling anxious, angry o r fearful your hands; does that rnean you are uncertain about the words I used in
Being reprimanded that proposal? Ani I reading yoii acciirateiy?"
Being criticized As a speaker you should strive to be specific, state the facts, and stay
Dealing with emotional colleagues or customers. neutral. Avoid labeling and use non-judgrnental, non-punishing language.
Physical distractions such as teleplione calls or people corning in and One technique for reniaining neutral while injecting a positive tone into
o u t o f the office inhibit good listening. Also, environments that create cornrnunication is known as the "I rnessage." Wlien using the "I rnessage,"
feelings of inequality in status discourage effective listening. a speaker refrains from naming, criticizing, blarning, o r even referring to
the person they are talking to. They confine their rernarks to cornmuni-
cating their personal feelings, opinions, and observations. For example,
Sequential
(iogical) Major
or Aitributes/
~nributed Communication
Phase Ernphasis
c-nhasis StyleBlend
t
Random
. Integration
Cooperative
3
General Overview of Motivation 56
What is rnotivation? 56 Motivation in a
Basic rnotivational process
Theories of Motivation 60
56
Project Environment
Content theories of rnotivation 60
Process theories of motivation 70
Motivation and Project Management 75
The project rnanager's "rnotivation to rnanage" 76 in all industries, people use their human skills t o de-
I
N ALL PROJECTS,
What does rnotivation depend upon? 77
fine the goals, prepare the plans, and i~nplementthose plans in order
Guidelines for Creating a Motivational Project Environment 78 to nieet project goals witliin specified constraints. Project rnanagers,
Factors related to project tasksljobs 78 w h o are expccted to get tlie work doiie througli project teanis and oth-
Factors related to personal drives 79
Factors related to project rnanagers 79
er project stakeholders, niust emphasize the human factors in project
Factors related to organizational clirnate/environment 81
rnanagernent to create an environnient that encourages open and effec-
tive cornmunication; an environment in which everyone involved in the
Putting It AI1 Together (From Theory to Practice) 82 project feels iiiotivated arid cornrtiitted to produce their best. Most pro-
Summary 84 ject participants want job satisfaction; a sense of accomplishment,
achievement and growth; and enough financia1 compensation and other
rewards to live the kind of life they feel is irnportant. J o b satisfaction is
tlie general attitude of a person toward liis or her job. In the most gen-
eral sense, it is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from
the appraisal of one's job or job experiente.' This positive feeling occurs
when the work is in harrnony with needs and values of the individual
ar-id provides challenges and opportiinities that they can take pride in.
Sntisfied project team members d o their best at work and produce qual-
ity results. Tlierefore, project rnanagers rnust understand the dynamics
of human behavior s o that they can create an environinent in which pro-
ject tearn niembers feel motivated.
This chapter deals with the definition of motivation, basic motivationa1
processes, what niotivation depends upon, and the importance of a project
nia~iager'sowii motivation in a project. General theories of motivation
and some practical guidelines to heip motivate people in a project envi-
roriment are disciissed, alorig with inotivational factors related to project
task, pcrsorial dri\res, project rnniiager, arid the organizational cliniate.
54 -- -- -- -
Hlrt?ian Resoirtcc Skrl/s for t h e Project M a t ~ n g e r
o f human behavior to determine why and how individuals behave in cer-
tain ways t o satisfy their needs. There are six core phases ir1 the motiva-
tional process.5
1. Identify the person's needs. Needs are deficiencies that act as ener-
gizers. These deficiencies may be expressed as psychological needs (the
need for recognition or opportunity to work o n a visiblelhigh-profile pro-
ject), o r they may be physiological needs (food, clothes, shelter), or social
affiliation needs (friendship)
2. Create drives. Needs give rise to wants o r desires that create drives
within people, that is, a state of unrest o r dissatisfaction that the person
wants t o reduce o r eliminate.
3. Select goal-directed behavior. Stimulated by such an inner drive, a per-
son develops a course of action to achieve a goal that will nieet tlie need
and ease the state of unrest. This goal, a specific result that the individual
wants t o achieve, acts as a force to make the person work harder and
achieve high performance. Thus, we say that motivation is goal-directed.6
4. Perform the task. By exerting extra effort and performing tasks that
will help them reach their goals, people achieve high performance. Suc-
cessful accomplishment of desirable goals leads to a reductioii i i i rieed defi-
ciencies and the tensions or dissatisfactions created by them. For example,
the goal of advancement or promotion and an expectation that working
long hours will help get that promotion may create tension or a state of un- Motives can only be inferred and cannot be seen. For example, some
rest; the promotion itself relieves both the need and the terision. project tearn nierribers rnay have similar abilities and training but may still
W h e n people believe that specific behaviors may relieve tension, they produce higher-quality results tlian others. This is because of differences
act, directing their behavior toward the goal of reducing this tension o r in their levels of motivation, which can be seen only after comparing their
state of unrest. For instance, project managers w h o are high achievers outputs.
may try to work on high-profile projects in the hope of gaining more vis- Needs are dynamic in nature. T h e needs of individuals change with
ibility and more influence o n important organizational goals. time and circumstances and may sometimes conflict with each other. For
5. Receive feedback. People are personally satisfied when they receive exarnple, project participants w h o put in longer hours in order to get a
positive feedback and when project goals are achieved successfully. Also, pro~notiorimay find tliat this conflicts directly with their needs for affili-
receiving recognition o r rewards for achieving high perforrnance rein- ation and tlieir desire to be with their families.
force that their behavior is appropriate and should be repeated. Likewise, People rank and select their motives differently. People differ in terms
punishment o r negative feedback received for major or repeated failiires of what niotivates thern. For example, some people may want more mon-
suggest that they should not repeat the behavior, since it is likely to pro- ey while otliers niay want opportunities to work on selected projects o r
duce undesirable results. appropriate recognition for achieving high performance.
6. Reassess needs and goals. Once people receive feedback in the forni People apply differect energy levels in pursuing their motives. A need
of either rewards or punishments, they reassess their needs and goals and itself o r its relative importance may change with time and circumstances,
make appropriate adjustments in their strategies, actions, and behaviors. affecting the leve1 of effort that people are willing to put forth to satisfy
Figure 2.1 shows the motivational process ir1 which needs act as mo- that need. Therefore, the project nlanager niust communicate informally
tives for human behavior and the core phases in this process.4J and develop effective interpersonal relationships to stay on top of what
Complications in the motivational process. T h e general rnodel jiist motivates people, how much, and why.
described presents an oversimplified view of the motivational process. In
the real world, of course, the process is not so clear-cut. Some common
complications in the motivation process are:5
58 Hunlati Resource Skills for the Project Manager A.iotivation itl a Project Etzvirotlment
59
Theories of Motivation
Figure 2.2 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and the Elernents of
Preconceived notions are the locks on the door to wisdol?~.
-Merry Brorutr Job Design
Motivation is dynarnic and complex. Wliat motivates a few o r niost of the Self-actualization is not an endpoint,
tearn members in one project niay not be so successful i r i other projects. but a self-renewing neegdrive.
Project managers must appreciate that the effectiveness of their motiva-
tional techniques depends upon the situatiori, tlie ~ r ~ a n i z a t i o nenviron-
al
ment and the behavior of people-a11 of which keep changing.
There are several motivational theories and t a c t i a 7 Understanding
them can help the project manager in motivating project participants. T h e
major theories of motivation can be grouped into two c a t e g ~ r i e s :cou- ~
tent theories attempt to determine the link between intrinsic factors aiid
certain behaviors, whereas process theories explore how personal factors
interact and influence each other to produce behaviors. .- Involvemnt in planning your v m k
Oppoitunniesfor growth and development
Creative w o k
Content theories of rnotivation heedom to make decisions
Content theories deal with the factors within a person that energize, di- Status svmbols
Reccqnrtion. amrds
rect, and stop behavior. These theories focus o11 identifying the specific
factors that rnotivate people. Some of these factors may be:
- Challenglng vmrk
Oppoitunitv fw advancement
\
Physiological Nseds
Adequate cmpemation
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Tlieory; Alderfer's Existerice, Relatedness, Fmd
Cluhng Rest penods
Labot.sairq &\ices
Growth (ERG) Needs Theory; Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Theory; SMai
confm Eficient wwk methods
SeH pc-liar
and McClelland's Achievement Motivation Theory.j
Although these theories are general in nature, tlieir concepts are valid
in a project environment as well. Project niariagers sliould understand the
various theories of rnotivation along with their strengths and weaknesses.
Soiiice. Hteraichy o1 Needr adapted from Abraham Marlow'r Molivalion andPersooslw, 1970. Harper and Row.
Extensive literature is available about these theories, but a brief disciis-
sion of each is given below.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory. MaslowR developed a very usefiil rnodel i11 its place; tliiis, at aiiy giveri time people are struggling to satisfy some
t o explain the rnotivational process in relation to tlie way that hurnan unsatisfied need.
needs change throughout the developrnental life cycle. This rnodel, the Lower-leve1 needs rnust be substantially satisfied before higher-leve1
oldest among the content theories of motivation, is universally applicable needs can be addressed. Generally people d o not skip a leve1 in between.
and still valid in understanding the process of rnotivation. The dynamics of needs are complex and several needs may affect be-
Maslow suggested that within every human being there esists a hierar- liavior at any one time.
chy of five types of needs. Some assurnptions underlying this hierarchy Higher-leve1 needs can be satisfied in more ways than lower-leve1
include: needs.
Motivation springs from an unsatisfied need. When one need is satis- Figure 2.2 illustrates the five sets of needs and tlie management tactics
fied (or, as Maslow said "substantially satiated"), another need emerges that address them.8
60 --
Ill<ttr<iiiResoitrc c Skrlls f o r t i , ~I'rolcct hf.itr'igcr
1. Physiological needs include the basic needs for food, water, and shel- experience acceptance by others and have increased problem-solving abil-
ter. People must concentrate o11 satisfying these needs before they are able ity. Managers w h o emphasize self-actualization tend to promote self-di-
to worry about higher-level needs. Project rnanagers should recognize tliat rected work teams and give more aiitonomy t o their team members in de-
most people cannot be concerned about their work until their physiologi- signing their own jobs. They offer them special challenges and
cal needs are satisfied. Managers wlio fociis on tliese needs ensure tliat assignnients tliat enhatice their iinique skills. Project managers may be
workers are physically safe, comfortable, and adequately compensated. riorrnally limited in giving opportunities and therefore they must be open,
2. Safety and security needs include the needs for safety, stability, and flexible and willing t o consider opportunities that may satisfy self-actual-
protection from ~ h y s i c a laiid emotional Iiarni. People wlio are niotivated ization rieeds.
primarily by safety needs value their jobs as a defense against the risk of be- Eacli level of needs influences human behavior. Therefore, project
ing unable to satisfy basic needs. Meetiiig tliis level of needs also means pro- managers and their overall organization are wise to assist project team
tection from violence or sexual harassment in the workplace, and address- members and other participants in their search for satisfaction in every
ing job safety issues. Managers who feel that safety needs are important and category of needs. Maslow identifies the goals that people typically seek
want to use them to motivate people tend to emphasize policies, rules, job for the satisfaction of needs and suggests the types of behavior that will
security, and fringe benefits. While these elements are important, an help achieve these goals. Studies have shown that the fulfillment of needs
overemphasis o n safety needs can cause managers to be less likely to en- differs froin person to person depending upon job description, age, race,
courage creativity and innovation, and the team members, in turn, simply and the size of the organization. Yet people normally progress from one
follow the rules and instructions without taking any individual initiative. level of needs to the next without skipping any levels. This also means
3. Social o r affiliation needs include the needs for affection, friendsliip, that i f a self-actualized person is siiddenly piit in a situation where, for
acceptance, love, and a feeling of belonging. Social needs enierge after example, physical safety is threatened, he or she can fall back lower t o a
both physiological and safety needs are satisfied. People who feel nioti- lower motivational level (Leve1 1 or 2).
vated by these needs value their work as an opportunity for finding and ERG Needs Theory. Alderfer developed a theory based upon the con-
establishing friendly interpersonal relationships. Project managers and cept that the individual has three sets of basic needs: Existence, Related-
team leaders w h o are so motivated tend to act i11 a supportive o r everi ness, and Growth, which can be described as f o l l o ~ s : ~
permissive manner. They try to create a participative climate and ernpha- Existence needs are similar to Maslow's physiological and safety needs.
size team members' acceptance by their co-workers, team-based norins, They incliide material iieeds that can be satisfied by air, water, food,
and extracurricular activities (company picnics, surnnier barbeques, clothes, shelter, salary, fringe benefits and working conditions.
Christmas parties and sports programs). Relatedness needs are similar to Maslow's social needs and can be met
4. Esteem needs include interna1 factors such as self-respect, self-worth, by establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships with superi-
autonomy, and a personal sense of achievement, as well as externa1 factors ors, co-workers, subordinates, friends and family.
such as status, recognition, and attention. People who get "turned on" by Growth needs are similar to Maslow's esteem and self-actualization
esteem needs want others to accept them on tlieir own merits and to per- needs and refer to an individual's efforts to explore opportunities for per-
ceive them as competent and intelligent. Project managers w h o consider sonal development and growtli by contribiiting to creativity and produc-
these needs when niotivating their tearn niembers give tliern piiblic re- tivity at work.
wards and recognition for superior performance. These managers use T h e categories of needs suggested by Alderfer are similar to those in
lapel pins, trophies, appreciation certificates or letters, articles i11 the coni- Maslow's theory. However, the two tlieories differ in terms of how people
pany newsletter, achievement lists o n bulletin boards, o r attendance at satisfy the different sets of needs. According to Maslow, unfulfilled needs
conferences and seminars. By promoting their team rnernbers' pride in act as motivators and people progress to higher-level needs only after the
their work and creating within them a sense of ownership of their jobs, preceding lower-level needs are satisfied. ERG theory suggests that, in ad-
the project manager enhances their commitment and productivity dition to this fulfiilment progression process, there also exists a frustra-
5. Self-actualization needs are the highest-leve1 needs in the hierarchy. tion-regression process. This means that if, for example, an individiial is
They are the source of a person's drive to becorne what he or she is capa- frustrated in trying to satisfy growth needs, frustration will lead to regres-
ble of becoming. Self-actualization is not an end point but a lifelong sion and relatedness needs will re-emerge as a major motivating force.
process. As the self-actualized person strives for higher goals, the need for This theory provides an insight for project team leaders. For instance,
self-actualization increases further. People who strive for self-act~ialization if a project teani leader sees tliat the satisfaction of growth needs of a
66 1-litrtiatr Kesoirrcc Skrlis for tlje I'rolect Ma?tnger Mottvntio,r iit (1 Project E?rr~~rotr?t~e?:t
67
have i n t e r ~ r e t e dsimilar responses differently, making it impossible to
accurately assess the data. Figure 2.4 Cornparisons Arnong Content Theories of
N o overall measure of satisfaction was utilized. The study ignores the Motivation
fact that a person may dislike part of liis or her job, yet consider it ac- .....................................................................................
,, .....................
,, , ,
ceptable due to personal constraiiits or circunistances. In tliis sense, it Nesdr Thaoriss ,:
<
:, MotivatorHypiana Thwry I Achiavemsni
, ,, : j Motivation Theoiy
ignores situational variables. Needs ERGiheory /, j
,
, 3,
3
4 ,
Hierarchy ,
m ,, <
, ,,
c ,
r ,
, advencernent
-.
,I Hypiensr ,,
Herzberg's theory is very popular in spite of these criticisms. Job satisfac- :' ;' ..
lob security
sala!y
tion is one of the key factors that increases motivation in people. In terms of i
c
,
,
, wohing cond~tionr
: :
job satisfaction, motivating factors (motivators) influence the degree of job Ex~stence
I
' :
groupmembenhip
.
,
;
,,
-- 69
68 H~lnznnResoirrce Skrlls for the Project Matzagcr
.
.
. -..
--
Motiviltiott i71 n Project E~tz~irottrttet~t
71
Since most projects are done by skilled people wlio are generally self- Goal-Setting Theory. This theory, developed by Latham and ~ o c k e , ~ O
motivated and capable of achieving high performance, the Type Z organi- implies that the intention to work toward a goal is a major source of job
zation, in which people are motivated by their needs for self-esteern and motivation. It views motivation as coming from an individual's interna1
self-actualization, seems niost conducive to project nianagement. (It is drive and desire to acliieve goals. For example, clear, specific and clial-
generally hard to create a Type J organizational cliniate in a project envi- lenging goals generally niotivate project teani mernbers and others in-
ronment because of practical difficulties regarding lifetime eniployment, volved in a project. Project participants ~iiustbe invited t o participate in
consensus decision making, and collective responsibility.) And, in fact, setting goals and forrnulating plans and implementation strategies in or-
many of the companies held up as examples of the Type Z organization- der to gaiii their acceptance and commitrnent to meet those goals.
IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Eastman Kodak-place a heavy emphasis o n the Expectancy Theory. Tliis theory, originally developed by Victor
use of project management practices.18 ~ r o o r n assumes
,~~ that people think seriously about how much effort
Contingency Theory. This theory, developed by Morse and Lorsch, they should put into a task before doing it. Motivation takes place if there
was built upon McGregor's Theory Y and Herzberg's theory of hygiene is ari expectation of a favorable outcome. It is based o n the concept that
and motivating factors. T h e research study behind this theory attempted people choose behaviors that they believe will lead to desired rewards or
t o determine h o w the fit between an organization's characteristics and its outcomes, and it suggests that the strength of a tendency to act in a cer-
tasks relates to an individual's motivation and suggested that this orgarii- tain way depends upon:
zation and task fit influences and is influenced by the effectiveness of task The strength of their expectation that the act will be followed by a de-
performance and individuais' feelings of competence.19 sired oiitcome/good performance (effort-performance linkage)
This theory implies that people have a central need to achieve a sense Tlie expectation tliat good performarice will be rewarded (perfor-
of competence and that this need continues to motivate people even after mance-reward linkage)
competence is achieved. T h e ways of fulfilling this need vary from person Attractiveness of the reward to the individual (valence).
to person, depending upon how this need interacts with other needs and The linkage, also called expectancy, is the belief of an individual that
the strengths of those other needs. Good fit between task and organiza- his o r her act or effort will result in a given outcome. T h e value of ex-
tion leads to competence and hence ~ n o t i v a t i o n For
. ~ ~example,
~~ people pectancy ranges from O (no relationship perceived) to + l (complete cer-
working o n projects that involve highly structured and orgariized tasks tainty that the act will be followed by desired outcome). Project managers
(assembly lines in manufacturing organizations) perforrn better under for- niust try t o strengthen both linkages in order to help team mernbers
mal procedures, well-defined directions and forrnal organizational struc- achieve what they value the niost. However, it must be realized that the
tures. O n the other hand, people working on projects with non-routine, irnportarzce or value of what people want rnay change from time to tinie,
unique and unstructured tasks (in high-tech and R&D industries) perform depending on their personal situations. Project managers should try to as-
better with less formal control and in a freer form of organizational struc- certain the niost important needs that team mernbers want t o satisfy
ture that encourages open communication, creativity and innovation. tlirough informal cornrniinication arid by developing better understanding
Contingency theory suggests that project rnanagers should ensure that and interrelationships. Later, Porter-Lawler developed a rnodel to illustrate
tasks assigned t o project participants match their skills and that the orga- the expectancy theory of motivation, which is shown in Figure 2.5.22
nizational climate (degree of control, organizational structure) is con- For exaniple, when facing schedule delays and cost overruns, project
ducive t o help them meet tlieir needs and acliieve a sense of cornpetence. team mernbers niay develop severa1 alternatives for completing the pro-
Project managers should tailor jobs t o fit people and/or provide appropri- ject successfully o n schediile and within budget. However, before putting
ate training opportunities to develop their skills, knowledge, and attitude forth extra effort, they ask theniselves the following questions:
in order to enhance their level of competence. Both tasks and people must Can we d o it? (effort to performance linkage)
be analyzed before an appropriate fit can be made.4>19 If we d o it, what will be the consequences for us? (performance to re-
Project managers must know their people well in terms of their ward/outcome linkage)
strengths and goals in order to assign tasks appropriately. Project partici- 1s it really worth the effort reqiiired? (valence).
pants will feel motivated depending upon how well tlieir tasks match their Thus, project team niembers search out their own justification and seek a
skills and level of commitment. Genuine support from management can sense of acconiplisl-iment and recognition in exchange for becorning motivated.
help them meet their need for increased competence.
i
to Rcward
Linkaoe
Rewards
ed equitably. In organizations, employees get pay and other benefits (out-
comes) for their services (inputs). Equity theory proposes that there is
considerable evidence that team members compare their job inputs and
Perionnancd
Accamplishments outcomes with those of others on the project, and that inequities can in-
fluente the degree of effort they e ~ e r tTheir
. ~ ~ perception of unfair allo-
cation of rewards can lead to conflict and problems, requiring consider-
able effort from the project manager, functional manager and the human
resource manager to solve them. Also, when individuals perceive that they
Tark Required Rewanlr
are over-rewarded, they may be motivated to work harder in order to jus-
Percehed
Perionnance-Reward tify their rewards. Project managers niiist be cautious that a11 project par-
Pmbabilily
ticipants are conipensated fairly for their contributions to project success
because any sign of ineqiiity will turn demotivate people.
Adaptadfrom. L.W. Portar and E E. Lnwler. 1868.MaiiaganalAft#i,dei andPedoiinnoce. Hornewood. lL R c h a i d 0.Irwln. Inc
p. 17. Reprinted by permission o1 lhe publcrher.
. Tliese theories outline different ideas and observations about how em-
ployees are motivated in general. Project managers must recognize the
strengths and weaknesses of each theory and use them only as a guideline
Reinforcement Theory. Tliis theory is based on ~ k i ~ i n e r behavior
's~~ to develop their own motivational strategies.
modification theories. Rei?2force???e?zt,
a key element of this theory, is any Based o n tlie various theories of rnotivation, the following general sug-
event that increases or decreases the likelihood of a future response. Re- gestions can be made to motivate project team members:
inforcement theory suggests that human behavior is shaped by the previ- Establish goals using a participative style.
ous positive o r negative outcomes experienced by a person. Ensure that goals are realistic and attainable.
This theory emphasizes the pattern in wliich rewards are administered * Erisure that tasks assigned are interesting, varied and involve some
and it states that a desirable behavior will be repeated if rewarded and
challenge, responsibility and learning opportunities.
that undesirable behavior can be discouraged by ~ u n i s h m e n t .It stresses
Emphasize that everyone's contribution is irnportant to the project and
that only positive, not negative, reinforcement should be ~ised,and only
show Iiow their contributiori fits into the "big picture."
to reward desired b e h a ~ i o r . ~ ~
Provide enough information, support and authority to d o the job.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a pleasant stiniulus is presented
to a person. Typical positive reinforcements in project environments in- Recognize individual differences.
clude promotions, autonomy, opportunities to work on high-profile pro- Individiialize rewards.
jects, opportunities for professional developrnent aiid training, etc. How- Link rewards to perforriiance.
Check the systeni for equity.
ever, which reinforcements work best in motivating particular project
And above all: Don't ignore the importance of n ~ o n e y .
participants depend upon their needs and wants. To complicate the issue
further, an individual's needs and wants may change with time. There- Motivation and Project Management
fore, project managers must stay in constant toiich with their team niem- If a project is to succeed, it must have both a motivated project manager
bers and encourage open and iiifornial comini~nicationwitli them. For and a motivated project team. A project team takes its attitude from the
example, if project participants (including project managers) are gen- project leader, so one of tlie greatest motivational tools the project man-
uinely recognized by their superiors, the probability that they will repeat ager possesses is enthusiasm, positive attitude and c ~ n f i d e n c e If. ~the
~
a behavior, leading to similar o r even liigher performance, is increased. project leaderlmanager is enthusiastic and positive so will be the team,
In a project environment, praise is often used as a most readily available and if he or she is negative it will lead to low team morale. Enthusiasm,
74 -
Motivatiotz itt a Project Ettvirotr??iolt
75
lfrrtt~alzRcsorrrce Skills for i h c Ptoject Matiager
confidence, and the "motivation t o rnanage" o n the part of the project To be siiccessful, the project manager must have the motivation t o
manager will stimulate the productivity of project team rnembers and lead manage and must continually evaluate hiniself or herself as a project man-
t o a similar attitude in project team menibers. And it is well-recognized ager in order to achieve a proper fit between personal rnotivations and
that enthusiastic and confident people are generally more productive. job duties. If the project nianager feels a lack of motivation, he or she may
In addition, by being positive toward change rather than negative, an choose to select jobs that are more appropriate to his or her motivation to
enthusiastic attitude can take away the deadening effect wrought by manage-or atternpt to change that n i ~ t i v a t i o n T
. ~h~e rnotivation t o
changes. To encourage positive "change management," therefore, top rnanage can be increased through self-assessrnent and by preparing an ac-
management should provide an appropriatc environment t o support and tion plan to optirnize motivation. (See Self-assessment Exercise B in the
motivate project managers because this will lead to increased rnotivation ~p~endix.1~~
among project teams as well. Sometimes the only way to d o this is by fol- What does motivation depend upon?
lowing the axiom "Act enthusiastic and you will be enthusiastic." Even in
Whetz yozr have a trrie desire to play, excellitzg is tzot work.
tough situations, a positive attitude has a way of rubbing off o n others. - Atzonymoris
T h e project manager must be self-rnotivated and able to motivate pro-
ject team rnembers and others associated with the project. To d o this, pro- Motivating ernployees in a project environrnent is easier said than done.
ject managers rnust have a good understanding of the rnotivational Before devising strategies to motivate project participants, it is important
process, of their own "rnotivation to rnanage," and of the factors upon to identify the factors upon which motivation depends. Some of these fac-
which rnotivation depends. tors a ~ : ~ ~
Project culture. Project participants freqiiently work long hours, sorne-
The project manager's "motivation to manage" times under great stress. And tlie project rnanager does not always have
In a project environment, project rnanagers niust be ~riotivatedto rnariage tJie ability to reward thern for their contributions to the extent that he or
their projects effectively. T h e motivation to nianage aild its associated at- she would like to. However, the culture of projects, which often stresses
titudes cause one to:26 operiness, teamwork, effective cornniiinication, and a clear understanding
Choose a project nianagernent career of plans and expectations, can provide powerful intrinsic motivation to
Be successful as a project manager succeed.
Move rapidly up the corporate ladder. Project reward system. Many of the rewards of working on projects are
T h e following six components are all part of the project rnanager's other than rnonetary. Nevertheless, such rewards as recognition by peers
motivation to manage.27 and other stakeliolders, the gairiing of status through project perfor-
1. Favorable attitude toward authority, which helps project rnanagers ob- mance, and the ability to influence that results from that status must be
tain support for their actions by creating good relationships behveen considered powerful intrinsic rnotivators. In addition, those w h o succeed
thernselves, their superiors and functional rnanagers in the high-performance project environment often receive prornotions
2. Desire to compete with other nratlagers and to achieve excellence and tlie increase in rernuneration that comes with them.
3. Assertive motivatiot~,or an ability to take charge, rnake decisions and Work content. People excel at what interests thern. In the project envi-
even take disciplinary action wheri riecessary ronment, pnrticipants can be niotivated by the intellectual challenge of
4. Desire to exercise power; that is, to influence project tearn rnembers and their tasks, by the challenge and change involved in working on a variety
others involved in a project by using informal autliority arid positive re- of projects, by work-related trave1 opportunities arid by rneeting people
inforcement; studies show that successful project managers have a high- (networking).
er need for power than for affiliationZ8 Enviroriment. TI-ie working conditions created by the organizational
5 . Desire for a distinctive position, acquired by taking positions of high climate can be rnotivating or de-motivating. Two factors that increase the
visibility and by initiating things that invite attention, discussion and likelihood that participants will feel rnotivated are the availability of sup-
popuiarity port systems and entliusiastic project rnanagers.
6. Sense of responsibility with respect to getting the work out, staying on Supervision. Botli the quality and the quantity of supervision impact
top of routine demands, and gaining some satisfaction from it. Project on the motivational cliniate o f a project. Talented, experienced, o r tech-
managers should manage their projects by using effective reporting and nically proficient project participants rnust be well-rnanaged without be-
control. ing over-managed.
84 - -. . -- ---
1 f i r t r t r ~ t lKcsotr~ceSkills for t h e l'rojcct Mortrrger
~.~ . .. . - .-~
- - .. -. . - ~ -pppp----p--.
85
Motii/iztiort 171 ( I I'rojcct E ? l r ~ i r o ~ ~ ? ? t o t t
Cotrflict is the gadf7y o/ thoright. It stirs ris to obsewation and
Outline metnory. It itrstigotes invention. It shocks ris orit o/ sheeplike
3
Basic Concepts of Conflict 88
pnssiuity, ntrd sets 14s nt rrotirlg ntrd cotrtrivirrg ... Cotrf7ict is a
"sitie qrin tiotr" o/ ref7ectiort ntrd itrgetrriit)~.
-]ohn Dewey
3
Views of conflict 88
Four levels of conflict 91
Conditions leading to conflict 92
Conflict and Performance 94
The positive and negative value of conflict 94
Conflict and outcomes 97
About Conflict in a Project 98
Categories of conflict 99
Reasons for conflict in project rnanagement 99
Conflict throughout the life cycle of the project 102
Summary 110
- . Souice Fiedertck A Slarks and Robert W Sexty 1992 Confemporary Mnnagemenf in Canada Scarboraugh. ON Prenhce-
H811 Canada p 474 Reprlnled by permisrion o l lhe publlrher
to opposition and disagreements. In other words, conflict occiirs when in-
dividual~o r groups have incoinpatible goals, and w h e ~ ithey block eacli
other's efforts t o attain those goals.4 Because the traditional view considered conflict in a negative light, at-
As applied t o human behavior, conflict can also be a disagreement be- tention was given t o reducir-ig, suppressing or elirninating it. It was the
tween individuals that can range from a ~ n i l ddisagreernent t o a win-lose rnanager's responsibility to free the project of any conflict. The rnost com-
emotion-packed c ~ n f r o n t a t i o n . ~ mon reaction of traditional rnanagers has been to suppress conflict by us-
In today's project environment, conflict is inevitable because of the vari- ing an authoritarian approach. Wliile this approach has worked some-
ous competing objectives, personal goals, requirements for resources, and times, it has not generally been effective because, when suppressed, the
divergent views that exist and must be integrated to rneet overall goals of root cause of conflict is ignored and never found and the potentially pos-
the project. Whether conflict is constructive or destructive in a project envi- itive aspects of conflict cannot emerge.
ronment depends upon how the project rnariager and rnernbers of the pro- T h e traditional view of conflict is widely held because institutions that
ject team view the conflict and deal with it. Tliis section deals with differing have a strong influence on our society concur with this ~ i e wThis . ~ nega-
views of conflict, levels and types of conflict, values of conflict and the irn- tive view of conflict played a role in the development of labor unions. Vi-
portance of stimuiating constructive conflict in a project environrnent. olent or disruptive confrontations benveen workers and managernent led
people to conclude that conflict was always detrinlental and should there-
Views of conflict
fore be avoided.
Over the years three distinct views have evolved aboiit conflict in projects
The behavioral or contemporary view, also known as the human re-
and o r g a n i z a t i ~ n s . ~
lations view, argues that conflict is natural and inevitable in a11 organiza-
The traditional view assumes that conflict is bad and always has a neg-
tions and that it rnay have either a positive or a negative effect. This ap-
ative irnpact o n projects or organizations. Tliis view argues that perfor-
proach advocates acceptarice of coriflict 2nd rationalizes its existence.
mance declines as the leve1 of conflict increases, as shown in Figure 3.1,
Since projects rnay sometirnes benefit from conflict, project rnanagers
and therefore it must be avoided. In this view, conflict is closely associat-
sliould focus on nianaging conflict effectively rather than simply sup-
e d with such terms as violence, destruction, and irrationality. This tradi-
pressing it or eliminating it. The behavioral view dorninated ideas on con-
tional view dominated managernent literature during the late 19th centu-
flict frorn the late 1940s through the mid-1970s.
ry and continued to d o s o until tlie rnid-1940s.
II
A = D, where D 2 O Do nothing group. Conflict can occur at the following four levels in a project:7
Behavioral Intrapersonal conflict, also known as role conflict, stems from unmet
A > D, where D 2 O Resolve conflict
personal or professional expectations within the individual. This level of
A = 0, where D > O Do nothing conflict may not affect the project, as long as it does not influence other
Interactionist A > D, where D > O Resolve conflict project participants negatively. However, it can reduce the motivation and
A < 4 where D > O Stirnulate conflict productivity of that particular individual. Individuais experience such a
conflict when faced with certain dilemmas at work, such as being required
Key: A = Actual level of conflict to act against tlieir moral values o r receiviiig conflicting demands from
D = Desired level of conflict two different bosses (typical in a matrix organizational structure).
Interpersonal conflict can occur between specific team members o r be-
Source Copsrighl 1978 by Tha Regents of lhe Univatrily of California. Reprinled hom IheCnlflornis ManagementRevipw. Vol
21. No. 2. p. 68. By psrmisrion af the Rsgenis.
tween one person and the entire group. Interpersonal conflict is most of-
ten caused by differences in personality, style, communication skills, o r
conipeting personal ambitions. Analyzing the ii~trapersonalconflict pre-
The interactionist view is the current theoretical perspective on con-
sent in group members may help determine why individuals try t o block
flict and assumes that conflict is necessary to increase ~erformance.While
the attainment of each other's goals.
the behavioral approach accepts conflict, the interactionist view encourages
Intragroup conflict refers to a conflict benveen a single person and a
conflict o n the basis that a harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, too-cooperative
group of people (such as his or her project team). It may occur, for exam-
project organization is likely to become static, apathetic, stagriant and non-
pie, in a union environment when what an individual wants to d o (e.g.,
responsive to meet the challenges of change and innovation. This approach
produce more) is against what the group norm dictates (e.g., restriction of
encourages managers to maintain an ongoing iilinimum level of conflict-
output). It can also occur when what a boss wants (e.g., obedience from
enough to keep projects self-critical, viable, creative and irinovative.
subordinates) diífers from ~ v h a at group of subordinares want (e.g., partici-
Figure 3.2 shows a summary of these three views in terms of actual and
desired levels of ~ o n f l i c tAccording
.~ to the traditional view, conflict is pation and flexibility). In both cases, the group is likely to win because it is
bad and should therefore be avoided: the desired level is always zero. I f more able to block the goal attairiment of the individual than vice versa.
actual conflict rises above zero, it should be resolved. The behavioral view Intergroup conflict can arise between groups of people within the pro-
differs only in terms of the desired level of conflict, which could be above ject team o r between the project team and groups outside the project. In-
zero. However, the managerial implications are the same as those in the tergroup conflict occurs when one team or group is pitted against anoth-
traditioiial view, i.e., "do nothing" or "resolve the conflict." If tlie desired er and are normally ca~ised by the interpersonal frictions between
level of conflict is above zero, then there are three possible outcomes: individual groiip niembers or between influeiitial project leaders. Labor-
1. Actual level of conflict is greater than the desired level (A>D) management disputes are a common example of an intergroup conflict
2. Actual level of conflict is equal to the desired level (A=D) that can be partially resolved by dealing with the conflict on a personal
3. Actual level of conflict is less than the desired level (A<D). basis through tliose influential leaders (union and management).
This third possibility, which was completely overlooked by both the Only o n e o r a combination of severa1 of these types of conflict may
traditional and behavioral views, is addressed by tlie interactionist view of exist in a project. For example, an intrapersonal conflict over a tradeoff
conflict. In this view, conflict management implies not only conflict reso- issue between quality and cost o r quality and schedule could set off an
96 -
Hirttiat~Resoi(rce Skills for. the Project Mnnager
understand the different categories of conflict, reasons for conflict in pro-
I Figure 3.3 Level of Conflict vs. Organizational Perforrnance
/ ject management and their relationship t o the life cycle of the project.
Categories of conflict
111 general all potential conflict can be summarized in one of three cate-
gories, although it is common for a particular conflict situation t o be
based o n two or more categories of conflict.12
1. Goal-oriented conflicts are associated with end results, performance
Level o1
Organiational specifications arid criteria, priorities and objectives.
Performance
2. Adr~~irzistrativecor~flictsrefer to the management striictiire, philosophy
and techniques and are rnainly based on definition of responsibilities
and authority for tasks, functions and decisions.
3. Orterperso)7nl co)tflicts result from differences in work ethics, styles,
egos and personalities of the participants.
Reasons for conflicts in project management
Although conflicts occur in everyday life in all human relations, project
environrnents are particularly vulnerable to generating conflict. There is
n o shortage of reasons for this. Thamhain and ~ i l e r n o n ' ~ have
> ' ~ identi-
Apathetic
fied seven niajor sources of conflict in project management based o n their
A
Low or
None
Dysfunctional Stagnant
Unresponslve to change
Low research coiiducted in a private manufactiiring company. Their work was
Lack of new Idear later confirmed by Eschmann and ~ e e "ir1 the military area and by Peter
I
Viable
.Stoycheff16 in the educational environment.
8 Optimal Functional Self cntlcal
Innovalive
High Tlie reasons for conflict in a project, whether group-oriented or inter-
personai, are rnany.l2>l3
I C I High 1 Dysfunctional
Dis~ptke
Chaolic
Uncoopentive I LOw II Project priorities or goal incompatibility. Goal conflicts involve dif-
ferences in project priorities and criteria for evaluating results. Goal
conflicts also refer t o differing views o n the necessary sequence of tasks
SOUICB: Staphen P. Robbinr and Robin Sluan Kotze. 1986 Msnngemenr Conceptr aodPracricer (Cenadisn Editionl. Scarbor- o r events. Tliere rnay be considerable difference between the goals, ex-
ough. ON. Prentics-Hall Canada. p. 4 8 5 . Reprinted b y permirrion of lhe publisher.
pectations and perforrnance criteria perceived by project managers and
functional managers, leading to conflicts between project tasks and
About Conflict in a Project functional responsibilities. Priority conflicts can be resolved by formu-
It's best that zoe shorcld n o t a11 thitzk alike. It's the differeirce of opitliott t / ~ t ~ t lating strategic plans participatively and developing a master plan and
makes horse races. the first t w o o r three levels of work breakdown structure in collabora-
- Mark Twaiti tion with the client, project team, and other project stakeholders.
Sources of conflict in a project include the project manager, tlie project Administrative procedures. Tllese refer to differences regarding how
team, the clients or customers, other interna1 stakeholders (contractors, the project will be managed. They include conflict over reporting systems
staff a n d service personnel, fiinctional managers, senior rrianagers) and (e.g., recipients, frequency, number aiid contents of reports and forms)
externa1 stakeholders (general public, press, personnel froni regulatory, and how reports should be used in rnanaging the project. Conflicts may
financial, political and technology areas) who are not directly part of tlie be caused by disagreements over the levels of administrative support re-
project. Any o r all of these parties can be involved in a conflict. quired for a project. However, procedural conflicts can be minimized by
There are numerous causes of conflict. T h e most common and well designing a project organization appropriately and clearly defining the
documented sources of conflict include incompatible goals, striictural re- roles, responsibilities and reporting relatioiiships.
lationships, limited resources, comniunication problems and individual dif- Technical opinions and performance tradeoffs. These are related to
ferences.l0>llFor effective management of conflict, project managers must disagreernents over technical issues, performance specifications, technical
view. Conflicts rnay develop regarding the irnportance of each view de- especially wlien people want a higher priority for their projects' activi-
pending upon how strongly the individuals feel about the issue. ties ahead of those of others. Son-ie liiirnan problems caused by inappro-
Human resources. T h e management of project hurnan resources, in- priate priority decisions associated with budget and schedules are simi-
cluding staffing and personnel utilization, is a common and major cause lar t o those explaii-ied under human resources conflicts. Schedule
of conflict in a project. conflicts can be rninirnized by establishing a master project schedule
H o w many people are required? froni detailed schedules of subprojects (major work packages), identify-
Where d o they come from (internally or externally)? ing and tracking rnajor milestories, and involving project stakeholders
H o w many people can we hire and for what tasks? responsible for varioiis tasks. Schediiling inforrnation should be com-
W h o has t o d o the routine "griint" work and who gets to d o the final niiiiiicated iii a iiser-friendly formar and in a timely rnanner.
tasks? Communication problems. Breakdown in coinmunication is the rnost
Questions such as these are often controversial and open to lieated de- c«n-inion and obvioiis soiirce of coi-iflict. A lack of triist, respect and effective
bate. Major conflicts can be reduced by developing a detailed work break- listening skills can develop into serious coriimunication proble~ns.People
down structure and a rnatching organizational breakdown structure. inay n-iisinterpret n-iessages, leading to conflict 2nd iniçunderstanding. Com-
Resource allocation. Other projects o r groups in the organization rnay rnunication is too important to be covered by administrative procedures
need t o utilize the same people, equiprnent or facilities, causing conflicts, alone. Project managers and their project teams must possess effective com-
especially if resources are in short supply. Siicli situations force top i-rian- niunicatioi-i skills in resolviiig projcct conflicts. They niiist learn effective lis-
agement to rnake tougli priority decisions and the "losing" party may feel tening skills and create an atniosphere to encourage open cornrnunication.
unhappy and lose status and positional power in the eyes of others. Some- Personality. Although project managers atternpt to build cohesive pro-
times priority decisions are sirnply based o n overall critical path analysis ject tean-is, interpersonal differences associated with individual styles, per-
a n d projects with poor discipline in project planning and control may ceptions, attitudes and egos are guaranteed to clash at times, even arnong
have to be "rescued" through extra allocation of resources. This frustrates friends. When \ve add other hunian behavioral dirnensions such as power,
and demotivates those project rnanagers who practice tirnely planning and self-esteem, n-iotivations and statiis to the equation, we are likely to see se-
appropriate project managenient and control. Tliis is especially experi- rioiis conflicts arnong project teain niembers.
,
I
. Manpower
I
i
I
Technical oplntonr
I
1 Prolect pfiorlties
t
1 .Pralect pnonlies
how the project will be managed; rnay include role uncertainty, authority
t>
2 5
I
1 Cor1
I
1
I
Manpower
t
i
1
. Administ'ative
procedures
I
1
I
' COS~
I 1
-
I
from seven sources of conflict5>I3in four phases of the project cycle: souice. John R Adnmr and Nick S ~ t i c h o f 1982 Conflicr Manngement for Projen Msnagers. Diexel HiII, PA Piolect Man.
~ g e m e n InstiNte.
t P 22.
Conceptual phase (project initiation or forrnation)
Development phase (planning or project build up)
Project organization structure
Execution phase (implementation or main program), and
Finishing phase (termination o r phaseoiit) Reporting relationships and procedures
Aiithority of the project manager
Following are some highlights based o n the survey of 100 project man- Control over human and other resources
agers conducted by Thamhain and Wilemon on the sources of conflict
through the four phases of the project life cycle.S~13~14 Establishment of schedules, performance specifications and perfor-
Conceptual/lnitiation phase (Formation). Front-end and strategic plan-
mance criteria.
ning is done in this phase. In this phase, the project manager must launch the M o s t of these areas are negotiated by the project rnanager, a n d t o
project within the larger "host" organization. The three predominant soiirces rninimize the problems, clear procedures should be established as early
of conflict, in order o f importance, are project priorities, adniinistrative pro- as possible.
cedures, and schedules. Other sources, in order, are manpower, cost, tech- Schedules represent another area where established groups must show
nical issues and personality. some flexibility in accomnlodating a new project. Most project managers
Frequently, when goals are being set, conflicts develop benveen the pri- feel that this causes conflict because it involves a re-orientation of present
orities assigned to the project and the priorities that are believed to be irn- operating patterris and "local" priorities in siipport departrnents. T h e sit-
portant by other functional and staff personnel. To elirninate the negative uation gets worse when these support groups are committed t o other pro-
impact of this conflict, project nianagers should carefully evaluate their jects. Siinilarly, negotiations over support personnel and other resources
positions as early as possible and plan for the irnpact of ttieir projects o n can lead to potential conflict in this phase. Therefore, effective communi-
the groups that support thern. cation, planning and negotiating skills are needed to avoid destructive
T h e second source, administrative procediires, is associated with sev- conflict emanating from these potential conflict sources.
era1 managernent issues, including:
102
Hiriirntt Resoriice Skills for tlic Project Moliuger
DevelopmentIPlanning phase (Build-up). In this pliase, tlie project occur over tlie "cstablisliiiieiit" of schedules; in tlie planning phase con-
~ l a is
n mapped and major planning decisions are made. T h e three sources flicts are over "enforcement" of schedules; in the implementation phase
ranked highest in conflict intensity ciuring this pliase (see Figure 3.4) are more intense conflicts develop over tlie "management and maintenance"
project priorities, schedules, adrninistrative procedures. These were also of ~ c h e d u l e s . ~ > ' ~
ranked highest in the conceptual phase; in fact, some of these conflicts A high level of conflict develops over technical issues during this phase
are an extension of conflicts that arise during tlie first phase. Other for two niain reasons:
sources of conflict beyond these three are technical issues, nianpower, 1. The various subsystems (such as configuration management, commis-
personality and cost. Conflicts develop in the conceptual phase over the sioning procedures) are actually integrated for the first time during this
establishment of schedules, whereas in the planning phase, conflicts arise phase. Due to the complexities of this integration and interface nian-
over the enforcement of these s ~ h e d u l e s . ~ * ' ~ > ~ ~ agement process, conflicts may develop over the lack of sufficient sys-
Conflict over administrative procedures becomes less intense in the plan- tem integration andJor poor technical performance of one subsystem,
ning phase, indicating that administrative problems are diminishing, most affecting performance of other subsystems in tlie project.
likely because these were resolved in the conceptual phase. 2. A prototype of complex technical coniponerits is usually designed and
Conflict over technical issues becomes more evident in this phase (ris- tested during tliis phase to elirninate technical problems. However, this
ing from sixth rank in the conceptual phase to fourth in the planning prototyping process rpay not proceed srnoothly or produce successful
phase). This is primarily due t o disagreenients with support groups that results. Consequently, it can generate intense conflict in the main pro-
cannot meet the technical requirernents and have to increase their efforts, gram phase over reliability and quality control standards, various de-
affecting the project manager's cost and schedule objectives. sign problems, and testing procidures. All these technical problems can
T h e project managers surveyed by Thainhain and Wilemon poiiited severely inipact tlie project a ~ i dcaiise conflicts for the project manager.
out that personality conflicts are especially difficult to handle. Even sniall Human resources utilization reaclies its highest level in the implemen-
and infrequent personality conflicts can become more disriiptive arid tation pliase. I f siipport groiips are also providing personnel to other pro-
detrimental to the overall project o r program thari intense conflicts over jects, severe tensions can develop over the availability of human resources
non-personal issues. and other project requirenients. Coiiflicts over priorities decline in this
Conflict over cost was still indicated to be low in tliis phase becaiise: phase as efforts are made to resolve priority issues in the conceptual and
iMost project managers feel no conflict over the establishment of cost planning phases.
targets. FinishingITermination phase. This phase reveals an interesting shift in
Some projects are not matiire enough for argunients over the cost esti- tlie dominant source of conflict in a project environment. The top three
mates to emerge and cause disagreenients between the project man- ranked sources include schedules, personality, and hurnan resources.
agers and their supporters. Scliedules still ranked the higliest becaiise schedule slippages that de-
Execution/lmplementation phase. The implementation phase shows a velop in the implernentation phase tend to carry over into the termination
different conflict pattern. T h e three highest ranking soiirces of conflict in phase. Delays in schediiles beconie cumulative and inipact the project
this phase are schedules, technical issues and manpower. Additional most severely in tlie final stages of a project.
sources of conflict in order are priorities, administrative procedures, cost Personality conflict, previously ranked lower, is ranked second in this
and personality (see Figure 3.4). phase because:
In the implementation phase, meeting project schedules becornes very Project participants tend to be tense, concerned and uncertain about fu-
critica1 t o project performance. In large projects, the interdependency o f ture assignments.
various support groups dealing with complex technology frequently re- Interpersonal relationships may be strained due to pressure on project
sults in slippage in schedule. A slippage in schedule of one group may participants to meet stringent schedules, budgets and performance
cause a "domino" effect and affect other groups if they are on the critical objectives.
path. Therefore, schedules become a greater source of conflict, especially Disagreeinents over staffing and allocation of hurnan resources may
later in the implementation pliase, as more pressure is put on team mem- develop because of new projects phasing in, creating competition for per-
bers t o meet schedules and deadlines. sonnel diiring tlie critical phase-oiit stage. Such problems jeopardize prop-
While conflicts over schedules often develop in tlie earlier phases, the er doc~imentation,training and orientation, especially in computer and
emphasis changes with time. For exaniple in tlic coriccpt phase, conflicts research projects. Coiiflicts over priorities are directly related to other
104 ---- .. -- -- -- -- -
108 ~ .-
Huttiiit~Kesorltce Skills for tlte l'rojcct Mdtlnger
Summary comes and minimize dysfunctional outcomes. They should allow conflict
Conflict is a part of project life. This is because projects are done by peo- only to a leve1 where it increases the performance of project participants.
ple o r teams of people with a diverse mix of backgrounds, norms and For effective management of conflict, the project manager must under-
skills and involve many interactions between people and groups. Conflict stand the different categories of conflict, reasons or sources of conflict
occurs when individuals or groups have incompatible goals, thoughjs o r and their relationship to the project life cycle. There are 11 main reasons
emotions and, in working together, make decisions to accomplish their for conflict in a project: priorities, administrative procedures, technical
objectives. Conflicts in themselves are neither good nor bad. They can issues, task uncertainty, role uncertainty, differences in time horizons,
have both positive o r negative effects. Effective conflict nianagement fo- staffing and allocation of Iluman resources, costs, schedules, communica-
cuses o n minimizing negative conflict. tion problenis, and personalities.
Resolving conflicts of interests requires negotiation. To manage con- T h e predorninant sources and intensities of conflict vary over the four
flicts successfully, it is important t o analyze how and why conflicts of in- major project life cycle phases (conceptual, planning, execution and ter-
terests occur, basic concepts of conflicts and their effects on performance mination). A 1975 survey by Wilemon and Thamhain described the rela-
of project participants. Tliere are three views of conflicts, narnely tradi- tive intensity of seven major soiirces of conflict over the four pliases of
tional, contemporary and interactionist. The traditional view assumes tliat project life cycle. Tliis was updated in 1986 by Posner, with slightly dif-
conflict is bad and should be suppressed, while the contemporary view ferent ranking of intensity fqr seven major sources of conflict. Individual
assumes that conflict is inevitable between humans and should be man- conflicts, of course, vary by project and the players involved. However,
aged. The interactionist view suggests that conflict is a necessary part of project managers must be aware of the primary sources of conflict during
work and therefore should be stiniulated to foster creativity and innova- eacli phase. Conflicts caused by communication problems are tlie most
tion. Conflicts can occur at four levels: intrapersonal, interpersonnl, in- conimon and happen in a11 pliases of the project life cycle. Thus, effective
tergroup, and intragroup. communication is essential to project success.
Although project participants may liave divergent ideas and disagree- Destructive conflict can be highly detriniental t o the productivity of
ments when they interact with each other, tliere are nine predominarit ali- the project team and hence project outcome. It can drastically affect the
tecedent conditions, tliat predispose an organization toward coiiflict. quality of decisions a ~ i dtlie decisioii niaking process, ~riakingit long,
These antecedent conditions of conflicts are common in most organiza- complex, and difficult. It can lead to the forrriation of unhealthy and com-
tions t o a greater o r lesser extent. It is tlie degree to whicli a variety of petitive coalitioiis witliin the organization, thus reducing commitment of
these conditions exist in combination tliat leads to coiiflict and deter- project participants to tlie objectives of the project and those of overall
mines its intensity within the organization ancl project team. These condi- organization. In essence, destructive conflicts can lead to a number of di-
tions tend to be more apparent in projects tliat are organized i i i ~ n a t r i x visive, frustratirig distractions tliat degrade the quality and quantity of ef-
forms and are frequently used to create chaiige using niodern and higli forts normally applied toward organizational goals. Moreover, in addi-
technology through a diverse mix of specialized pool of hunian resoiirces tion to causing project failures, conflicts lead to tension, stress and poor
in highly complex and uncertaiil situations. Tlie project manager niiist be working relationsliips, whicli lessen mutual trust and cooperation. There-
able t o identify these conditioris and avoid potential destructive resiilts of fore, it is vital tliat project managers understand the basic concepts of
conflict by controlli~igand chaiirielirig conflict irito areas tliat can be pos- conflict, categories of conflict, negative and positive values of conflict,
itive to project success. and how conflicts irifluence the performance of project team members.
Conflict can have either positive or negative effects o n perfor~tiance. They must identify, analyze and evaluate various reasons for conflict as
O n the positive side of the ledger, conflict can diffiise more serious con- the project progresses tlirough its life cycle and use appropriate strategies
flict, act as a major stiinulant for cliange, iiicrease creativity and irinova- to manage conflicts effectively.
tion, enhance communication, clarify goals and issues, increase perfor-
mance energy and group cohesion, and balance power and influence.
Detrimental effects of conflict include increased stress, unproductive at-
mosphere, distorted views of behavior, and loss of status/position power.
Conflicts have a significant impact o11 performance of project partici-
pants. Project managers should resolve conflicts to achieve functional out-
B
Resolving conflict 131
success, the ability to nianage conflict is one of the most important
skills a project manager must possess. An American Management
Association study of ~niddle-and top-leve1 executives revealed that the av-
erage manager spends approximately 20 percent of his or her time dealing
with conflict.' T h e importance of conflict management is also reinforced
by a research study of managers that analyzed 25 skills and personality
factors to determine which, if any, were related t o managerial success. Of
the 25 factors, tlie ability t o handle conflict was most positively related to
managerial s u c ~ e s s . ~
Effective conflict management requires a combination of human skills.
T h e first step in nianaging conflict is an ability to understand and cor-
rectly diagnose it.3 Conflict management therefore consists of a diagnos-
tic process; a selection of iriterpersonal style, communication and negoti-
ating strategies; tlie developnient of trust and respect; and structural
interventions designed to avoid unnecessary conflict and reduce or re-
solve exccssive conflict.
Structural conflicts in a project environment can be resolved by chang-
ing procedures, personiiel, authority structures, and reporting relation-
ships. Project managers must be aware of various interpersonal conflict
resolution modes and their strengths and weaknesses in order t o choose
an appropriate approach according to circumstances. Project managers
must follow some practical guidelines to manage conflict in a project,
which involve preparing for the conflict, facing the conflict and then re-
solving the conflict by developing win-win strategies. They must also rec-
ognize that it is sometimes good to stimulate conflict in order t o encour-
age self-evaluation, creativity, and innovation. i
112
Hlrvialz Resoirrce Skills for tlie Prolect Malrager
Do project rnanagers believe that popularity and politics are more im-
Conflict Managernent Techniques portant for obtainiiig organizational rewards than competence and
People are trying to either shuit confiict or crush it. Neither strategy is working. high performance?
Avoidance and force only raise the level of coizflict ... They have becotne part o/
the problem rather than the solutiotf. Are project managers unduly enamored of obtainitig consensus for
- DeCecco and Richards their decisions?
D o project team members show iinusually high resistance to change?
According to both the contemporary and interactionist views, conflict is in-
1s there a lack of new ideas, creativity, and innovation?
evitable in projects and there is an optimal level of conflict that maximizes
overall performance. Two important implications of these views are that: 1s there an unusually low level of turnover among project team members?
Conflict in projects is good because it stimulates creativity, innovation, General management and project managers cai1 stimulate conflict in
improvements, and higher productivity. the following ~ a y s : ~
Management of conflict should become a key project management ac- Accept conflict as desirable o n certain occasions. Tlie project manager
tivity and project managers must develop appropriate skills to effective- may block launching project activities unless sufficient front-end planning
ly manage conflict. has been done and a basic framework with clear project priorities, scope
Conflict management invoives intervention by top management or pro- definition, and administrative procedures has been established. To a de-
ject managers (depending upon the intensity and nature of conflict) to stim- gree, conflicts at the front enq should be viewed positively, since a project
ulate o r decrease the level of conflict between the parties involved. Con- manager's opportunity to participate in setting the project's budget and
flict management should encourage constructive conflict and discourage schedule (including arguing for objectives that may cause conflict) is like-
destructive ~ o n f l i c tProjects
.~ are designed to meet defined goals and objec- ly to decrease conflicts down the road.
tives, so conflict that facilitates the acllieven~eritof goals should be encour- Bring new individuals into an existing situation. Thoughtful questions
aged, and conflict that obstructs goal attainment should be discouraged. and cornmeilts frorn newcomers o r outsiders may provide a different,
Conflict management techniques include stimulating an appropriate fresh perspective. It niay encourage long-time team mernbers to remove
level of conflict; aitering organizationai striictures; iising varioiis inter- their blinders and think of new ways of doing things. For example, a pro-
personal styles and choosing an appropriate conflict resoliition approacti. ject niaiiager Inay briiig in an outside expert to increase team effective-
ness by introducing modern styles of team management such as empow-
Stimulating conflict erment, team partnering and a win-win conflict resolution strategy.
He that wrestles with us strengtheiis our nerves aird sharpe)rs orrr skills. Oirr att- Restructure the organization. The project organization structure may
tagonist is our helper. have t o be changed t o suit the circ~irnstaiices.N e w reporting relationships
- Edttzrrttd Btrrke
may create uncertainty, but may also motivate project participants t o dis-
The whole notion of stimulating conflict is difficult to accept because con- cover i~inovativeand creative ways to get things done.
flict traditionally has a negative connotation. However, the interactioiiist Introduce programs designed to increase competition. A nlanager of
view encourages conflict. There is eviderice tliat, in some situations, an projects may introduce competition to encourage work package managers
increase in conflict actually improves p e r f o r r n a n ~ e . ~ to acconiplish their work packages aliead of scliedule and under budget
Robbins designed the following set of qiiestions to which affirmative without conipromising quality. Cornpetition can lead t o productive con-
answers suggest a potential need for conflict ~ t i r n i i l a t i o n . ~ flict, as individuals o r groiips try to outdo eacli other. A project manager
Are you surrounded by "yes people"? must understand the difference between competition and conflict in order
Are project team members afraid to admit ignorante and uncertainties t o get positive results. Management may establish rewards, awards o r
to you? recognition for winiiers of siich conipetitions. Managers of some work
1s there too much emphasis on reaching a cornprornise that may lead to
packages niay come into conflict with each other as they try to win, but
losing sight of values, long-térm objectives, or the project's welfare?
overall orgariizational outpiit will probably increase.
Are project managers more concerned i11 ~naiiitainirigthe irripression of
Introduce programmed c ~ n f l i c t .Some
~ project participants niay be
peace and cooperation in their project, regardless of the price?
keen in pushiiig tlieir ideas. Project inanagers should play "devils advo-
1s there an excessive concern by decision makers for not hurting the
cate" and use dialectical inqiiiry t o develop and clarify opposing points of
feelings of others?
view. Tliese approaches are designed to prograrn conflict into processes of
114 - -
Mairogittg aird Kesoli~iirgCoiifiirt iit o I'rojcct Eiri~irotrtitetlt
115
lfrrtnoiz Kcsorctse Skills for thc Projert Mairogcr
Some authors have suggested tliat there is a subtle difference between order to move things forward. This approach is appropriate when quick
collaborating and confrontingíproblem-solving. For the purposes of this decisions are required or when unpopular issues such as budget cuts, fast-
discussion, we will consider tlieiii as six scparnte tecliiiiq~ies(as sliown in tracking o r staff cutbacks are esse~itialin a project.
Table 4.1). Blake and Mouton's five techniques are shown in Figure 4.2 Forcing usually takes less time than coniproniise and negotiation but it
and used for comparison witli the Tlionias-Kiliiiaiin iiiodel (see Figure leaves hard feelings because people dislike liaving others' views imposed
4.1, pages 124-25). on them. Conflict resolved by force may develop again and haunt the en-
Despite the minor differences in defiriitions and terminology, tliese forcer at a later date. Although forcing definitely resolves the conflict
studies of conflict resolution modes offer an analytical base for handling quickly, it should be iised only as a last resort.
specific project situations. T h e project nianager must analyze the situation Compromising is primarily "bargainingn-receiving something in ex-
and select the appropriate mode for nianaging conflict within their pro- change for something else. It involves considering various issues, bargain-
ject organizations in order to create a climate conducive to achieving a ing, using tradeoff negotiations and searching for solutions that bring
constructive ~ u t c o m e . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ some degree of satisfaction to both parties involved in the conflict. In this
Withdrawing (avoidance, denial o r retreat) involves giving up, pulling niode, neitlier party wiris but both get some degree of satisfaction out of
out or retreating. It also refers to refusal to deal with the conflict. It in- the situation. Temporarily, both parties may feel hurt because they had t o
volves ignoring conflict as much as possible. This style is appropriate give u p something that was important to them, biit compromising usual-
when a "cooling off" period is needed t o gain better understanding of ly provides acceptable solutions. A definitive resolution t o the conflict is
the conflict situation and also when the other party involved in the con- achieved when a compromise is reached and accepted as a just solution by
flict is both unassertive and uncooperative. Withdrawal is a passive, stop- both parties involved in tlie conflict. T h e only problern with compromis-
gap way of handling conflict and generally fails t o solve the probleni. ing in a project situation is that, sometinies, iniportant aspects of the pro-
Therefore, this style should not be used if the conflict deals with an issue ject might be conipromised in order to achieve personal objectives.
that is of immediate concern o r is important to the successful completion Collaboratirig is an effective teclinique to rnanage conflict when a project
of the project. situation is too iniportant to be cornproniised. It involves incorporating miil-
Smoothing, o r accommodating, is ali appensing approacli. It involves tiple ideas and viewpoirits from people with different perspectives. It offers
emphasizing areas of agreement while avoiding points of disagreement. a good opportunity to learn from others. Active collaboration by both par-
Smoothing is appropriate to keep harrnony and avoid outwardly conflic- ties in contributing to the resolirtion makes it easier to get their consensus
tive situations. It works when the issues are more important than person- and commitment. Collaboration is not very effective when more than a few
a1 positions and aspirations of the parties involved. Since smoothing tends players are involved and their viewpoints are mutually exclusive.
to keep peace only in the short term, it fails to provide a permanent long- Confronting o r problem solving (negotiating) implies a direct con-
term solution to the underlying conflict. Generally, conflict reappears frontation where disagreernent is addressed directly. Conflict is treated as
again in another form. a probleni in this process and both parties are interested in finding a mu-
Both smoothing and withdrawing styles incline towards ignoring o r de- tually acceptable solution. Tliis approach requires a give-and-take attitude
laying tactics, which d o not resolve conflict but \vil1 teniporarily slow between the parties, meaning that both parties are somewhat assertive
down the situation. Project managers must remernber that if the conflict is and somewhat cooperative. It involves pinpointing the issue and resolving
not handled and resolved in a tiinely manner it will likely lead to more se- it objectively by defining the problem, gathering necessary information,
vere and intense conflict in the future. generating and analyzing alternatives and selecting the best alternative un-
Forcing (using power or dominance) implies the use of position power der the circumstances. Confrontation requires open dialogue between
to resolve the conflict. It involves imposing one viewpoint at the expense participants, w h o must be rnatiire, understanding, and competent-both
of another and is characterized by a win-lose oiitcome in which one par- technically and managerially.
ty overwhelms the other. Forcing is used wlien there is n o common In most cases, confronting or problem solving may take longer than
ground o n which to bargain or negotiate, 2nd when both parties are un- other techniques, but they provide final solutions by ultimately resolving
cooperative and strong-willed. Project rnanagers may irse it when time is the underlying problems.
of the essence, an issue is vital to the well-being of the project, and they Table 4.1 summarizes these six interpersonal conflict resolution tech-
feel they are right based on the information available. Under such cir- niques. However, a survey of management literature suggests some addi-
cumstances project managers take the risk and siniply dictate the action in tional techniques for resolving c ~ n f l i c t . ~
- -
- -
H14ttrati Resoiirce Skills for tlte l'roject M ~ t t n ~ e r Mnttnyitty ntid Resoluit~gCottf7ict i t ~n l'roject Et1virotzt7ietit
119
Table 4.1 Conflict Management Styles Figure 4.1 Conflict Management Strategies
Description Effect (Thomas-Kilmann Model)
Style
Withdrawingl Retreats from an ac- Does not solve the
Avoiding tua1 or potential con- problem High I I I
flict situation Collaborating
Confronting
Smoothingl Emphasizes areas of Provides only Consensus
Accommodating agreement rather than short-term solution
areas of difference
Compromising Searches for and bar- Does provide
I -1
gains for solutions definitive resolution
that bring some de-
gree of satisfaction to Desire to
satish compromise
all parties Oneself
Forcing Pushes one view- Hard feelings may
point at the expense come back in other
of others; offers only forms
win-lose solutions
Incorporates multiple Provides long-term
Collaborating viewpoints and in- resolution
sights from differing
perspectives; leads
to consensus and Low Desire to Satisfy Others +- High
commitment
Confronting/Problem Treats conflict as a Provides ultimate - --
H~ltttatrKesottrce Skills for the Prolect Marlnger Mat~agitrgatrd Resolvit~gCutrflict ir1 a Projcct Etziiirotrtt~errt 121
/ Figure 4.4 Conflict Management Results in Two-Party Conflicf 1 o f the conflict. Note tliat a quick agreement is generally reached when
parties have a problem-solvirig or confrontation attitude. Agreement also
occurs when both parties are in a compromising frame of mind. Howev-
1 1st Party's Coníiict Handling Mode I er, stalernates predominate when both parties have a forcing, smoothing
or withdrawing attitude. It is obvioiis from Figure 4.4 that confrontation
is a strorig and effective resolution technique to use against conflict han-
dling modes by the other party. This is true except when the other party
chooses a forcing mode, which inay tend to overpower the confronting
Stalemate Forcer Forcer Forcer mode. Forcing is effective except when used against another forcing par-
Agreement Compromise Compromise
ty, which results in a stalemate. Compromise yields to the problem solver
or forcer, but reaches an agreement with the compromiser, smoother or
withdrawer. Sinoothing, on the other hand, wins over withdrawing, but
yields t o confrontation, forcing or compromising. Withdrawal yields to
I
Stalemate
all other types of resolution techniques with the exception of withdrawal
itself, which results in a stalemate.16
T h e project manager shoiild review the concepts outlined in Figure 4.4
Soutca: John R. Adamr and Nicki S. Kirchof. 1982. Confiicr Msnngemenf for Projeef Managerr. Drexel Hill. PA. Projecl Man
agsrnenl InrtiNte. p. 42. when preparing to handle conflict. The project manager must take time in
studying the behavior of all other parties associated with the project so as
T h e first three styles-win-lose, yield-lose attd lose-leave-are not effec- to accurately predict eacli potential "opponent's" likely response to the
tive because of their extremes. They generally lead to project failure, conflict situatiori.
whereas the last two-compromise a n d integrative-lead t o project success. The best conflict resolution approach. Each conflict situation is
Both models emphasize the long-term concern for maintaining rela- unique. Therefore, it is difficult to recomn~endthe best conflict resolution
tionships, which ~ l a y as significarit role in choosing a suitable conflict res- approach due to the many variables and the dynamic nature of conflict. Of 1
olution technique. Forcing, smoothing, withdrawing, majority rule and the approaches discussed above, some are more siiited to certain situations
the superordinate goal technique are generally less effective because they than others. Whicli conflict resolution approach is the best depends upon:
fail to deal with the basic cause of the conflict. But in some circumstances, Type and relative importance of conflict
Time pressure
these may be useful because they impose a period of peace while the par-
ties involved in conflict think about thei r next moves. T h e most appro-
priate technique is the one that clears the patli for moving the project o n
Position of the players involved
Relative emphasis on goals versus relationships.
iI
the right track and removing the barriers to project success. However, it is Forcing, smoothing, withdrawing, majority rule and the superordinate I
I
not easy to choose the best approach because each situation is unique and goal techniques are generally not effective in resolving conflicts because they
the players involved have different personalities. fail to deal with the real cause of the conflict. But, sometimes, they may be
Dynamics of handling two-party conflicts. Most conflicts in a project appropriate wlien it is important to create a period of peace and harmony
environment occur between two parties. The results of a two-party con- while the parties involved in tlic conflict rhiiik about tlieir next move.
flict d o not depend only on the conflict resolution approach iised by one Techniques like con~promise,mediation and arbitration are usually
party, for instance the project manager. Rather, the results are dependent used in labor-management disputes but they have some potential prob-
upon the interplay of conflict handling techniques chosen and used by lems. For exainple, in con~proriiising,each party gives u p sometliing and
both parties.i6 In examining and preparing for a conflict resolution, the neither gets exactly what it wants. In arbitration, both parties may be un-
project manager should try to determine in advance the conflict resolu- happy with the arbitrator or with the binding decision.
tion technique that the other party Inay use. Based upon tliis information, The bcst solution for managing project conflicts is the confrontindprob-
the project manager can work out a strategy and select a mode tliat is leni solving, or negotiation, mode. Since project management involves solv-
most likely t o resolve the conflict. ing problems as the project progresses through its life cycle, this type of
Figure 4.4 shows conflict management results in two-party conflicts. conflict rnaiiagement is very practical. This approach aims for a win-win
This figure assumes that both parties have eqiial power at tlie beginning strategy, which is best for both the project and the parties involved. Project
i
126 --
Ht~inartlieso~rrccSkills for thc I'ro1ect hlaii<lger
.-
Preparing for conflict perceptions may express themselves positively (openly expressed pos-
According t o the traditional view, conflict has a negative impact on pro- itive feelings and warnith) or negatively (open hostility and jealousy).
I
ject performance because it creates unpleasant situations, stress and rnay Analyzing key players involved in the situation. This analysis should
spoil interpersonal relationships. Therefore, preparing for conflict is the consider tlie whole project and sliould involve identifying the key players
first step in managing conflict.17 and their personalities. W h o are the people or groups that are contribut-
Expect conflict. The project manager should expect that the sources of ing to the conflict? Project managers should analyze their personalities,
conflict will vary with the phases of the project. According to Wilemon interpersonal habits, values and convictions. This knowledge will help
and Thamhain's survey of 100 project managers,l1 there are seven major create a cooperative and accommodating atmosphere. A11 key players
sources of conflict: schedules, priorities, human resources, technical is- should be willing to accept resolution of the conflict, otherwise it will
sues, administration, personality and cost. T h e predominant sources and continue o r become even more iritense and reduce project performance.
intensity of conflict vary over the life cycle of the project. Wilemon and Preparing a co~nrnunicationstrategy. Comnients should be based on
Thamhain showed the ranking of conflict intensity arising from seven job description, job environment, chains of command and channels o f
sources of conflict in four typical phases of the project life cycle-con- coniinunication. This will Iielp individuals involved in the conflict situa-
ceptual phase (initiation phase), planningiproject build u p phase, imple- tion be more objective and prepared t o deal with the situation.
mentationlmain program phase, and terminationlphase-out phase. In ad- Planning ahead by the prbject manager involves answering the ques-
dition to these seven sources of conflict, four additional sources have also tion: "1s the conflict primarily related to goals, authority or personalities
been also identified: communication problems, differences in time hori- or some combination of these?" These conflicts should be defiiied in ob-
zon, role uncertainty, task uncertaintylinformation requirements. jective terms, with a lnininiiirn of personal biases and opinions.
Project managers may also find that the focus of conflict will vary with Prepare for stress management. Conflict can cause stress that varies in
the attributes of the team and of the project goals. With an experienced intensity depending upon the sources and intensity of conflict. Stress, i f
team, the focus of conflict is within the team itself. If the project goals are not managed in a timely inanner, can cause severe physiological and psy-
vague and loosely defined, the focus of the conflict will likely be between chological problems. Effective stress management is discussed in detail in
the team and upper management o r between the project team and the Chapter Six.17
client, o r both. T h e project manager should analyze the reasons o r After preparing for the conflict, the project manager is able t o face it.
sources of conflict, how they vary with the phases of the project cycle, Facing the conflict
and the focus of the conflict before taking any action.
N o t everythiiig that is faced cait be chariged, bitt rtothirig can be changed il?itil
Plan ahead to handle conflict. After analyzing the sources, intensity it is faced.
and focus of conflict, project managers should plan how to deal with con- -James Baldwin
flict. Some planning tools include: l 7 Although conflict is one of tlie things we dislike the most, it is inevitable.
Developing a framework within which to view conflicts objectively. Most ofteri, wlien we try to avoid conflict, it \vil1 seek us out. Some peo-
Conflicts among project participants may arise as tlie project teams ple wrongly Iiope tliat conflict will go away if it is ignored. In fact, con-
progress through stages of team development. In such circumstances, con- flict ignored is more likely t o get worse, which can significantly reduce
flicts come from the need of each person to answer the following ques- project perforniance.
tions in order to establish their positioiis ~ l e a r l y . ~ *
Sometinies people d o not recognize conflict or else they avoid it. Such
Am I in o r o u t ? In this type of conflict, people are likely to ask themselves avoidance never resolves conflict but rather miiltiplies it. T h e best way to
whether they belong to the team or not. They raise issues that are unim-
reduce conflict is to c o n f r o ~ i it.
t To face conflict effectively, project man-
portant in themselves just to break the ice and initiate communication.
agers should d o the f ~ l l o w i n g : ~ ~
W h e r e do I stand? (Am I up o r dotun?) Are people at the top or at the
Serve a s a lightning rod. Hill compared managers of successful pro-
bottom of a hierarchy? H o w will the group make decisions? H o w much
jects with those of projects tliat failed and found that the nianagers of suc-
responsibility does each team member have? H o w much authority, in- cessful proiects: l 9
fluente, and control does each individual on the project team have? ~ers;>nally absorbed aggression
Am I n e a r or far? This question raises the issues of openness and af- Communicated and listened effectively
fection. Team members must decide how close they want t o get to Counseled their teains to rnaximize their oiitput
other team members without feeling stiick witli them. Emotions and
128 Hiittiatz Resoitrce Skills for the Project Martnger Mattngitig atid Resolvitig Corif7ict itt a Project Ettt~iro?ttneilt
129
Encouraged openness, emotional expression, and new ideas
Served as role models in planning, delegating, etc.
of project managenient such as procedures, task breakdowns, and assign-
ments of responsibility and authority. Project managers may choose t o
I
I
Minimized potential conflict whenever possible prepare an LRC for each phase of the project life cycle.
Stimulated conflict to foster creativity and innovation. Surfacing the real issues prirnarily involves getting a11 the background
In each of these behaviors, high-performing project managers faced the information associated with the conflict. This may uncover important as-
conflict without taking it personally. They often dealt objectively with pects o f the project which if not identified immediately will lead to seri-
hostility without responding in a hostile rnanner. Thus, project managers ous conseqiiences and even project failure. Project managers must use in-
take the heat themselves, then ground it s o that it liarms neither them nor terpersonal skills, information and other resources to respond to:
its source. Project managers can d o this by: l 7 Real doubts (if any) about the value of the project
Putting themselves o n hold, rather than fighting back Real questions about cost effectiveness (What is causing major cost de-
Screening out distractions to focus energy directly on the conflict and viations? Why?)
the people involved Real questions about schedule (What is causing the real delay and how
Giving the situation more time by allowing a cool-down period and much; what options are available?)
time to think Real concerns about the way the project is being run, and how the pro-
Responding to both emotional and factual contents of the situation. ject affects other projects or systems already ongoing.
The project managers surveyed by Wilemon and Thamhain felt that Give ample support. Block described the importance of support in a
personality conflicts were often disguised as conflicts over other issues, work r e l a t i o n ~ h iMost
~ . ~ ~people want to feel secure and worthwhile and
such as technical issues and manpower, etc.13 These "disguises" will per- receive encouragement, recognition and praise. Unfortiinately, some pro-
sist if project managers only deal with facts. They should deal with feel- ject rnanagers confuse support with agreement and, consequeritly, in a
ings as well. Positive feelings, if expressed, can increase project perfor- conflict (disagreement) situation, they withhold support when it is need-
mance. Even negative feelings, if expressed constructively, may help ed the most.
clarify confusion o r remove a bottleneck in a project. To "name without Conflict handling starts with identification of two dimensions: the co-
blame," project managers must express feelings as feelings, not as facts. operativeness dití7ension represents the degree to which the person wants
They must accept responsibility for their own feelings and avoid judging to satisfy the concerns of the other party; the assertiveness dinzension rep-
people based on feelings and impressions alone. resents the degree to which the other party wants to satisfy his o r her own
"Surface" the real issues. Coiiflicts that reiriain below tlie surface cai1 poirit of view or coiicerns (e.g., orie specialist i-iiay piish his o r lier own so-
have negative impacts o n a project in many ways, such as:17 lution to technical problerns in a project witliout listening t o other views
Distorted o r withheld information seriously).
Slipped schedules The project manager's job beconies very complicated when conflicts are
Unplanned absences from project meetings buried. T h e project rnanager r-riust surface the real issiies that affect project
Lack of initiative to solve problems performance by giving people two to three chances to make the conflicts
Not working together as a real team. visible to otlier parties and giving sufficient support in bringing conflicts
A successful conflict manager should handle these burning issues gently into the open and resolving tliem using a probleni solving approach.
but firmly. To "surface" the real issues, project rnanagers may: l 7
Treat the surface issue as "real" two o r three times. Project managers Resolving the conflict
should give people t w o o r three chances to bring the conflict into the I never iet the s14?zset otz a disagreement with anybody who rneans a lot t o me.
- Thonzas Watsotz, Sr.
open by themselves. However, if this fails, the project nianager should ap-
proach the person and urge them t o discuss the conflict in the open with Due t o the dynamic and sometimes unpredictable nature of projects, a
the aim of resolving it as soon as possible. substantial amoiint of management time is dedicated t o resolving con-
Make the conflict visible t o other parties involved. To resolve the con- flicts. In some cases, disagreements can be handled by a straightforward
flict, project managers must make the conflict visible t o other parties iri- decision; in other situations a combination of time and skills is required.
volved in the situation. They can d o this by irsing effective communica- T h e project manager, the project team, and a11 other stakeliolders in-
tion techniques and planning aids such as Linear Responsibility Charts. volved in a conflict sitiiation must work together in managing the conflict
LRCs are quite effective in resolving conflicts over administrative aspects with an aim to achievii~ga win-win situation for everyone.
i
Which features would contribute rnost to project success?
Which features would contribute the least? Senior
Cut your losses when necessary. Sonietimes, a project rnay have got- Management
ten "to0 deep in the hole," which leads to conflicts. S h o ~ i l dtlie project be
continued o r should someone review the situation, try to estimate the
bottom line to completion and tlien inake a rational decision whether o r
not t o abandon the project? T h e project rnanager should avoid making
such decisions based upon ego and emotiori. Cutting losses can actually
yield a savings which can be used for other business opportunities.
In most cases, only senior management o r tlie project director or spon- Functional Project
sor is authorized to cancel projects. However, a few project managers rnay and Other Manager Client
also have the authority to cancel projects if necessary. In a11 cases, the per- Managers
sons with such authority should cut their losses and resolve such situa-
tions by using the following guidelines.17
Keep a mental file of things that don't fit. It is easy to see what you ex-
pect t o see instead of what is real. Project participants may say one thing
but act differently. Project managers must watch out for the degree of real
commitment and interest in doing certain things o n a project. When
words and behavior don't match, behavior should be believed more-
even if it is the words you want to believe.
Project managers should pay attention to nonverbal communication
while getting feedback to their questions, because actual behavior more
closely correlates with the nonverbal component than the verbal compo-
0 Project
nent of communications. By ignoririg this concept, tlie project manager is People wlio liave planiied ahead to Iiandle tlieir losses are better off be-
more likely to accept passive resistance-the beginning of a hidden "sink cause they can turn t o their written plans and take necessary action ac-
hole."17 N o t all sink holes are hidden of course, some of them are right cordingly. Even though it rnay be difficult t o implement the actions, at
out in the open! But the behavior rnay be so difficult and complex t o mea- least the difficult step of "deciding what to do" was done when they could
sure that the project manager may simply not believe tlieir eyes or ears think more clearly. To cut losses before it is too late, the project manager's
and thereby misjudge the situation completely. plan should answer tlie following questions.'7
Follow the rule of two (or three). Siiccessf~ilproject managers would H o w rnuch rnoney should be invested before expecting some returri?
prefer to cut their losses before costs skyrocket. They rnay not be able to H o w 77711ch time should be allowed before following another course of
recognize the inconsistency right away, but they sliould confront the situ- action?
ation and address it directly if it occurs a second or third time. H o w nzuch energy and ego should be invested before being satisfied
Establish a systern for cutting back investment of money, time, effort that the best shot has been given? (This limits the spillover into person-
and ego. This follows the common management principie, "Plan your al life as well as the effect on other projects.)
work and work your plan." When sometliing goes wrong in the project, Although w e a11 hope for the best, w e must be prepared for the worst.
people rnay go through the stages of grief: denial, anger, bargaining, de- It is important for the project nianager t o continually evaluate project
pression, stress and-hopefully-acceptance. Project nianagers who be- progress and outcomes so that he o r she can be better prepared t o deal
come emotionally upset over losses on their projects are also vulnerable to wit1.i losses before being exposed t o more losses. H e o r she is more like-
loosing their self-esteem.I7 ly to anticipate loss by keepiiig a mental file of things that dori't fit, con-
front tlie situation the second o r third time it occurs and keep a system in
134 135
I f r c t t r ù ~ zKesor~tzeSkrlls for ihe Project Mnirtlger Mnt~ogitrgatrd Resoli/itrg Co?rf7ict rir n Project Etrviro?it?retrt
place for cutting back investnient if the losses become too costly. Project
managers should have a "contingency p l a ~ i "t o deal with losses, o r cut Table 4.2 Tactics for Minimizing Conflict
costs in other areas. It should be eniphasized tliat sometimes project
rnanagers may be too egotistic to be objective in cutting their losses at
Minimizing Conflict with Senior Minimizing Conflict with Project
the appropriate time. Team Members (Subordinates)
Management (Boss)
Formulate proactive conflict management strategies. Conflict can be Discover professional and
Place yourself in boss's shoes
resolved o r kept under control by using a proactive approach to managing Analyze boss's thinking pattern personal goals of your
conflict. This requires acting before conflict actually occurs t o minimize Don't take only problems to the team members
boss, take solutions as well Clarify your expectations
its impact. Before formulating proactive conflict nianagement strategies, it Define contra1 parameters
Keep the boss infarmed of your
is important to understand the project manager's "relationship molecule" progress and plans Develop a tolerance for failure
that shows the major project pãrticipants with whom the prõject manag- Listen t o and obsewe your boss to encourage creativity
Consult the boss on policy, Give positive feedback
er usually interacts throughout the project life cycle (see Figure 4.6). Give timely praise and
procedures and criteria
Project managers must establish good understanding, trust and rapport DonY steamroll the boss recognition
with a11 the project stakeholders with w h o m they interact to minimize the
probability of conflict. T h e following ideas for proactively managing con- Minimizing Conflict with 0ther Minimizing Conflict with
flicts with major project stakeholders are summarized in Table 4.2.21 Project and Functional Clients and U s e n
Managen (Peen) (Clients)
Minimizing conflict with senior management involves knowing their
requirernents and styles. Conflicts with a boss can be minimized using the
. Help your peers meet their goals
Establish a cooperative climate
Be supportive towards the
client representative
following i d e a ~ . ~ ~ Give advance notice of any help Maintain close contact with
Place yourself i71 the boss's shoes. Understand and be sympatlietic to the yoii need from peers the client
Cultivate informal Avoid giving surprises
challenges, problems and pressures of senior management.
Analyze the boss's thinking pattern. Try to be consistent with the boss's
communication channel
Treat them the w a y you
want to be treated
. Keep in touch at all levels
Establish informal relationships
as well
way of thinking (analytical or intuitive).
Conduct regular project status
Don't only take problems to the boss, take solt~tiotrsas well. Explore alter- meeting
natives and suggest recorn~nendations;try to make the boss's job easier.
Keep the boss infornzed of your progress atld plat~s.It will help the
boss be your effective mentor. Also you can get better support from Source. Data bsred on ~nforrnationfrom the wo!k of Paul D ~ n s r n o i e . H u m a n F s c l a iin
r Projecf Management AMACOM. 1990
your boss. pp. 149.166.
136 137
Hziit~attR e s o l i r c e Skills for t h e Project h4ntrager M a t t a g i t 7 g at7d R e s o l v i > ~ Cg o t t f l i r t itr n P r o j e c t Eizvirotzt>rent
interpersonal relationships witli major project stakeholders and try t o cre-
Minimizing conflict with yoiir peers involves treating your peers with
ate an environment that encourages cooperative and collaborative behav-
respect-the way you want to be treated. Conflict with your peers can be
ior. Trust and effective communications rediice the destructive effects of
minimized by using the following guidelines.21
Help your peers meet their personal a n d professional goals. Support conflict and increase the project manager's ability to positively influence
their objectives. Look for areas of mutual interest rather tlian conflict. other project participants.
Establish a cooperative atmosphere. Rernember the strengths of a team Wilemon and T h a m l ~ a i n 'conducted
~ research to study the effects of
approach. You need each otlier to succeed. D o favors without expect- using various conflict resolution styles o n the project. They ranked the
ing any immediate return. T h e law of reciprocity suggests that if you five main styles of resolving conflict from the most effective to least ef-
are cooperative with your peers, they are more likely to collaborate fective, as follows: l 3
with you. 1. Problem-solving (confronting, iiegotiating)
Give advance notice about any help you ~zeed.Your peers may have 2. Compromising
their own constraints. Justify your requests in terms of project goals 3. Srnoothing
and objectives; be accommodating to your peer's requirements. 4. Forcing
Cultivate informal communication channels. Formal communications 5. Withdrawal.
are slow and cold. Informal communications increase comfort leve1 and Cotzfrontation (prob1en.r-sdlvitzg), compromising and smoothing are
understanding, and therefore help solve problems effectively. Have most effective in dealirig with project team members. Cotzfrontation may
lunch together, develop social encounters, and disciiss topics other than increase the incidence of conflict, but it tends t o resolve the conflict by
daily work. finding a niutually acceptable s o l ~ t i o i i Project
. ~ ~ managers can effectively
Minimizing conflict with clients and users involves effective communi- iise compromising styles to resolve conflicts with their superiors because it
cation with them and responding to their needs proniptly.21 pronlotes botli a free excliaiige of ideas and irnproved c o m n ~ u n i c a t i o n s . ~ ~
Be supportive towards the client's representative. Supply them necessary Project managers can also use this mode effectively in formal contract ne-
data and information because you will need their help throughoiit the gotiations, negotiatioiis aboiit resources with functional managers, and in-
project. formal negotiations with project participants about day-to-day issues of
Mairitaiiz close contact with the clietzt. Avoid communication gaps. managing the project. These three styles are particularly important for
Clients require attention and importance; when they don't get it, they project managers in dealing with their peers, functional managers and
tend to become more demanding and sometimes unreasonable. other support personnel.
Avoid surprises. Don't spring surprises, unless you have good news. Forcing is detrimental because it leads to win-lose outcomes and cre-
Don't let problems build up, let your client know about them and what ates hard feelings. It increases the negative results of conflict. Withdrawing
you are doing to solve them. may tend t o minimize conflict but it fails to resolve the conflict and may
Keep itz touch a t variotrs levels. Most projects have an organizational rather come back aiid haunt the project with increased intensity.
structure that mirrors that of the client. Put directors in touch with di- From this research, it appears that there is n o single best method for
rectors, managers with managers, and engineers with engineers, etc. dealing with conflict. Conflict resolution style is mainly dependent upon
Establish informal relationships with key client personnel. Informal re- the situation and the players involved in the conflict. Depending upon the
lationships develop a better understanding and interpersonal relation- situation, tlie project nianager should be able to iise a11 the conflict man-
ship. Use encounters at lunches, dinners, social and sporting events to agement styles as necessary.
improve relationships with key personnel of the client organization. Use planning to resolve conflict. One option for managing conflict is
Conduct regular project statzrs meetings. Sumniarize progress and in- to wait for it to happen and then resolve it by using appropriate conflict
clude forecasts to completion, future problems and needs. Meetings management techniques and skills. For this approach to be successful pro-
should be both informative and problem-solving in nature. ject participants miist be able to ideritify conflict in its early stages and be
The above techniques should help project managers prevent project aware o f effective conflict resolution techniques.
conflicts. Table 4.2 shows a summary of these ideas for proactively man- Another approach to inanaging conflict is t o formulate a proactive
aging conflicts with senior management, project team members, peers conflict managenlent strategy (as outlined in the previous section). Some-
(other project managers, functional managers and support staff), and times, along with tlie proactive approach, project participants may be
above all, with clients and ~ s e r s . Project
~l managers must develop better able to manage conflicts by using a "preventive planning approach." This
138 Htotlat~Kesotrrce Skills for the l'roject Muttclger Matragittg ottd Kesolvirig Cotif7ict i71 o Project Et~vtt.otzttteirt 139
CONFLICTCAN BE HEALTHY if managed effectively. Conflict manage- Project managers must evaliiate the situation c a r e f u l l ~and then use an
appropriate conflict nianagement technique. Five additional techniques-
ment requires a combination of analytical and human skills. Every project
majority rule, consensus, mediation, arbitration, and superordinate goal-
participant should learn t o resolve project conflicts effectively. G o o d con-
flict managers work at the sotcrce of conflict. To resolve it permanently, may also be used.
they must resolve the cause of the conflict and not just the symptoms of T h e clioice of an appropriate style for resolving conflict depends upon
the conflict. They size u p possible clashes before "contact" is actually factors such as the situation, relative importante and intensity of conflict,
time pressures, position of the players involved and relative emphasis on
made and then prepare their action plans to handle potential trouble.
They should concentrate on building an atmosphere designed to reduce acliieving goals versus maintaining relationship. Individuals may have a
destructive conflict and deal with routine frictions and minor differences preference for one o r two of the styles but they are more likely to use a11 of
them over time when dealing with different conflict situations. These styles
before they become unmanageable. T h e key to resolving conflict with a
positive outcome includes looking for a win-win situation, cutting losses can be compared by using the Thomas-Kilmann model, which compares
when necessary, formulating proactive conflict management strategies, the desire t o satisfy oneself and the desire to satisfy others, and Filley's
and planning as a solution for preventing and handling conflict. model, which deals witli concerns for personal goals versus relationships.
Practically, confrontation (negotiating and problem solving) has been
Surnmary found to be the best approach hecause it aims at finding a win-win alter-
The essence of conflict is disagreement o r incompatibility in goals, ideas, native. Both parties work sincerely t o reach a mutually acceptable result
or emotions within o r between project teain rrieinbers o r between various tliat is also beneficia1 to the parties i~ivolved.
project teams in an organization. Because of the dynamic nature of human There are practical guidelines consisting of three main steps for man-
behavior, team dynamics, and complex personal interactions in a project aging conflicts in a project:
environment, conflict is inevitable. However, the negative effects of con- Preparit~gfor the cotiflict by assuming it is inevitable, planning for it
flict can be minimized and positive results achieved by managing the con- and then being prepared with stress coping techniques
flict effectively. Effective conflict management is based, in part, o n a thor- Facitíg the cotiflict, which suggests that project managers should serve
ough understanding of the different ways conflict emerges and how it can as a liglitning rod by takirig the heat themselves and then responding to
be resolved. A substantial portion of project management effort is spent in both the ernotions and the facts), then "surface" the issues, analyze the
resolving conflict. Therefore, project managers and a11 project partici- situatiori thorouglily and find the real cause of conflict
pants must develop effective conflict management skills. Resolvirzg the cotíflict with a positive outcome by looking for wi~i-winal-
There are severa1 conflict resolution techniques. In some situations, ternatives, cutting losses when necessary (before it becomes too costly),
stimulating conflict can increase project performance. Structural conflict formulating proactive conflict management strategies, and planning a
resolution techniques can be used, including changes in procedures, per- proactive niethod for preventing and handling conflict.
sonnel, authority o r resources. Primary interpersonal resolution tech-
niques include:
Withdrawinglavoiding (retreating from an actual or potential conflict
situation), which does not solve the problen~
Smoothing/accommodating (ernpliasizing tlie tise of agreements rather
than disagreements), which provides only short-term solutions
Forcing (win-lose outcome), which may solve conflict temporarily at
the surface but hard feelings may resurface later in other forms
Compromising (searching and bargaining for solutions that bring some
degree of satisfaction to both parties), which provides definite solution
Collaborating (seeking consensus and comrnitnient), wliich provides
long term solutions
Confronting, also called problem solving or negotiating (treating con-
flict as a problem to be solved; aiming for a win-win solution), which
provides an ultimate resolution.
142 H i ~ t ~ i aResoiirce
r~ Skills for the I'roject Matinger Mn?tngitzg nnd Resoli~itigConf7ict i11 n Project E?iuiro?zme>tt 143
Outline
Practical Guidelines for Negotiation 161 fact of life. Everyone negotiates something every
N
EGOTIATION IS A
Cornrnit to negotiate for rnutual gain 161 day; it seerns that more and more situations require negotiation.
Avoid bargaining over positions 161 People negotiate salaries and benefits with their employers, pur-
Separate the people frorn the problern 163
Separate the relationship frorn the substance chase prices with vendors, schedules with clients, priorities in the house-
164
Focus on interests, not positions 166 hold with their spouses, and television time with their children. Negotiation
Generate options for mutual gain 168 is a basic means of getting what you want from others. It is a two-way corn-
Insist on using objective criteria 170 miinication to reach an agreenient when both parties have a combination of
Summary 172 shared and opposed interests.'
Most projects are organized in a rnatrix structure where the responsibil-
ity, authority and accountability are usually shared. Project participants are
brought together from different functional areas and business sectors. They
may have different perceptions and outlooks about the project, project
rnanagement techniques or the resources, time and effort to be spent on the
project. To achieve project success, project managers must be able to nego-
tiate witli teclinical specialists, work package managers, functional man-
agers, other project managers, and upper managernent about the resources,
project priorities and responsibilities. They niust negotiate with clients re-
garding changes in scope, schedule, budget and performance standards; and
with team rnenibers about various project managernent issues throughout
the project life cycle.
This chapter deals witlr basic principies of negotiation, the impact of cul-
ture on negotiation, types of negotiations, a basic negotiation model and
some negotiation strategies. This chapter highlights how to negotiate to re-
solve conflicts for increased performance. Fisher and Ury have done exten-
sive researcti on negotiation strategies and have developed a very practical
rnethod of negotiation (Principled Negotiatio1-i) t o reach agreements effi-
ciently and aniicably.' Most of these inethods are basic arid are equally ap-
plicable in a project environnient. Sorne practical guidelines for negotiation
in a project environment are also described in this chapter. 8
Results based on standard criteria. Results must be based primarily o n
About Negotiation the project objectives and success criteria. However, other criteria such as
We must learn t o explore a11 the optiotzs and possibilities that confrotzt us in a
coml>lex and rapidly chat2git1g zuorld. We nzirst Ieartz t o loelconie and tzot fear
market value replacement cost, allocation of risk and a long-term cost/ben-
efit analysis sliould also be considered. These criteria should be developed
and agreed upon by all parties involved in the negotiation process.
More and more situations in our lives require negotiation. Negotiation, a per- The above four points help to develop an agreement based on the rnerits of
suasive process,2 is an important part, not only of business and industrial the final result, as opposed to one based on an "I win-you lose" philosophy.
transactions, but of everyday life. 111a project environment, negotiation niay Tliis builds niutual trust, confideiice, and respect for eacli other's ideas. Ne-
involve both tangible (budget, scliedule, resources and project maiiagenient gotiations about scope defiiiition and overall project goals, budgets and con-
system) and intangible issues (recognition, building trust, confidence and straints sliould be done riglit at the front-end in order to avoid disputes and
good working relationships, inspiring team performance, a sense of accom- rnisunderstandings later in tlie project. Suppliers, contractors and project man-
plishment and shared ownership of the product or ~ e r v i c e )A. ~successful ne- agers can thus work with each other rather than agaimt each other. In such a
gotiator must be able to analyze and evaluate the situations and tlien forinu- cooperative environment, credit is given to both project teams and functional
late an appropriate negotiation strategy and adapt a flexible negotiation style departnients, and project managers will easily be able to negotiate the quality
to suit specific situations and negotiators involved in the negotiation process.3 and timing of resources with fpnctional managers. This kind of relationship
frequently leads to additional contracts and a continuing, profitable relation-
Principles of negotiation
ship between satisfied clients, project mana gers and contractors.
Use soft words and hard argutnents.
- Etlglish Proverb Project managers are required to meet project goals and objectives
with very little autliority, especially over functional managers and staff
In a project environment, negotiation involves bargaining with individuais personnel. This lack of authority forces thern to negotiate company re-
concerning the transfer of resources, the generation of information, and sources with functional managers and top management. Figure 5.1 shows
the a c c ~ m ~ l i s h m e of
n t activities4 It is also a process through which par- the negotiation activities of a project manager.
ties with differing interests reach agreernent tlirough cornmunication and
c ~ m ~ r o m i s Negotiation
e.~ is one of the most important skills a project Common methods of negotiating
manager must have in order t o deal with custorners, functional managers, Although everyone is involved in some sort of negotiation every day, it is
project team members, and other stakeholders. Negotiating agreement not easy to d o it successfiilly. After negotiating, people often feel dissatis-
among parties with conflicting interests involves four principies. fied, worn oiit, or alienated. In negotiation, process is as important as out-
Separate the people from the problem. People and problems slioiild come. Therefore, project rnanagers must be sensitive t o human feelings
be separated to avoid misunderstandings and the endless cycle of actions and dynamics while negotiating in order to achieve the desired outcome,
and reactions. Put yourself in the other party's shoes and separate the sub- as well as to prevent being exhausted by tlie process.
stance of the negotiatiori from the relationsliips and personalities i t i - The negotiation process (shown in Figure 5.2) consists of three rnain steps:
volved. Give credit for the good advice and ideas of others and develop a 1. Pre-negotiation planning (planning how to conduct negotiations)
proposal consistent with their values and fair to both parties. 2. Actual negotiations or agreements (working out the details and reaching
FOCUSon cornmon interests. It is more effective to focus o n cornmon an agreement)
interests rather than on tlie opposing positioiis of the parties. Acknowl- 3. Post-negotiatiori critique (eval~iatingliow successful the negotiation
edge the interests of the other party, be flexible in the ideas offered as so- process and outcome was).
lutions, and be firm in dealing with the problem, yet open and supportive Most people view negotiation as a dilemma, requiring them t o choose
t o the human beings on the other side. In this way, both parties attack the between two extremes of negotiation style: soft o r hard. However, there
problem and not each other, improving the relationship between them are actually three cornmon methods of negotiatingl
a n d increasing the chances of reaching an acceptable agreernent. Sof3 negotiation. In "soft" negotiations, the negotiators are friendly,
Generate options that advance shared interests. Generate a nurnber
with a special emphasis on avoiding personal conflict. The sensitivity to per-
of options and possible solutions that reflect shared interests and help rec-
sonal feelings is high. A soft negotiator makes concessions readily in order to
oncile opposing interests before starting the negotiation. Then these op-
reach an amicable resolution. There is more eniphasis o n relationships.
tions can be evaluated and the best one chosen and adjusted to reach an
agreement acceptable to both parties.
Pre-Negotiation pianning
Actuai negotiations
2. How to irnprove in future
Icost, schedule,
perforrnance)
Tact~cs(how 10 deai
with other partyl
/ 1 I
3. Prepare for actual
Source. M . Dean Mamn 1981 The Negohafion Differsntlal for International Project Managernsnt. In Pioceediogs of the 1981
Prolem' Managment Instiiuie SeminailSympOsium. Drexel HiII. P A ' Piolecl Manngernent Inrtitute.
i
154 -
Hi<t~rati
Kesoirrce Skrlls for fhe I'rolcct Miztrnger
of conflict resolution. The SBS model integrates the priorities of individu- o f the other party. Four unilateral strategies emerge from the answers to
ais (or groups) with those of other individuals (or groups) under different the above questions:23
negotiation situations ( c o n t a c t ~ ) . ~ ~ 1. Trusting collaboration. Negotiators should consider this strategy
The SBS model is based upon the assumption that the negotiation ap- when both relationships and siibstantive outcomes are important. The ne-
proach varies from situation to situation. According to this model the best gotiator seeks a win-win outcome in terms of both substantive goals and
negotiation strategy depends upon desired substantive and relationship positive r e l a t i o n ~ h i ~Trustiiig
s. collaboration is most effective when both
outcomes. A crucial context for any negotiation is the current and desired parties are open, interdependent, and support each other. It increases mu-
relationship outcomes (feelings arid attitudes) hetween two parties. tua1 trust and leads to effective problem solving and a win-win ~ e t t l e m e n t . ~ ~
Sometimes negotiators may give a higher priority to securing the best pos- Project managers should use this strategy when negotiating important is-
sible substantive outcome (issues and goals at stake) than to relationships. sues with the client, project team members, and functional managers.
This oversight can damage the relationships between two parties or limit one 2. Open subordination. This corresponds to an accommodating style
party's ability to achieve desired substantive outcomes now or in the f u t ~ r e . ~ ~ of conflict management in which negotiators are more concerned about
Interaction in the negotiation process is influenced by current relation- positive relationships than about substantive outcomes. Open subordina-
ships and affects future relationships and substantive outcomes. Some- tion can dampen hostility, increase support and cooperation, and foster
times negotiators may be keen in maintaining positive relationships and more interdependent relati~nships.Project managers should use this strat-
willingly share the "pie" through mutually beneficia1 collaboration. 0 t h - egy with support staff.
er negotiators may go after substantive outcomes that will benefit only 3. Firm conipetition. This is used when substantive outcomes are impor-
one negotiator at the cost of anotlier. These negotiators view the possible tant and relationships are not. Similar to tlie forcing style, this is used when
outcomes as a "fixed pien-whatever is given to one party diminishes the a negotiator has little triist in the other party or the relationship is not good
share available for the others. These negotiators discount the relationship from the beginning. The negotiator exerts status or position power to gain
and try t o get as much "pie" as possible for themselves. siibstantive outconies for himself or herself. In tliis strategy, people may be-
Many negotiations in a project are not straight win-win or win-lose but come very aggressive, bluff, threaten the other party or misrepresent their
a combination of both. Both collaboration and competition may occur in intentions. In competitive strategy, negotiators seek a win-lose outcome and
such situations. T h e relationship that exists before the negotiation, the re- are willing to risk their relationships. This is not a very effective strategy in
lationship that develops diiring the negotiation, and tlie desired relation- project management and sliould be iised cautiously.
ship after the negotiation often influence whether each party will be mo- 4. Active avoidance. People consider this strategy when neither the
tivated to share the pie, grab it, give it away or recreate it.27 substantive outcomes nor tlie relationship are important t o them o r t o
The SBS model can be explained in more detail by looking at four im- their organizations. Refusing to negotiate is the most direct and active
portant aspects of negotiation. form of avoidance. Generally, such an action affects relationships nega-
1. Unilateral strategies based on interpersonal styles of conflict managenient tively. Moreover, negotiators niust decide which issues are a waste of time
2. Interactive strategies that consider the other party's siibstantive and re- to negotiate. This strategy does not lead to successful negotiations in a
lationship priorities project environment and tlierefore should be used only as a last resort.
3. Framework o f negotiation strategies that combine both unilateral and T h e SBS model assumes that these strategies are successful only in cer-
interactive strategies tain situations. In the next section, some nlodifications are suggested t o
4. Negotiation tactiw proposed by the SBS model in each negotiation phase. the above strategies so that they can be applied to a wider set of negotia-
Unilateral negotiation strategies. Before selecting a negotiation strat- tion situations for project managers and project teani members.
egy in the SBS model, negotiators should consider their own interests or Interactive negotiation ~ t r a t e g i e s .Before
~ ~ using any unilateral strat-
managers should consider the interests of their organizations. These in- egy, the SBS model suggests that it is important to examine the negotia-
terests can be identified by answering tlie following basic c p e s t i ~ n s : ~ ~ tion from tlie other party's perspective. The choice of negotiation strate-
1s the substantive outcome (goals and issues at stake) very important? gy should be based upon the interests and priorities (associated with both
1s the relationship outcome (feelings and attitudes between the parties) substantive outcomes and relationships) of both parties. Unilateral strate-
very important? gies can lead to problems especially if the priorities of the parties are dif-
In unilateral strategies, riegotiators consider only their own interests or ferent. Wlien anticipating the other party's priorities, negotiators should
the interests o f their organizations without any concern for the interests consider the kinds of actions the other party inight take.
158 -
Hrittratr Resoirrce Skills for the Project M a ~ r q e r
Facilitating discussions at the right time Although the intergroup confrontation technique seems quite logical, it
Ensuring mutual acceptance of the outcome may not always lead to successfiil conflict resolution. However, it pro-
Prouiding emotional support and reassuraiices after negotiations are vides a useful process for both parties involved in conflict to explore and
completed. work together through their differences. The third-party facilitator with
A third-party facilitator must win the trust, confidence, and acceptance proper skills and experience, can use tliis technique quite effectively in
of the parties involved in the conflict. The key functions of a third-party moving both parties towards an acceptable solution.
facilitator are to:23J3
Ensure mutual motivation by providing incentives for resolving conflict Practical Guidelines for Negotiation
Achieue a balance in situatiotzal power, which is necessary to establish To be persrcasive, ~ u e?irustbe believable; to be believable, we nzust be credible;
trust and maintain open lines of communication to be credible, we nlicst be tricthfzcl.
- Edward R. hlrcrrow
Coordinate confrontation efforts. Failure to coordinate one party's pos-
itive initiatives with the other party's readiness to respond can under- Although negotiation takes place every day, it is not easy to d o it effec-
mine future efforts in resolving conflict tively. Standard strategies for negotiation often leave people dissatisfied,
Promote openness iiz dialogue, whicli increases the probability of a mu- worn out, or alienated-aiid quite often all three.' There are seven main
tually acceptable outcome practical guidelines for negptiating effectively which are based on the
Limit the leve1 of tension, because too much tension leads to failure; principled negotiation meth;>d, suggested hy Fisher and These are
encourage both parties to c001 down and communicate to understand summarized in Figure 5.4 and are briefly described below.
each other's point of view. Cornrnit to negotiate for rnutual gain
Third-party facilitators sliould ensure that the level of threat and tension d o Iri order to iiegotiate successfully, botli parties must be committed to ne-
not become too high or too low. Too low a level provides no motivation to gotiate in good faith and for mutual gain. Often, people see only two
find a solution while, if tension and threat are too high, the parties get ner- ways to negotiate: soft or hard. Both these methods have their limitations.
vous and become unable to process information and think of creative solu- T h e third way to negotiate, principled negotiation, has a11 the advantages
tions. Consequently, they may start to polarize and take rigid positions.33 of both methods and minimizes their disadvantages. It is based upon the
Intergroup confrontation technique. Due to the high levels of emotion premise that both parties rnust rnake a strong comniitment to achieve
and tension associated with confrontive situations, a third-party facilitator wiii-win outcomes. If comrnitted to achieve mutual gain, both parties fo-
may be able to resolve the conflicts and negotiate effectively by using a cus o n positive aspects and agreenients ratlier than on negative aspects
structured approach. This ensures that both parties concentrate on the ap- and differences. They view mutual gains as attainable and emphasize
propriate issues and direct their efforts objectively toward resolving them. buildirig trust, improving understanding, and the need to look at things
Intergroup confrontation technique is one such approach that includes from tlie other person's perspective. Tliis approach not only makes the
tlie following steps:23134 negotiating process easier, but ais0 ensures positive outcomes.
1. Each group meets separately a n d prepares two lists, one list indicating
how they perceive their own issues as a group, and the second list in- Avoid bargaining over positions
dicating how they view those of the other group. When the parties in a negotiation take inflexible positions on an issue
2. The two groups come together aird share their perceptioiis witli tlie and refuse to bend froni theni, they cannot really negotiate-they can
third-party facilitator helping them clarify their views and develop a only argue. Arguments over positions lead to polarization and entrench-
better understanding of themselves and the other group. ment, and often take both parties away from the real issues under nego-
3. The groups separately look deeper iizto the isstces. This helps diagriose tiation. Siicli situations may happen i i i political projects, larger mergers,
the current problem and source of conflict and determine what and or issues with strong historical traditions. The disadvantages of bargain-
how each group can contribute to conflict resolution. ing over positions are maiiy.3S
4. The groups nzeet together to share their new insights. It produces unwise agreements. When bargaining over positions, ne-
This becomes a real collaborating and problerri-solving session. Tlie gotiators tend to lock theniselves into those positions. The more you clar-
third-party facilitator urges them to define common goals and issues and ify and define your positions, the more you become coinmitted to theni.
to plan the next stages for seeking solutions with a timeline. It beconies hard to change yoiir position because your ego becomes iden-
tified with that position. Yoii now have a new interest in "saving face."
6
- Atiotiytnous
A
LL OCCUPATIONS HAVE
Factors related to project clirnate 183
tliem, and project management is n o exception. Stress is one of the
Effects of Stress 185 outcomes of change and conflict, which are inevitable in a project
Health and stress (physiological effects) 185
Perforrnance and stress 186 environment a ~ i dare so~iietin~es even necessary to increase project per-
Personality and stress 190 formance. Therefore, stress becomes a necessary part of life in a project,
and stress management must be considered an important element of pro-
Guidelines for Managing Stress 194
Managing individual stress 194 ject management.
Managing organizational stress 198 Recently, tliere has been an iricreased interest i11 stress management in
Helping project participants handle stress 201 the project environment. This is due not only to the obligation to improve
M n g It All Together 204 the organizational life of company employees, but also to the tremendous
Learning frorn the experts 206 economic consequences. According to a study conducted by the Research
Summary 207 Triangle Institiite, stress-related disorders cost the U.S. economy approx-
imately $187 billion in 1990 alone.' U.S. industries also lose an estimated
$75-$100 billion each year in absenteeism and reduced productivity at-
tributable to stress-related illnesses, ranging from migraine headaches to
hypertension and ~ l c e r s . Stress
~ > ~ has also been related to heart disease
and heart attacks, which cost more than $26 billion annually in disability
payments and medica1 bills in the U.S. a10ne.~Research has suggested that
stress may also lead to alcoholisrn, drug abuse, marital problems, absen-
teeism, and child abuse.
Stress-related problems are common in a11 types of organizations
throughout the world. For example, the average Japanese worker, who
works 200 hours inore per year than his o r her North American and
British counterparts, suffers higher stress and even more dramatically,
"karoshi" (death from o v e r ~ o r k ) .i
~
176 Hlltnan Resoltrce Skills for the Project Mariager Matiflgirtg Stress 177
productivity. Project managers are expected to fulfill a heavy load of responsi-
The two major types of stress are eustress and distress. bility with liniited formal authority, which rnay lead to stress. Therefore, pro-
Eustress is constructive stress. For example, when a student considers ject managers must understand basics of stress and stress management.
final examinations as a challenge to be met, he or she experiences eu-
stress. Eustress can be viewed as a motivator tliat contributes t o an in- Sources of Stress
crease in performance. In project environments, when project teams face Don't be stressed by problettis. Proble?trs oftetz lead t o opportrctzities.
deadlines or challenges to cut costs, they often put forward their best ef- -Anonymous
forts to overcome problems. Typically, individuals experiencing eustress Many work-related stressors, such as fear of job loss, corporate politics or
feel that they have control over the situation (e.g., a confident project excessive demands on time, are quite comnion in a project environment
manager presenting a project plan). Generally, these individuals use their and the project manager has limited control over theni. Figure 6.1 lists
conceptual skills to develop a sound plan and their interpersonal and come of the most common sources of stress, not in any order of impor-
communications skills to carry it out. tance." Since each individual perceives stress differently, some rnay feel
Distress is destructive stress. A student wlio views a final exarnination that not all sources listed are stressors, while others rnay think there are
as an insurmountable crisis experiences distress. Distress is a dernotivator stressors missing from the iist.
that reduces the ability to perform. Its presence rnay cause physical andíor Different project managers p ~ r c e i v ethese stressors differently and rnay
emotional suffering and disturbance. Individuals experiencing distress feel have their owri style of managlng stress. Once project managers realize
that they have little o r n o control over the situation. For example, a tech- the impact of these uncontrollable factors on their own lives and on over-
nical project manager lacking in human skills rnay be nervoiis about lead- a11 project performance, they shoiild develop their own stress manage-
ing the project team and managing the project. Because of this fear, he or ment techniques to reduce the personal effect of stress.
she rnay lose self-confidence and self-esteem, consequently reducing the T h e stressors listed in Figiire 6.1 are discussed below, grouped into
quantity and quality of perforniance. four niain categories of stress-creating factors:
Project managers must try t o avoid distress situations and create an at- 1. Factors related to roles and relationships
mosphere that encourages eustress. They must be in close touch with their 2. Factors related to job environment
project team members and ensure that team menibers face mostly eustress 3. Personal factors
situations that will lead to an overall increase in project performance. 4. Factors related to project e n v i r ~ n m e n t l c l i m a t e . ~ ~
Sometimes in large, bureaucratic organizations, management rnay de- Factors related t o roles and relationships
liberately introduce organizational change to shake up the organization. These factors include the stress caused by the conflicting and ambiguous
This temporarily increases stress but usually wakes everyone up, leading roles that project participants play and the relationships among them.
to increased productivity. In some organizations, an appropriate dose of Role conflict. Role conflict occurs when an individual receives conflict-
occasional eustress rnay be helpful to stay competitive. ing expectations from others. There are four major types of role conflicts: l 3
Stress and strain are usually coupled. Sress is a response to a situation Intersender role conflict is caused when expectations from one soiirce
whereas strain represents the psychological or physiological changes that conflict with expectations from another source. For example, John's boss
take place in the individual. In short, stress is the caiise and strain is the tells him to "crack down" o11 liis project team members in order to in-
symptom. If the project nianagers fail to communicate operily with their crease their output and accelerate the project schedule. However, team
project team members and overuse their positional/formal power and au- members suggest that Joliri will regret doing this because the desired
thority, their relationships with project personnel deteriorate. Conse- schedule is totally unrealistic, and ask him to take their concerns back t o
quently, both the project manager and team members feel the strain, the boss. 111 this situation, the project manager will experience intersender
which rnay create physical and psychological problems. role conflict because two parties are asking him to play conflicting roles,
STRESSIS NORMALLY CAUSED by conditions or outcomes that are both un- as taskmaster and as team memberladvocate.
certain and important to us. It can be caused by opportunities, constraints or Intrasender role conflict arises when an individual is given contradic-
demands. The effects of stress are additive in natiire. Though stress is normal- tory orders by another person. For example, Barbara will experience in-
ly viewed in a negative manner, if managed properly it can lead to increased trasender role conflict if her boss tells her to get a project completed o n
time as a high priority, and theri later gives her another project that also
--
182 Hilnian Resoi<rceSkills for tlie Project hfntzager Mat7qit7g Stress 183
Project management style. Project personnel feel a high degree of killer, but also a contributing factor in reduced productivity and increased
stress if the project environment o r climate and the project management medical costs, it is iniperative that project nianagers understand the various
style adopted by senior management andlor the project manager is too stressors. Witli tliis knowledge and some background about the sources
difficult t o live with. Significant aspects include: and effects of stress, they can learn to nianage stress effectively.
Organizational structure (hierarchical, flat o r matrix) Effects of Stress
Communications Stress is ruhat yoil let it be. 1t catr act as a ttiotiuator or cost billiotrs of dollars itr
Importance of and emphasis on communication lost prodiíctiuity, job errors atrd ttledical costs.
Management style of communicatiori (open or closed) - Fortune, October 1990
Communication channels versus chains of command Though stress has both positive and negative effects, research o n work-
H o w well the project manager listens to project personnel related stress has tended to focus o n the negative. This is not surpris-
Training to improve communications ing, since the negative effects are s o costly, both in personal and finan-
Decision making cial terms.
Decision-making process (participation encouraged or not) Stress causes problems for individuals and their ernployers. One re-
Tolerance for failure searcher has identified five q e a s where the effects of stress are evident.
Empowerment These five areas and some examples of the effects of stress are listed below.14
Decision-making styles (command, consultation or consensus) 1. Subjective: aggression, fatigue, irritability, moodiness
Selection of team members 2. Behavioral: emotio~ialoutbursts, increased drug use, accidents
Selection process 3. Cognitive: indecision, forgetfulness, sensitivity to criticism
H o w much input was sought 4. Physiological: indigestiori, increased blood pressure, breathing difficul-
Was the process fair and equitable? ties, heart problems
Career development. Stressors associated with future professional 5. Orgariizational: high turnover, increased absenteeism, job dissatisfac-
growth potential include concerns that poor economic conditions, corpo- tion, low productivity.
rate restructuring, o r conflict with clients o r with one's boss will result in The effects of work stress can also be said to occur in three major areas:15
job loss. Recently, due to tough economic times and global competition, Physiological effects of stress include iricreased blood pressure, breath-
fear of job loss lias become a leading cause of stress. In contrast, Japanese ing difficulties, increased heart rate, muscular tension, increased gastroin-
workers d o not suffer from this type of stress t o the same degree because testinal disorders, sweating, hotlcold spells.
their jobs are relatively more secure and pernianent. En~otiorzaleffects of strcss include lowered self-esteem, poorer intel-
Corporate politics. Project managers and project personnel can get lectual functioning, anger, anxiety, depression, inability to make decisions,
quite fed u p with corporate politics that take up an extensive amount of nervousness, aggression, moodiness, irritability, fatigue, resentment of su-
time and effort in order to attain any positive results. Competition for pervision, job dissatisfaction.
promotions, undercutting others with rumors, backstabbing, and jockey- Behavioral effects of stress include decreased performance, increased
ing for position are some of the examples of corporate politics that can absenteeism, higlier accident rates, Iiigher turnover, impulsive behavior,
lead to destructive stress. T h e situation becomes worse when these fac- emotional actions, difficiilties in communication, abuse of alcohol and
tors are n o t under the direct control of those most affected by them- other drugs.
which, unfortunately, is usually the case.
Health and stress (physiological effects)
IN SUMMARY, THE PROJECT ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT and pro- More rt~etrare killed by ouerwork thatr the importante of the ruorld jiistifies.
ject management style play the most significant roles in encouraging or dis- - Rudyard Kipling
couraging project personnel. Together they produce a climate that can ei- T h e impact of stress on the productivity of project personnel is of great
ther give one an opportunity to produce one's best while having fun, or coiicern to project i~ianagersand organizations using the philosophy of
cause considerable stress to everyone working on the project, leading to "managenient by projects." Most projects are managed under severe con-
lower morale and reduced productivity. Above ali, it may have a negative strnints that niay cause liealth-related stress. Therefore, the project man-
impact on personal health and behavior. Since stress is not only a leading ager must recognize that health is an important factor in determining the
quaritity and quality of o u t p ~ i t Altl~oiigli
. it is difficiilt to determine the
1
High
Stress-related health problerns place a significant burden on individuals (Excellent)
and organizations. T h e costs to individuals are sometimes more obvious
than the costs to organizations. Following are sonie of tlie major costs to
the o r g a n i ~ a t i o n : ~ ~
Increased premiums for health insurance
Lost work days from illnesses ranging from headaches and back pain to Level of
heart disease. It has been estirnated that, on average, employees suffering Performance
frorn stress-related health problems lose approxiinately 16 days of work
per year.
Over 75 percent of all industrial accidents are caused by emotional
problems worsened by stress.
Legal problerns for employers, such as stress-related worker's compen-
sation claims, are growing and beconiing niore cornplex. Some experts
estimate that if the current rate of growtli in worker's conipensation Low
clairns continues, stress-related conipensation claims will outriumber all 7 (Poor) I I
Low High
other clairns during the 1990s."
t Level of Stress b
Performance and stress
The trouble with the rat race is, evetz if you ~uirr,yori're still a rat.
- Lily Tontlitz S O U ~ C Reprlnled
B by p e r m i s l ~ o nh o m page 293 of Orgenuationol Behsvior, Bxrh Edttion. by Don Heliis~gel,John W. Slocum,
Jr.. and Richsrd W. Woodman Copyright 0 19'32 by Wert Publishing Co. All rightr rsrerved.
The impact of stress on productivity o r performance is of great concern to
most organizations. To deal with stress in a project environment, project
levels of stress, project participants may become agitated or emotionally
rnanagers rnust understand the relationship between stress and perfor-
upset, causing a significant reduction in their level of perforrnance.
mance. Stress can have both positive and negative impact on performance,
Due to this relationship between the level of stress felt by people and
depending upon the stress level.
their level of performance, project managers must try to determine the op-
Figure 6.2 shows the curvilinear relationship between the amoiint of
timurn level of strcss for both theniselves and their project tearn members.
stress felt by workers and their level of performa~ice.~'It sliows that botli
This inforrnation is not readily available and can only be obtained by de-
extrernely low and high levels of stress tend to have a negative effect o n
veloping better comni~inication,understanding and rapport with project
performance. For projects o r tasks tliat are too easy and of routine na-
participants. For example, a project team rnember may be frequently ab-
ture, project personnel feel a very low level of stress and therefore they
may not feel challenged o r involved t o perform at their best. Increasing sent from work because of boredoni and lack of challenge (to0 little stress)
the stress by introducing more challenges, constraints and a need for cre- or because of overwork and inability to rneet deadlines (to0 high stress).
ative solutions tends to increase worker's performance u p to a certain Of course, the curve shown in Figure 6.2 varies for different people
point (as shown by point A in Figure 6.2), wliich corresponds t o an opti- and for different tasks. Too little stress for one tearn rnember may be just
murn level of stress for optimum perforniance. If the level of stress in- appropriate for another. Also, the optimum stress for a specific team
creases beyond this point, performance will begin to deteriorate. This member for one task may be too much o r too little for his or her optimum
happens quite often when senior managenierit lias iinreasonable expecta- performance o n other tasks.
tions and imposes unrealistic budget and time coiistraints. At excessive
186 ---
EIi{ttiuiz Resoilrce Skills for t l ~ eProject Mutiager 187
hfatraging Stress
Project managers must try to avoid a drop in performance and there- nianagenient is growing, s o the stresses common t o both fields of en-
fore must be more concerned about the "excessive stress" part of the deavor will apply to human services project managers.
curve than with how to add ~isefulstress to project teain inembers. Moti- Cliaracteristics of people who experience job burnout. Individuals who
vation to perform better is a critical issue in niost projects. However, stud- experience job burnout seem to have certain common characteristics.
ies o f relationships between stress anci performarice in organizations sug- Tliree major cliaracteristics associated witli a higli probability of burnout
gest that there is a strong negative correlatio~ibetween tlie amount of are:15J4
stress in a group, project team, o r department and its overall perfor- 1. They experience a high level of stress as a result of job-related stressors.
mance.19 In other words, the greater the level of stress felt by people, the 2. They are generally self-niotivated, idealistic high achievers.
lower will be their productivity. Project managers and project team mem- 3. They set too high a standard for themselves and often seek unattainable
bers in these situations need to find effective ways t o reduce the number goals.
and magnitude of stressors. High levels of stress should be watched be- T h e burnout syndrome represents a combination of characteristics of
cause they may lead t o job burnout, resulting in significant costs t o peo- the individual and o f the job environment. Individuais w h o suffer from
ple, projects and organizations. burnout often have unrealistic expectatioris concerning their work and
Job burnout. In general, burnout is physical a n d emotional exhaus- their capability t o attain desged goals in the given work environment.
tion caused by excessive demands o n emotions, energy and other per- They tend to have n o outlets to relieve their stress from the hostile work
sonal resources. It occurs when a person works too hard for t o o long o n environment, o r lack the resources to enable them t o achieve their best.
a regular basis o r when he o r she undergoes too many stressors over a Conseqiiently, unrelieved stressful working conditions, combined with
short period of time. Biirnout is a commori worci in the project environ- urirealistic expectations o r arribitioiis of the individual, can lead to a con-
ment. It refers t o the adverse effects of working under conditions in dition of coniplete physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion. Once
which stressors seem unavoidable, sources of job satisfaction and relief "burned oiit," the individual can n o longer cope with the demands of the
from stress seem unattainable, and people are siibjected to high levels of job and their self-confidence and willingness to try reduce significantly.
stress for extended periods.20 T h e burnoiit pheriomenon typically con- Syrnptoms of job burnout. Tlie project managers shoiild be o n the
tains three c ~ m ~ o n e n t s : ~ ~ lookoiit for syniptoriis of burnoiit i i i their tearn members and also in
1. A state of emotional exhaustion themselves. These symptoms include:15
2. Depersonalization of individuals dealt with in the work setting Physiological synlptotns: A noticeable decline in physical appearance;
3. Feelings of low personal accomplishment. chronic fatigue and weakness; frequent infections, especially respiratory
People suffering from job burnout feel besieged, display a cynical attitude, infections; healtli complaints such as headaches, back pains, o r stomach
are irritable, feel constantly fatigued, and become angry with those making problems; sigris of depression such as a change in weight o r eating habits.
demands o n thern.l2 Burnout is common ir1 projects because it often occurs Emotional (psychological) synzptonzs: Boredom or apathy; cynicism,
among high achievers. Project managers and team members are typically of resentfulness and short temper; depressed appearance such as a sad ex-
such a nature because they set very high standards for themselves. pression o r slumped posture; expressions of anxiety, frustration, and
Depersonalization means treating people like objects. For example, a hopelessness.
nurse might refer to the "broken leg in rooni 110," rather than using the Beliavioral S Y I ~ P ~ O I I I S :Absenteeisin and tardiness; abuse of drugs, al-
patient's name. Most job burnout research has focused o n the human coliol, o r caffeine; increased smoking; excessive exercise to the point of
services sector (sometimes called the "helping professions"). Generally, injury; hostile behavior; easily irritated; reduced productivity; inability to
burnout is predominant in these occupations because they require con- concentrate o r complete a task; withdrawal; restlessness.
t i n u o u ~direct contact with people w h o need assistance. Professionals Tlie costs of job biirnout in a project environment can be very high
w h o are potential candidates for burnout include social workers, nurses, botli to the project participants suffering from this syndrome and t o their
physicians, police officers, air traffic controllers, teachers, and l a ~ y e r s . ' ~ organizations. In order to mininiize this cost, senior management and
However, burnout can occur among any individuals w h o miist interact project managers shoiild be aware of the typical symptoms of burnout, as
extensively with other people as a part of their jobs or wlio constaritly well as the stressors that can contribute to tliis outcome. Strategies and
face stressors with little relief-which includes project managers. It guidelines for managing stress (which are discussed later in this section)
should also be noted that the human services field is one in which project are iiseful in reducing the causes and symptonis of job burnout.
- 191
Mn?tagi?igStress
Hu>ria>iResotrrce Skills for the I'roiect Manager
Authoritarianisrn or d ~ ~ n . r a t i s n which
. r , ~ ~ refer to the rigidity of a per- 1. Time urgency
son's beliefs, also infliience how people react to stressors in a project envi- 2. Cornpetitiveriess arid liostility
ronment, because events and situations in a project can be unique, change- 3. Polyphasic behavior (tryirig to d o severa1 things simultaneously)
able, and unpredictable. An authoritarian personality can be described as 4. Lack of planning.
one that rigidly adheres to conventional rules and chains of command, Medica1 researchers have found that these tendencies o r behaviors are
readily obeys recognized authority, is concerned with power and tough- related to stress in work and in life. They tend to cause stress o r to niake
ness, and opposes the use or recognition of subjective f e e l i n g ~ . ~ ~ stressful situations worse than they otherwise could be.
T h e highly dogmatic person is generally close-minded, and the low Type B personality. The Type B personality is the opposite of Type A.
dogmatic person is open minded. Highly dogmatic project managers are Its main characteristics include: l5
easily influenced by authority figures and they even prefer senior man- Easy going
agement with a highly directive, structured leadership Project Relaxed
management requires a combination of interpersonal skills to work as a N o guilty feeling if time taken off work
team to achieve integration and high performance, and highly dogmatic Unconcerned about time pressure
people need more structure to work effectively as a team. Consequently, Less competitive and aggressive (emphasizes enjoying work).
the performance of highly dogmatic people on task forces, committee as- Research suggests that Tyge Bs are less likely than Type As to overreact
signments, etc., depends upon how well the group is structured and h o w to situations in a hostile or aggressive manner, and links Type A behavior
it goes about doing its task. A high degree of dogmatism also corresponds with viilnerability to heart attacks. Medical researchers shared the opin-
to a limited amount of creativity and innovation in exploring alternatives ion that individuals with Type A characteristics were two t o three times
and solving project problems, wliich can lead to poor perforriiance. more likcly to develop Iicarr illricss rliari were Type i3 iridividuals. Recent
T h e various dimensions of personality can effect the performance of research lias suggested that the description of personality Type A is too
individual team members and that of the whole project team. Project broad to predict coronary lieart disease. However, certain aspects of the
managers should learn t o be more flexible in interacting with different 3 p e A personality, especially hostility, anger and aggression, are strongly
project participants (senior management, client, fuiictional nianagers arid related to stress reactions and Iieart d i ~ e a s e . ' ~
project team members) in order to minimize the negative effects of stress. T h e hardy personality. There has been a great deal of interest in iden-
Personality types. There are three major personality types: A, B and tifyirig those aspects of persoriality that might protect individuals from the
"hardy." negative health consequences of stress. T h e personality that combines
Type A personality. Most projects are done under severe time, human traits that contribute to a reduction in the negative effects of stress is
resources and budget constraints, giving project participants the sense that known as the "hardy" personality. It includes a cluster of the following
they are involved in an ongoing struggle to achieve more and more in less characteristics, behaviors and tendencies:15
and less time. Since projects attract driven, high-achieving types, many A sense of commitment
project participants are likely to have a Type A personality arid display tlie Perceiving problems and difficiilties as challenges and opportunities
following c h a r a c t e r i ~ t i c s : ~ ~ Feeling i11 control over one's own life (interna] locus of c o n t ~ o l ) ~ ~
A chronic sense of time urgency A sense of positive involvernent in social situations
Extreme competitive and aggressive behaviors A tendency to attribute one's own behavior to internal factors of per-
An aversion to idleness (guilty feelings if time taken off work) ception; that is, aspects of tlie perceiver that influence perceptual selec-
Impatience with barriers to task completion. tion, such as personality iearning and motivation
In addition to these characteristics, individuals with extreme Type A Perceiving or greeting niajor clianges with interest, curiosity and
personality often speak rapidly, are preoccupied with themselves, are dis- ~ptirnisni.'~~~~
satisfied with their lives and tend to evaliiate the worthiness of ttieir ac- A nuniber o f studies have suggested that a high degree of hardiness re-
tivities in quantitative terms. duces the negative effects of s t r e s ~ o r s Hardiness
.~~ influences the way the
The statements in the questionnaire in Self-Assessment Exercise D (See stressors are perceived. The concept of Iiardy personality provides a use-
Appendix) measure four sets of behaviors and tendencies associated with ful way to iinderstand tlie role of individual differences in terms of stress
the type A personality:15 reactions t o environmental and job-related stressors. Individuals with a
192 Hilnzarz Kesottrce Skills for the l'roject Mat~ager Mattagitrg Stress 193
high degree o f hardiness tend to perceive fewer events as stressful, where- * Maintain a positive attitude. Replace worrying thoughts with produc-
as those with low hardiness perceive more events as stressful. tive thoughts.
Individuais with high levels of hardiness are not overwhelmed with Make timely decisions and don't procrastinate.
challenges and difficult situations. Ratlier, when tliey face a stressful situ- Think of setbacks as challenges and opportunities rather than as dis-
ation, they cope with o r respond to it constructively by trying to find a so- asters. Often, big problems disguise big opportunities.
lution and t o control and influence the event. Such a beliavioral resporise Exercise (at least three times per week for 20 minutes). Sound health
tends t o reduce the negative effects of stress, resulting in lower blood habits-sleeping well, eating right and exercising-reduce the effects
pressure and reduced probability of pliysiological problems. of stress.
In a project environment, where stress is very comrnon due to several Be aware of your own values; don't allow others to force you t o d o ac-
pressures, project managers should be careful to nianage stress. They must tivities yoii don't enjoy.
try to incorporate the main traits of a hardy personality into their attitude Learn and use relaxation techniques to lower your physiological excite-
and behavior in order t o minimize the negative health consequences of ment. Relaxation is the ability to do absolutely nothing-and feel good
stressors. Perhaps one of the best tips for project managers who want lead about it.
a stress-free, healthy life is t o develop the personality traits of Type I3 and Always take tlie time to have fun. Have a sense of humor and enjoy the
hardy personalities within themselves-and hire enough project team small pleasures in life. 'i
mernbers with personality Type A. Fight for things that are really worth it-"don't sweat the small stuff."
Nelson and Quick conducted a study of six successful t o p project ex-
Guidelines for Managing Stress ecutives and found that they had several behavioral patterns in common
Manage yoirr stress. Work joyfirlly and peacefilly, kt~oiui?tgthat right thoicgltts in their use of stress coping m e t l i ~ d s For
. ~ ~example:
and right efforts will itlevitably britlg aboict right results. Each tried to balance work and family activities. While work was cen-
-]ames Allen
tral to their lives, it was not their sole focus.
Stress is inevitable in the project environment, and is felt by virtually Each used leisure time effectively in reducing stress. They relaxed, took
everyone working o n a project. If not carefully ~nonitoredand controlled, vacations, and spent time with close family and friends.
it can have damaging psychological and pliysiological effects on their They a11 had good time management skills. Each project executive
health and o n their contribution to the project effectiveness. Therefore, identified critica1 success factors and priority goals and developed care-
senior management and project managers should have some general ful plans to accomplish these goals. They a11 indicated that this was the
strategies for managing stress. If effective stress nianagement progranis rnain component of their strategy to reduce stress. r
I
are in place, both the individual and the organization will benefit and an Each ernphasized the importante of mutual social support in coping
optimum level of stress can be maintained in thc organization. with stress. They received ernotional support and information from a 1
Stress management can be done at both the iiidividual and organiza-
network of family, friends, project participants, clients, and industry
tional level. This section deals with managing individual and organiza-
colleagues. They all inade a point of maintaining an equitable, recipro-
tionai stress. Some guidelines for helping project participants liandle
cal excha~igeiii these relationships. In other words, they both gave and
stress are also iilcluded.
received social support.
Managing individual stress Project managers experience continuous intensive stress throughout
Stress management at an individual level includes activities and behaviors the project life cycle and must manage their own stress to avoid adverse
designed to eliminate or control sources of stress and/or to make the in- effects o n tlieir health.
dividual more resistant to stress o r better able to cope with it.15 The first step in managing stress is to understand the nature of stress re-
O n e set of suggestions for individual stress management is based upon sponses and their effects 011 the body. All individuals need t o know their
the concept of "hardiness" discussed in tlie previoiis section. \Vliile it is normal work styles s o that tliey can te11 when and how they are most af-
irnpossible for individuals to cliarige their basic personality, they cai1 at- fected by stress. Once the project manager or any individual in the project
tempt to adopt attitudes and behaviors that parallel the attitudes and be- knows how lie o r she responds to stress and what triggers it, he o r she is in
haviors o f individuals with high degrees of hardiness. Some suggestions, a better position to identify these stressors. A project manager can use any
based o n the research on the hardy personality i n ~ l u d e : ~ ~ ) ~ ~ of the several niethods descrihed below to lielp ideiitify soiirces of stress.ll
194 Hrcman Kesotrrce Skiils for the Project Manager Matlagif~gStress 195
Stress diary. O n e way t o manage individual stress is to keep a diary at Personal organization. Personal organization is key to individual stress
work of stress symptoms encountered a n d their causes. After some managernent. Some tips in reducing stress through personal organization
time, relationships between sources and symptoms of stress will be include:
identified. T h e main sources of stress will be revealed, allowing indi- Avoid accumulation of incomplete tasks
v i d u a l ~t o focus o n eliminating o r managing the stress associated with Close all loose ends as early as possible
them m o r e effectively. Maintain a comfortable pace of life
Mechanicai (biofeedback) devices. Project managers o r individuals can Avoid taking o n more conimitments than can be handled: learn to say
use devices such as the pulsimeter to identify activities that increase the "No." It is better to refrain from some commitments than to be
blood flow o r heart rate, signaling stress. Once individuals have an idea of stressed by too many.
which activities are stressful, they can formulate a work schedule t o Leisure activity. Two activities that reduce stress are exercise and med-
achieve a balanced mix of stressful and non-stressful activities t o prevent itation. Physical activity o r exercise programs have been found to be suc-
stress from building u p throughout the course of the day. Biofeedback can cessful in rediicing stress. Some large corporations employ physical fit-
also help an individual develop the physical self-awareness necessary to ness s~ecialistsw h o ~ r o v i d eemployees with custornized exercise advice
identify stressful situations before they get out of hand. and teach relaxation technigues and meditation. A note of caution: Type
An important aspect of managing individual stress is t o control t h e A individuals should take A r e not t o allow exercise itself t o become a
stress response. When a stress response is experienced, it is important t o stressor. To avoid this partern, choose exercise activities that you truly
relax and remain calm throughout the stress reaction and try to control enjoy doing.
the response. Controlling stress responses allows individuals to defend Meditation refers t o engaging in contemplative thought t o draw the
themselves from the negative effects of stress. mind together. It requires relaxing the body and the mind. T h e proper
Identification of stress situations. Identification is the most important meditatiori techniques can be learned through instruction, training, and
component of any strategy for managing individual stress. By identifying L i
practice. If done regularly and properly, rneditation relieves one's mind I
the stressful situations o r the stressors, project managers can plan to man-
age these and mentally prepare t o reduce their impact.
from unnecessary thoiights and increases self-awareness and concentra-
tion, leading to an increased energy level.
i
Work schedule. Stress has a greater negative impact when people are Smoking, drinking, and taking drugs d o not reduce stress. In fact, these
run-down and tired. Everyone has a biological clock that influences the ineffective responses to stress only produce temporary effects and d o not
time of day when they are most energetic and productive. By keeping a deal witli the root causes. Relying on temporary escapes from stress can
diary or using biofeedback, project managers and other project partici- lead to more stress and more physiological damage than caused by the
pants can become familiar with their personal "energy schedule." They stress itself.
can then arrange their schedules to perform stressful activities when they Managerial integration. Sonietimes potential stress can be avoided by
are refreshed and most productive. improved project perforniance. For example, t o reduce future stress, a
Attitude adaptation. Attitude plays an important role in deterniining project manager may complete an assignment before deadline pressures
the level of stress experienced by individiials. If people are working on are felt and prepare and follow a schedule to get assignments under con-
the project because they "have to" rather than because they "want to," trol before time deniands set in and unforeseen events create stressful sit-
they will experience more stress. If individuals working o n a project (es- uations. Pitting the outcome of tlie work against the fear of stress will
pecially the project manager) have a positive attitude toward the project, rnake the project rnanager and project team members work harder to
the environment will be less stressful and more pleasant. Unfavorable at- avoid stress, which also results in improved productivity.
titudes can be converted t o favorable ones by sincerely encouraging em- For each project, project managers should establish goals and ethical
powerment-the involvement and participation of project participants guidelines. They should abide by these while working o n the project. T h e
that will assist in winning their acceptance and hence their commitment list of goals helps project participants focus o n the main objectives. A plan
t o optimum project performance. Everyone acknowledges that it is more should b e prepared t o provide direction to meet project objectives. A
fun t o work o n an enjoyable task than a disliked one, s o it is sensible to well-developed plan will help the project manager to follow a course of
change negative attitudes to attitudes of enthusiasm. action, thus reducing the stress of uncertainties on the project.
--
198 Hzlttian Resoitrce Skills for the Project Matiager Matiagitig Stress 199
consequences may result for the individual o r the p ~ o j e c t Tlius,. ~ ~ it
should be the responsibility of senior manageiiieiit arid project managers
/ Figure 6.3 Using Perks
l
1
to help employees and project participants manage stress effectively. This
section covers practical ideas to help project participarits nianage stress, Participation. Allow tearn rnernbers to participate
and use their own creativity.
such as identifying stressors and developing strategies to prevent un-
wanted stressors.
Identify stressors. In a project environment, change and conflict are
obvious stressors. However, as indicated in Figure 6.1, many other factors
related t o organizational policies, structure, physical conditions and
1 Environment Create an environrnent where tearn rnernbers
feel rnotivated and are treated with dignity and respect.
Recognition. Recognize tearn rnernbers for their
accornplishrnents.
processes can also act as stressors. T h e first step in managing stress is t o
understand and analyze stressors and become familiar with the nature of Knowledge. Help people gain the training and inforrnation
the stress response and how it affects the body. Recognizing which situa- they need for their professional developrnent.
tions lead to stress can help project managers and project participants to
mentally prepare themselves to reduce their impact. Style. Be consistent, fair and predictable. Encourage
Once project managers are able to identify stressors, they can reduce open cornrnuniEation and ernphasize building trust
their own stress and help their team members as well in reducing their arnong tearn rnernbers.
stress by taking appropriate actions, which may include the following:
Analyze stressful situations and work to avoid them.
Delegate stressful activities (without dumping and passing tlie buck) to M a k e jobs interestiiig. Roiitine, trivial jobs that d o not allow some de-
someone else w h o may not perceive them as stressors. Understand the gree of freedoin lead to boredom and often result in undesirable stress.
personalities of team members in order to take the personality into h4anagenlent should focus o11 ~ n a k i n gjobs more challenging and creative.
consideration when delegating tasks. Also, by empowering employees and creating synergistic self-directed
Try to remove stressful activities from the schedule or regulate partici- work teams, instead of using the traditiorial management style of close su-
pation in stressful events. pervision, management can increase the overall productivity of the team.
Shield team members, when possible, from externa1 stressors by trying Design and operate career counseling programs. In a project environ-
to manipulate the circumstances leading to them. inent, project team members have a diverse mix of skills and backgrounds.
Prevent unwanted stressors. Manageinent shoiild try to provide siif- Most are liigli achievers ~ v h oare cross-trairied in different technical areas.
ficient training for everyone t o deal witli their job demands and otlier They are likely to have tiigh career ambitions. Lack of information regard-
anxieties. Unless organizational changes are necessary to stay competitive, ing tlieir career path at the end of a project can lead to considerable job
management should reduce significant organizational changes and there- stress. Management should try to sliow its employees what the next step in
by reduce stress levels. their careers might be and when it can realistically be achieved. This in-
Project managers should avoid creating a stressful climate. To reduce creases niorale and discourages the development of unwanted stress.
stress in the work environment, project inanagers should give their tearn For exaniple, IBM recognizes the importance of career planning for its
members PERKS, as shown in Figure 6.3.40 employees.42 IBM encourages program managers to conduct voluntary
Management can also use the following tliree strategies to help prevent career planning sessions with eniployees on an annual basis. After this ses-
the development of unwanted stressors in o r g a n i ~ a t i o n s . ~ ~ sion, employees have a clearer idea about professional opportunities and
Create a supportive organizational climate. A rigid, bureaucratic orga- what training is essential to rnodify their career to acliieve desired growth.
nizational climate can lead to considerable job stress. Organizations This program has reduced the development of unwanted career-related
should be informal, open, and flexible and should support the economic, stressors at I B M . ~ ~
professional, security, social and personal needs of employees. This not IN A PROJECT ENVIRONMENT, the nature of the job and organizational
only establishes trust and increases productivity, but also prevents the de- climate are among the most common factors leading to stress. Senior
velopment of unwanted stressors. managernent and project managers must introduce a sense of purpose and
ownership in the project for all project participants. They should help
202 -
htatlngiitg Stress
203
Hrrttintr Rcsorrrce Skrlls for tlte Prolect h.ln>rclgcr
project participants get job satisfaction and grow professionally and fi- Resign. Step down, if it is a chronic situation and causes continuous
nancially in the organization. Self-directed work team concepts should be dissatisfaction.
encouraged t o help create an atmosphere that increases individual and Retreat. Find a quiet time for yourself.
team productivity. In such an atmosphere, project participants feel good Don't respond. Avoid controversial issues and unnecessary arguments
about themselves, which reduces stress. that only lead to win-lose outcomes.
Putting It All Together Adapt with proactive change. Sometimes minor changes in the way
Projects today operate in a highly competitive global environment. Many w e adapt t o situations can reduce stress, even if it is caused by major life
factors that are beyond one's control affect tlie project outcome. Conse- changes such as inarriage, divorce, or job loss. By clianging one's coping
quently, project participants may experience a significant degree of stress mechanisms proactively, that is, before change is demanded by a crisis, we
caused by both personal reasons and job-related o r organizational factors. can become more resilient in the face of stress. Following are some effec-
Project managers must try to create an environment that minimizes stress- tive adaptations:
ful situations and helps people reduce their stress. These guidelines can be Think o f stress as an opportunity. Consider all disasters as incidents
used t o manage individual, organizational, and job-related stress and stay and n o incidents as disasters.
productive while working o n projects:43 Put it into perspective. Ask the questions: H o w long will the effects
Assess the situation. As a first step, it is important to analyze the stress really last? What is the repl downside risk?
situation, which involves assessing the following items: Try to change yourself rather than others. It is not usually possible to
Timing-1s it temporary o r permanent? change others. Instead, change yourself and adapt to the new environment.
Scale-How serious is it? Avoid worry. Worrying produces unproductive thoughts about things
Effect-How much effect will it have on the project outcome? that are unlikely t o happen. Instead, funnel your worrying thoughts
Expectation-1s it totally unforeseen or can you anticipate i r (e.g., a la- into something productive. Use tlie following reminder to avoid
bor strike affecting critical path activities)? "worry": Work O n Real Reasonable Yields.
Resources-Can money solve it? Are there people in your network Prioritize. D o what is more important and has a higher payoff.
who can help? Practice sound Iiealth liabits. Exercise regularly (to relieve tension and
Accept what can't be changed. Some things are beyond one's control feel more alert); know just how much sleep you need to stay bright,
and can't be changed: getting older, o r organizational changes in wliich alert and eriergetic throiighoiit the working day; and eat and drink
you have n o input. To make such situations easier, the individual can: right to stay healthy (what goes in your body affects your health and
Learn from past experiences. Have you struggled unsuccessfully against hence your performance).
this same barrier before? What can you learn from that experience Alter the flexible situation. Some situations, though flexible, won't go
about managing your response now? away cornpletely. Those can be turned around to a large extent through
Talk with someone who has gone through similar situations. Sometimes careful analysis and creative thinking. Following are some helpfiil ideas:
just talking-"ventingV-reduces individual stress; and you may learn Ask for change. Ask those who control the stress for change in the
from their experience or coping strategies. schedule, the work group, or the behaviors.
Stay positive. Focus on what can be done rather than on what cannot. Defuse the situation. It may be a simple misunderstanding; open com-
Smile. Even if you don't feel like it; the action is relaxing, and if you munication (revealing your feelings and learning others') can resolve
smile, people smile back at you, reducing your sense of isolation. personal conflicts.
Join a support group. Talking to someone who is supportive is very Change the circumstances. Redistribute the workload or reschedule.
helpful. Delegate. Focus on the most important things. Project managers are ap-
Change your perspective. Explore different ways of thinking about the praised by the successfiil results rather than by how ~ n u c hthey did
stressful situation. themselves.
Avoid the avoidable. Some stress sitiiations simply can't be avoided. Alter your own behavior. Cai1 you be less demanding, more collabora-
However, a little planning can help you avoid those that are. tive, assertive and flexible in dealing with other project participants?
Reschedule. Don't over-conirnit yoiirself; work flexible liours i f it
helps.
a roller-coaster ride is distressing, whereas others get a thrill out of it. In All occupations have a certain degree of stress associated with them. I
general, stress comes from feeling out of control. T h e real key to relieving Change and conflict are inevitable in a project environment and one of
1
stress is gaining control over tlie situation and over the irritants you have tlie oiitcomes of change and conflict is stress. Therefore, stress becomes
the power to change, while accepting those that are beyond your control. an aspect of life i11 a project environment and stress management should
There is a lot of truth to the Serenity Prayer recited at Alcoholics Anony- be considered as ali importaiit element of project mariagement.
mous meetings: "God grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot Project nianagers are exposed to considerable stress because of an end-
change, the courage to change the things I can, and the wisdom to know less list of demands, deadlines and problems throughout the project life
the difference." cycle. They rnust learn t o riiariage stress effectively to avoid physiological,
Try teamwork. Caro1 Landau, clinical associate professor of psychia- psycl~ologicaland emotional problems. Today, there is an increased inter-
try at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island says that teamwork est in stress managemerit becaiise U.S. industry is estiniated to lose u p to
takes the pressure off everyone. T h e concept of teamwork sliould be ap- $75-$100 billion each year in absenteeism and rediiced productivity due
plied in the family, among friends, and in a project environment among to stress-related illnesses.
project participants. It ties everyone closely together and promotes help- According to Hans Selye, stress is the nonspecific o r psychological re-
ing each other to succeed. N o t only does it improve overall performance, sporise of the body t o aiiy demand made iipon it. Stress is a response, not
thanks t o the synergistic effect of the team, but it keeps teani members the elements that cause it. Tlie factors that cause stress are called stres-
satisfied and happy and thus reduces stress significantly. sors. Tliere are tliree stages of reaction to stress: A l a n ? ~which
, begins as
sooii as tlie body perceives a stressor and causes the body to go through
206 Niorrizrz Rcsoirrce Skills for the Project Matzager Ma>ingitlg Stress
-- 207
physiological changes; Resistatzce, during which the body adapts t o the to stress and tend to suffer health problems due to stress, whereas Type B
stressor o r tries to resist it); and Exhaustio>r, when stress persists longer people are better able to cope with stressors. People with a high degree of
than the body's ability to cope with it. Iiardiness are able to cope or respoiid to stress by trying to find a solution
N o t a11 stress is bad. Eustress refers to constructive stress tliat can act as and to coritrol aiid influente tlie stressful event.
a motivator and therefore increases perforniance. Distress is destructive Project participants niust develop their own strategies for rnanaging in-
stress that reduces productivity and should be avoided. dividual and organizational stress. It is recognized that exercise and good
O n e of the keys t o managing stress is to be aware of the sources of health can rediice the negative effects of stress. Healtli and wellness pro-
stress and then prepare t o deal witli tlieni. Tliis chapter described 11 granis spoiisored by organizatioiis are beconiirig very popular in promot-
sources of stress: project management style and organization structure, ing good healtli habits and reducing the levels of stress experienced by
role conflict (intersender, intrasender and person role conflict), role am- employees. Senior management and the project manager can help organi-
biguity, role overload and underload, interpersonal relationships, overem- zational members and project participants to manage their stress effec-
phasis o n deadlines, career development, corporate politics, unsafe work- tively. This can be done by helping tliem in identifying the stressors and
ing conditions, lack of positive reinforcement, and conflict and change. preparing to cope with theni; preventing unwanted stressors by creating a
Stress has both positive and negative effects, but job-related stress re- supportive organizational climate; and providing an interesting job and
search tends t o focus o n the negative effects of stress. Stress causes prob- career counseling programs. Individiialized strategies, developed by stress
lems for both individuals and their eniployers. Work-related stress affects managemerit experts, are presented i11 this cliapter to be evaluated and
people in three ways: used if suitable.
1. Physiological or health effects (blood pressure, heart troubles, niigraine
headaches, ulcers)
2. Emotional effects (lowered self-esteem, anger, anxiety, inability to make
decisions, aggression, fatigue, moodiness and job dissatisfaction)
3. Behavioral effects (decreased performance, increased absenteeism,
higher turnover, difficulties in comrnunicatioii, higher use of alcohol or
other drugs).
T h e impact of stress o n performance should be of great concern t o
project managers. Studies show that performance increases with stress up
to a certain optimum level but drops if stress is increased beyond this op-
timum level. T h e optimum level of stress varies for different people and
different tasks. Project managers should give special consideration to the
level of stress experienced by project participants to avoid "job burnout."
Project managers should watch for symptoms of job burnout and be pre-
pared to deal with it in a way that reduces its negative impact on the in-
dividual and on the organization.
Personality and stress are correlated because personality influences
how individuals are likely to perceive stressors and how people react t o
them. Personality traits related to stress include self-esteem, tolerante for
ambiguity, introversion/extroversion, and dogmatism. There are three
types of personalities, in terms of the ability t o cope with stress: Type
A,characterized by time urgency, competitiveness, polyphasic behavior,
and a lack of planning; Type B, the opposite of A, more easy-going and re-
laxed; and the "hardy" personality, which perceives major changes in life
with interest, curiosity and optimism. Type A people are very vulnerable
.-
212 Htriizuti Kesotrrce Skills for the Project Mattager
~ - ~~ -- -.
Leadership, Potclc; Itrf7treiice atid l'olitics iit I'ro~ectAlatiilgettlettt 213
discovering o r creating opportunities, and increasing team members' de-
characteristics. T h e four traits shared by rnost, though not all, successful sire to control their own behavior.13 Charismatic leaders use dominance,
leaders seem t o be: self-corifidence, a need for influerice, and a conviction of high moral stan-
Intelligence (technical and orgaiiizational)
dards t o increase their charisma and their l e a d e r s h i ~effectiveness.
Maturity and broad range of interests Cliarismatic leaders are often called "transformational" leaders when
*. Inner motivation and achieveilient drive (goal-orierited)
they use their charisrnatic abilities to inspire others. Transformational
Consideration of needs and values of team inenibers (employee-centered).
leaders rely on their referent power-the power they earn based o n their
However, some critics of this approach find it to have several inconsis-
personal qualities-in order to inspire the team and heighten their moti-
tencies, in that it fails to determine why certain people succeed and others
vation to achieve project goals. These leaders have clear vision and can
fail at l e a d e r ~ h i ~ . ~
communicate this vision to others while paying attention to the develop-
T h e behavioral approach emphasizes leaders' actions instead of their
mental needs of their project team members. They typically influence by
personal traits. It focuses o n what leaders actually d o and how they d o it.
engaging in the following three types of behavior: l4
The behavioral model identifies two major dimensions of leader behavior:
Helping team niembers recognize the need for revitalizing the organi-
Task orientatiotz (initiating structure tliat focuses o n the quality and
zation by developing their need for change
quantity of work accomplished)
Creating a new vision afld motivating team members t o gain their com-
Relationship orientatiotz, which refers to being supportive and consid-
mitment to the objectives of the program or project
erate of team members' efforts t o achieve personal goals (such as work
Institutionalizing change by replacing old technical and political net-
satisfaction, promotion, and recognition), settling disputes, keeping peo-
ple happy, encouraging them to be creative and innovative and giving pos- works with new ones.
itive reinforcement. Each of these tlieories/approaches to leadersliip lias some drawbacks.
Severa1 studies in this area were done at Ohio State University under the These approaches inust be evaluated in light of the particular situation, .
direction of Stogdill.l0 However, most of these research studies gave limit- tlie size of the project, and tlie culture of the followers to assess leadership
ed attention t o the effects of tlie situation (in wliich the relationships oc- effectiveness and poteritial.
Contingency models of leadership. There are four well known con-
curred) on the leadership style. T h e iniportance of "situation" is considered
tingency models of leadership each of which at least partially explains
in more depth by the contingency or situational models of l e a d e r ~ h i ~ . ~
how some of the contingency variables affect the leadership process.9
T h e contingency approach includes several contingency models of lead-
ership that emphasize the irnportance of the sitiiation. Four key contin- Fiedler's contingency rnodel relates performance to the leader's moti-
gency variables that are believed to influence the beliavior of leaders are:lt vational system and the degree to which the leader controls and influ-
Personal characteristics of the team leader entes the situation. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the na-
Personal characteristics of the team rnernbers ture of the situation and then niatching the correct leadership style to that
Characteristics of the team itself situation. T h e model's tliree contingency variables are:15
The structure of the team, department or organization. 1. Group atnlosphere, or leader's acceptance by the team
These variables interact to influence a leader's behavior. T h e leader- 2. Task structure, o r the extent to which a task performed by the project
ship process is complex; generalizations associated with leadership styles, team is routine o r non-routine; e.g., a conventionai construction pro-
such as "democratic team leaders have more satisfied employees than au- ject versus a complex research and development project
tocratic leaders," are not always true. Four well-known contingency mod- 3. Leader's positiot~potuer, or the extent to which a team leader has re-
els of leadership will be discussed later in this chapter. ward, coercive and legitimate power; e.g., leaders with authority to
T h e attributional theory of leadership12 is based o n the cause/effect re- hire, fire and discipline employees, have high position power whereas
lationship. T h e attributional leadership model suggests that a leader's in voluntary and social organizations or on committees, leaders have
judgment about his or her subordinates is influenced by the leader's attri- low position power.
bution of the causes of the employee's behavior. These causes may either Fiedler developed the Least Preferred Co-worker scale (LPC) t o mea-
be externa] o r interna]. Effective leaders identify the correct cause and sure leadership style. All leaders have a niotivational systeni that indicates
then act accordingly. the combinations of situations in which their styles probably will be ef-
T h e charisrnatic leadership theory is an extension of attribution the- fective (See Figure 7.1). This model has a few weaknesses, two of which
ory. Charismatic leaders concentrate on developing a cornmon vision, are tliat the Least Preferred Coworker is a one-dimensional concept in
-
214 Humati Resource Skills for the Project Manager Lendership, Poruer, Itrflrretice atzd Politics i?z Prolect Alannpt?reflt 215
tells tliem wliat to do, where to d o it, how to d o it, when to d o it and
Figure 7.1 Continuurn of the Three Basic Leadership closely supervises their performance. The three key words for directive
Variables behavior are:
Structure (task schedule, budget and other specifications well-defined)
Control (related to the task and the process)
When Gmup
n n n n n n n
Pwr
n
Pwr
Supervision (closer supervision to have maximum control).
Good Gaod Good Pwr Poor
Atnmsphera ir:
Cood
Srrpportiue behauior (relationship orientation) is the extent t o which a
II II II II II
H~gh
II
High leader engages in two-way communication, listens, provides support and
Taik S t ~ c t u r eis: Hioh Hgah LOW LoW
Leader Power
II I1 encouragement, facilitates interaction and involves the followers in deci-
PorRion is: sion making. T h e three key words for supportive behavior are:
Listen (actively)
Praise (genuinely)
EHective Gmup Task-Onented
Perfonance Facilitate (sincerely).
Achieved by: (Low LPCI
Deuelopment leve1 (readigess) is the ability and willingness of the team
Least
Fmrable favorable 4 ) favorable members to perform the taik. In broad terms, it refers to competence,
sltuatlon
Leader:
situahon
ir # l is #E
commitment and attitude:
I Conipetence implies task-relevant knowledge and skills as well as trans-
I ferable skills.
Sauics. Repriniad by permisrion fram psge 396 of OrganizariooalBehavioi. Smth Edirian. by Don Hellreigel. John Slocum, Jr..
and Richard W. Woodman: copyrlght Q 1979 by Wer! Publishing Company. All righls iererved. Co~)imiinre?~t implies motivation and confidence (self-esteem and trust
in their own decision making).
that it only allows for leaders t o be either task-oriented or relationship- Attitude implies attitude toward others and interpersonal skills.
oriented. In addition, this model does not consider that leaders can influ- Followers have various degrees of readiness. The appropriate style of
ente both the task structure and the group atmosphere because of their leadership-telling, selling, participating or delegating-rnust match the
knowledge of the situation. Therefore task should not be a dependent readiness (development) leve1 of team members. If team members are not
variable in the model. In spite of these weaknesses, Fielder's contingency ready to perform their tasks and have low competence but high commit-
model has three important organizational implications: rnent, then a directive leadership style will be more effective than a relation-
1. Both task- and relationship-oriented leaders perforni well in certain sit- ship one. As tlie developrnent (readiness) level of the team members increas-
uations but not in others. For example, task-oriented leaders will d o es, a team leader should change his or her style to be more participative.
better with a group of low achievers, whereas with a team of high House's path-goal model. This model is based on the expectancy theory
achievers, relationship orientation will be more effective. of motivation. It suggests that to be effective, a leader should try to enhance
2. The leader's own performance depends upon tlie motivational bases employees' satisfactiori with tlieir jobs and increase their performance level.
and situation. Organizations can affect leadership performance by Figure 7.2 shows the path-goal leadership model, which suggests that Iead-
changing the leader's reward system or by modifying the situation itself. ership behavior is contingent upon the characteristics of team members and
3. Leaders can improve their strength by learning how t o become better the nature of the tasks." A leader's goal should be to reduce the barriers
leaders. Alternately, the leader can be matched to the situation accord- that may hinder team members meeting their goals. For example, for a
ing to the leader's Least Preferred Coworker style, o r vice versa.15 clear, routine task, a participative leadership style that is more considerate
Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership model. This model is of employees will likely contribute to satisfaction and performance for
based o n the amount of relationship (supportive) and task (directive) be- highly independent team menibers. However, for ambiguous, ego-involving
havior that a leader provides in a situation. T h e amount of either behav- tasks (e.g., making presentations to clients and top management), partici-
ior (supportive or directive) is based on the readiness or development lev- pative leadership will have positive effects on performance and job satisfac-
e1 o f the team members and followers. Key definitions o f the concepts in tion regardless of an eniployee's need for self-esteem or achievement.
this model are: l6 Vroom and Jago leadership model. This model focuses on the role
Directiue behauior (task orientation) is the extent t o which the leader played by leaders in making decisions and provides a set of rules that can
engages in one-way communication, spells oiit the role of the followers, help a manager identify which leadership styles to avoid in a given situation
216 Huinan Resoilrcc Skills for the Project Manager Leadership, Poruer, Itiflirorce arid Polrtics in Project hfanage7ne~rt 217
Choosing the rnost appropriate leadership style is difficult. Although,
I I
1
Figure 7.2 The Path-Goal Leadership Model i11most project environments, there is a strong preference for a democra-
tic participative style, it may not be the rnost effective for a11 situations. In
general, a participative decision-making approach and style is very effec-
tive becaiise participation helps gain increased acceptance and hence com-
I mitment froni people to implement decisions and make them work. Peo-
I
ple feel good about and buy into the final decision if they have been a part
of the process. T h e Vroom and Jago niodel indicates that various degrees
of participative decision making are appropriate in different situations.
S O L ~ CRecr ~ . v t e j o y perm ss cn f r c m Dage 432 of Crpnii 7l1 :n>! Rebi.,".. 5 rlti To r on. C , Don me ' i e ge John -V S >c.-. ~ ? O S TPROJECT ENVIRONMENS ARE DYNAMIC and are characterized by
. r . a n d R c n a i o \V. Wooornan C m i r gnr E ;<J12 r,, \:os1 r'.,, I,. -g CO A i 3'':s 'erei;eo
toiigh global competition in terms of teclinology and labor climate.
Change is inevitable and imminent. There is an acute shortage of vision-
when the clioice of style might reduce the effectiveness of the team o r of a ary and charismatic leaders w h o can not only manage change o r cope
particular decision. Vroom and Jago base their model on an analysis of how with changes, but also ir$tiate new opportunities and concepts as well.
a leader's style affects decision effectiveness and overall effectiveness. Their This is especially true for large research facilities that have a longer lead
research assumed that the leaders can choose any of five leadership styles of time and face a high degree of technological uncertainty in the challenge
decision making, along a continuum ranging from highly autocratic to high- of building and managing a diverse mix of specialists and complex fund-
ly participative:9118 irig arrangernents. Successful project rnanagers should be aware of these
1. Autocratic style refers to situations in which a leader makes decisions proiniiient tlieories aiid n-iodels of leadersliip aiid be able to use any one
without gathering information frorn other team nienibers. model o r a combination of models depending upon the project.
2. Autocratic with some information refers to situations in which a leader
requests certain specific information from others. Leadership in a project environment
3. One-to-one consultation style means making decisions after consulta- Leaders comrnit to qrtalrty.
tion with relevant parties o r team members. For example, a project -Anonymous
leader may consult severa1 functional managers to negotiate resources There is an ample body of literature on communication, teamwork and
and schedules with them. However, overall conflicts are difficult t o re- leadership. However, it is still not very clear what project leadership is and
solve as everyone is not together to look at the big picture. liow it relates to project management. Verma and Wideman dealt with this
4. Consultation in a group refers to group decision making where a project issue in addressing the question Is it leadership o r management that is nzost
manager invites ideas and suggestions from team members in a meeting. needed for nzarzagirzg projects szrccessf~rllyin the next century!19
However, the team leader makes the final decision, whicli may or may About project leadership. There has been a spate of publications o n
not reflect the influence of team members. Though team leaders make "leadership" and "team building" by nurnerous authors, such as Batten,
an effort to provide an opportunity to team members to participate and Bennis, Covey, Depree, Dilenschneider, McLean, and ~ i s h e r Most . ~ ~ of
give their suggestions, this method may backfire i f the team leader does these authors agree that vision is a primary ingredient of leadership. Bat-
not incorporate their ideas. It inay lead to loss of triist because team ten defines leadership as the "development of a clear and complete system
members may consider it "lip service" or a superficial attempt to gain of expectations in order t o identify, evoke and use the strengths of a11 re-
input and, consequently, they may stop giving any suggestions at all. sources in the organization, the most important of which is people."21
5 . Consensus style refers to sharing problerns with tearn members as a John Naisbit probably caine closer to a definition of a project leader with
group. Together they generate and evaluate alternatives and attempt to his description: "An ability to attract followers ... a clear destination, and
reach consensus on a solution. The team leader acts as a facilitator to ... a timetable."22 With these attributes in mind, leadersliip in a project
ensure that the group is kept focused and critica1 issues are disciissed. context can be defined in the following simple yet comprehensive distil-
Team leaders d o not influence the team or impose their own solirtion. lation of leadership thought:19
Instead they listen to all ideas with an open mind and then accept and Project leadership is an ability to get things done well through others.
implement any solution that has the support of the entire team. It requires:
1
Figure 7.4 Roles of Leaders and Managers
I
1 L Listen to your project team and the client
(build trust among stakehoders)
(motivation)
Feasibility Study
1 Major AttributesErnphasis
..Identlfyneed Preparedetailed
Decision
Startup
*.
Reviews and
* Addjlional
decision/
approval Development and cornmitment P o w e r and i n f l u e n c e
..Feasibiltystudy
Anatyzerisk
planibudgel
scheduleetc )
Procurernent
Execute work .acceptame
Treining
points
' Cooperative Inte~rator
TY
&
r,.
ical Strategiesand
akematives
Buildandtest
piotolype (i1 .. Pioducerystem
Progress reports
.
Transfer
responsib~lity
n Decision-maker
iasks Sellin9
• Appmvals ..needed)
Design system
Resokeissues
.
Finalreporls
andaccounts
Reassignteam
Execution ~e-alienrnent
. B a l a n c e s work a n d
Trustworthiness
fun
Pre~areWBS
I
I I .
T e a m a n d s v n e r -o ,v
II
I I ' I
..
Visionary
Creative ..Leader
Facilitator . Tearnleader
Organizer
..
Team leader
Trainer
Sourco V~tayK Vacma and R Max Wdemnn. 1994 Ploincl Mrnsgar to Piolect Lesder? end ma Rocky Road e e h v e e n . ~ , ~
Leadership
versus
Manaqement .
Conceptualizer
Analytical
Innovator
..
Plannsr
Integralor
Techoically
Intcrface
manager
People-and .
Doer
Technical wnter
Cornpulsionto
Ccedirigs of rhe 25th Annunl SenrinnrlSym~oriiin?01Proje~rMnoagemenl hstirulc. Upper Darby. PA Piajcct Mansgemsnt In-
rtiNte. pp 6 2 7 4 3 3 .
Skills strong
. task-onented
Contmllei
complete
I
I
Vision. Project leaders must have a vision in order to inspire team
I Stages of Team Developrnent I inenibers. Tliis iriiplies believing in tlie project aiid having a clear idea of
L = Leader "'
Self-Directed what the client wants and then being able to communicate it enthusiasti-
F = Follower Work Team cally. A clear vision helps in providing clear directions. \Vithout it, the de-
cisioiis will be inconsistent, ofteii wrong and late, priorities will keep
So;rce Dsts f r ~ mV.a/ i( Vaima anc R hrar .\ Onrnnn. 1314 F r l e r t harnngc. :,Pii e c i .eorrr7 nnd 11.8 R l r c i R o a 1 Re.
changing and teani meinbers will lose confidence in their project leader.
h e e n P,o~eed,ngs o11neZC1,. Ano ia1 Scrn nnr S,»,nor, .ni otP,o.err h*anngo,~ie!.!.rirr rufe .,pi>sr Da.!>, PA P i ~ . e -hi ? e l
~ n a m e l ln l l l ~ l sno 627633 F a i e çor,cec. adlpied 'icni !r0 .vos* i I * r i r e , a r 3 [l ariiiaru n lne hrr,iag*lnenl ct013n-
Application of project management process. Successful project man-
agers must be able to provide effective leadership in the basic project
nianagement functions of planning, organizing, directing, motivating,
Important skills for project leadership and controlling to meet the objectives of the project and of the organiza-
Don't follow where the path tnay lead; go where there is no path and leave a tion as a whole.
trail. Effective team development. Project teams determine the ultimate suc-
-Anonynzous cess of the project. Project leaders must be able to quickly develop a cohe-
Both the project team and the stakeholders make vital contributions to sive team with a set of common values and a vision sufficient to bind them
the ultimate success of a project. However, a good project team led by a together and start them in an appropriate direction. Responsibilities must
be delegated and effective working relations, mutual trust and creativity
23 O liir>,ltr~i
- ..
i
inuolued with the related concepts of power, leadership a n d control. Formal Authority
Reward Rewards Sense of Obligation ~ ~ ~ ~ n a l
Influence is regarded a s the main process through which leaders
Coercive Punishment Perceived Dependency
obtain their power to control euents. Leaders may derive their power
Referent Charisrna Identification Personal
from a uariety of different types of itifluence, such as the use of Expert Expertise Expertise Power
physical coercion o r force, money a n d economic resources, fornzal
a n d legal authority, social pressure o r statzís, special skills a n d
knowledge, personal uision a n d charisma, atzd possibly other such
sources.37 explanation. There are eight principal forms of power that can be used by
Mitchell also provided a useful analysis of i n f l ~ e n c eInfluence
.~~ is usu- project m a n a g e r ~ . ~ ~
ally conceived as being narrower than power. It implies the ability o n the Reward power. This refeis to positive consequences or outcomes that a
part of a person t o alter another person o r group in specific ways, such as project manager can offer to project personnel. It includes positive incentives
in their satisfaction and performance. Irifluence is more closely associated such as promotions, salary increases, vacation and other opportunities.
with leadership than is power, biit both obviously are involved i11 the Punishment power. Coercive, or puriishment, power refers to negative
leadership process. Tlierefore, autliority is different from power because thiiigs tliat project persoiinel beiieve a project manager can d o to them:
of its legitimacy, and influence is narrower than power but is so concep- fire, suspend, dock pay, give unpleasant assignments or reprimand.
tually close that the t w o terms can be used i n t e r ~ h a n g e a b l ~ . ~ ~ Referent power. This refers t o earnedlpersonal power when project
Stogdill described leadership as an interpersonal relation in which oth- personnel admire the project manager as a person and want to follow him
ers comply voluntarily rather tlian beirig f o r ~ e d Leadersliip
.~~ focuses on o r her as a role niodel. In sricli situations, personnel willingly comply with
the achievement of team objectives and involves everyone's acceptance the dernands of the project manager.
Expert power. This is also an earnedlpersonal power that project
and commitment t o objectives and organizing their roles clearly. In other
managers acquire based upon their technical knowledge, skill, o r exper-
words, leadership is the use of power t o accomplish the objectives of the
tise on some topic o r issiie. In such situations, project personnel will d o
project team or the organization as a whole. Mitchell described control as
what the project manager wants because they believe that that he o r she
the process of setting standards, monitoring results with feedback and
knows best. Expert power is a function of knowledge and skills pos-
taking corrective actions to correct d e v i a t i o n ~ . ~ ~
These definitions of power, authority, influence, leadership and con- sessed by the project nianager rather than formal sanctions given by the
trol illustrate that these are related to eacli other and therefore should be project personnel.
Legitimateltitle power. This refers to formal authority, the right to give
compared and contrasted in order to understand the basic concepts of
orders o r make requests. T h e legitimate power of a project manager is de-
power and how to use it effectively.
termined by the norms, perceptions and expectations of project person-
Sources of power nel. For example, "Has the project manager done this before?" "Have
Real power is earned, not demanded. project persorinel always cornplied?" aiid "What are the consequences of
- Anotzyntous rioncorn~liance?"
In addition t o positional o r formal authority, project managers may use Information power. Information is a powerful asset and is often con-
power a n d influence available from severa1 sources. Frerich and ~ a v e n ~ ~ trolled by a few individuals within orgariizations. They may decide who
developed five basic categories of power. Studies by ~ o t t e rand ~ ~ should get what informatiori and how much. Project managers have in-
~ i t c h e l have
l ~ ~ made minor modifications 2nd additions, but the basic formation power over project persoririei if they think that the project
categories o r forms of power are very similar. Figure 7.9 shows various manager controls the inforniation that they want. This information can be
forms of power described by French and Raveri, Mitcliell and ~ o t t e r . ~ ~ gathered and distributed both formally and informally.
Some of these forms of power are self-explanatory and some need more
232 11111111211RCSOIIITC
Skills for tl~el'roject Mattager Lendership, Poroer, I?rfTttetrcentrd Politirs i??Project A4ntznget?rort 233
techniques allow the project manager to use different forms of power be able to plan, organize, budget, staff, control and evaluate, rnanagers
(as required) t o achieve success. need some control over the many ~ e o p l eon whom they are dependent.
Trying to control others solely by directing them on the basis of the pow-
The project manager and power er associated with one's position simply will not work for two main rea-
Managing projects requires skills and techniques that are unique and dif- sons: first, managers are always dependent on some people over whom
ferent from those needed to nianage ongoing operations. Usually project they have n o formal authority; and second, virtually n o one in modern
managers have limited formal authority but enormous responsibility for organizations will passively accept and completely obey a constant stream
meeting project objectives. Therefore, they must be able to influence oth- of orders froni sonieone just because he or slie is the " b o ~ s . " ~ ~
ers by developing their power bases appropriately and then executing that Project nianagers can develop their personal power by using the fol-
power thoughtfully and skillfully. T h e total power of a project manager is lowing guidelines:
the sum of position power and personal power. Increasing this power and Develop a sense of obligation in other members of the organization
balancing it, especially in matrix organizations, are described below. (project team niembers, functional rnanager, top rnanagement and cus-
Total power of a projed manager. Project managers must have some tomeriproject sponsor) that is directed toward the project manager. The
power for managing projects successfully. However, the main issues are: project manager niay create this serise of obligation by doing personal
what kind of power they should have, and what kind of power they favors for thern, e.g., he qr she rnay negotiate resources to suit the func-
should acquire and how, and how that power should be balanced in the tional nlanager; xnay accorrimodate some changes in specifications/scope
project environrnent to avoid the potential for unconstructive conflict, without excessive additional charges; rnay provide better opportunities
power struggles, infighting and parochial politics. A project manager can to project teani n-iembers 2nd ensure they get appropriate recognition
obtain power in t w o ways: from the position held, and/or frorn personal- that they value. In other words, the project nianager should establish a
ity, knowledge and experience. cooperative aiid friendly rapport with a11 major project stakeholders.
Total Power = Position Power + Perso~lal/ExpertPower. Establish a belief in other organizational members that the project rnan-
Position power is also called legitimate power and is derived from the ager possesses a high level of expertise within the organization. To in-
organizational position a project rnanager holds. It consists of the right t o crease this perceived level of expertise, the project manager must quietly
punish or reward the project personnel and the perception of just how in- rnake a significant achievement visible tokey stakeholders and rely heav-
fiuential a particular project rnanager is compared t o other managers as- ily on a successful track record and respected professional reputation.
sociated with the project. T h e more influential a project rnanager is o r is Create a sense of identification that other organization members have
perceived to be, the more influence he or she can exert over other man- with the project manager (i.e., have others identify with the project man-
agers and project personnel. ager). The project manager can try to develop this identification by be-
Personal power is derived froin the personality, knowledge and exper- having in a way that other organization members respect and by espous-
tise of the project manager. Project managers earn the trust and respect of ing goals, values and ideals commonly held by organization members.
project personnel, functional manager, other project managers, project and Develop the perception aniong other organizational members that they
design engineers, contractors and others involved in the project due t o are dependent upon tlie project manager (i.e., holding the "purse
their talents, energy, fairness, sincerity as well as knowledge and under- strings"). This is valid only toward project team members because in some
standing of the project in qirestion and otlier qualities. Conseqiiently, project organizations (especiaiiy in niatrix type) project managers liave lit-
everyone is more willing t o listen, to cooperate, to execute the instructions tle direct positional authority. However, there could be some situations
and t o meet other demands rnade o n thern by such project managers. where functional managers may feel that project managers have substan-
Increasing total power. In a project environment, project managers tia1 authority due to strong support from top management. This strategy
can increase their total power by increasing one or both coniponents of it. is aptly reflected in the managerial version of the Golden Rule: "He who
Position power can generally be iricreased only by achieving a higher or- has the gold makes tlie rules." This technique is more inclined towards
ganizational position and moving upward in the management hierarchy- positional power (rewar4punishment power) and therefore rnay not be
something project managers may not have any direct control over. O n the effective in the long ruri i11 a project environment. This is especially true
other hand, project personnel generally have substantial control over the in R&D and high-tech industries where project teams have a diverse rnix
amount of personal power they hold in the project. Kotter stressed the of highly qualified experts and specialists with high self-esteem.
importance of developing personal power when he stated that, in order t o
23 6 Hutnair Resorrrce Skills for tl>eProject Ma~zager Lendership, Po~uer,ItrfTt<etrcea ~ r dPolitics iir Project Matznge??retrt 23 7
with power and politics at the upper levels of management to meet the Managing politics at the project level
objectives of both the project and the o r g a n i ~ a t i o n : ~ ~ Even itz politics, ethics are tbe most valrtable asset.
Follow management hierarchy. This implies channeling all decisions -A~zonymoirs
formally through the management liierarchy. This method is particularly In addition to nianagirig coriventional areas of scope, quality, time, and
effective if top management has a proven track record of making sound cost tlirough effective management of risk, comni~inication,contract and
decisions in managing projects. hiiman resources, successful project managers must manage project poli-
Appoint a project sponsor o r director. In sucli cases, the project spon- tics effectively. Handling power and politics is coniplex due to the beliav-
sor belongs t o the top rnanagenient team and gives a required Ievel of po- ioral di~ncrisionsof varioiis project stakeholders. Project managers receive
litical profile to the project. iiievitable pressiires f r o ~ ntop maiiagement, client, tearn members and 0th-
Use a steering committee o r project council. This works best when er external and interna1 stakeholders. The management of stakeholders
the project crosses severa1 organizational lines and there is n o single per- itself is an interesting challenge in terms of pinning down roles and re-
son at the top management level w h o is politically willing to accept to- sporisibilities. Here are some ways that project rnanagers can use to en-
tal project responsibility. It may help the project by bringing in a variety hance their political and power position at the project operating l e ~ e l : ~ ~
of experience from a group of upper-leve1 managers. T h e steering com- Ensure top management support. Project managers will fail in manag-
mittee is a way t o apply consensus decision making t o upper-leve1 pro- ing projects without the sup"prt of top management. Project managers
ject management. sliould be politically tuned in to upper management to ensure their sup-
Protect yourself and your team. In the absence of top management tak- port as needed.
ing direct responsibility, project managers must build a "political iimbrel- Use strategic iristrumerits. Project mariagers can use project pians or
Ia" under which project work can progress in spite of a lack of obvious project rnanagement plans to mold strategie~and policies and hence in-
management support. crease their power bases.
Engage outside facilitators in developing strategies. To avoid interna] Build a team. T h e project team is one of the major power bases of pro-
political struggles, a neutra1 external facilitator with experience in both ject riiariagers. Tliey inust fociis ori riiotivatiiig tlie project team and effec-
project management and project technology may be called in to help de- tive team building through training and their interpersonal, conflict man-
veiop strategies. agernent, consensus decision making and effective communicating skills.
Engage experts (lobbyists, arbitrators) as needed. This approach is Develop personal power. Project managers are not given power, but
more corrective than preventive in nature and may be required when there they are given the right to obtairi it. They must develop their personal
are deadlocks at upper management levels. Experts may provide fresh in- power and build stronger power bases by increasing their competence, ex-
sights t o the issues and problems at hand. pertise and technical knowledge.
It is hard to single out the best way of managing politics at the upper At the project level, project managers are the overall champions of pro-
management level. Some approaches may work better in some situations ject success. 111 addition to conventional project management skills, they
than others. Sometimes steering committees may be viewed as a road ~riustliave a healtliy taste and iricliriatiori for project politics rather than
block by a project manager (especially a good orie). The project sponsor ar] unreasonable lust for power, whicli hiirts both tlie project and the pro-
and management hierarchy sometimes add biireaucracy, while in other ject manager's own political base.43
cases they help things push through. Outside help may prove effective o r Project managers face the challenge of managing the power and poli-
may change the overall direction, adding cost and time to complete the tics at both the upper level and at the project level. At the project level,
project. In spite of a11 this, neglecting the importance of politics at the they may have some formal autliority but niay lack political clout to be ef-
management level, especially at the front end of the project management fective at upper-leve1 project nianagenient. Also, there may be conflicting
process, is risky. Therefore, it is important to think forward early in the perceptions about what elenients make the project ~ u c c e s s f u l : ~ ~
project life cycle and manage front-end strategic and political issues t o Tlie project team focuses on scope, quality, schedule and cost.
avoid conflicts and destructive power struggles. The client is concerned about the final result; how it satisfies the orga-
nizational objectives.
The contractors and vendors view success in terms of economic returns
and possibility of repeat business.
--
242 Htrtttlrt1 Reso~rrrrSkills for the I'rojrct Mrrtlager
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work (November):pp. 25-29.
CS = ConcreteISequential
AS = AbstractISequential
CR = ConcreteIRandom
AR = AbstractiRandom
(See Chapter 1 for a fiill explaiiation of these communication styles.)
Scoring Key: 1. I d o not like to wait for other people to complete their work before I
can proceed with my own.
Withdrawing Forcing Smoothing Compromising Confronting
1 3 5 2. I hate to wait in most lines.
The higher the total score for each conflict strategy, the more frequently you tend 8. I feel guilty for taking time off from work.
to use that strategy. For a complete explanation of these conflict resolution styles,
see Chapter 4. 9. People tell me I have a bad temper when it comes to competitive
situations.
Source: From David W. Johnson. Reaching Out: Interpersonal Effectivetiess and Self-
Actualiration.Copyright 1990. All rights reserved. Reprinted by permission of Allyn &
Bacon.
.
as team members 137.21 6 and conflict 88, 92-95, 123, 125
Coaching 140, 227 and communication 183
and leadership 21 4-21 5,217
Accommodating style Collaborating style, in conflict 11 7-122 and negotiation 119. 140, 154 and rnotivation 57-58, 62-63. 69, 73, 75. 79,
in confiict 118, 122 Decision-making styles 184 81-82
in negotiation 154 Communication
and stress 189. 195, 197-199
barriers to 24-27 Diagnosis [SE€ NEGOTIATION, PROCESS OF]
congruence of 57.78.87
Accuracy, in communication 35, 52 channeis 15.33.129
Distortion in negotiation 1 5 6 157, 164.1 67
Administration 65, 80. 128 methods of 18-20
in communication 25, 38. 46 of interpersonal cornmunication 1617, 33, 36
source of conflict 101-1 10, 130, 136 syles 49-50, 255
and conflict 96, 130 of meetings 28-32
Advancement, and motivation 60, 65, 80 Competence 72, 79, 115,217, 2 2 6 2 2 7 , 241 Goal-setting theory 73
Distress 178, 190, 198
Ambiguity Competition 69. 78, 94, 115. 155-159 Guidelines
Distributive [SEE NEGOTIATION N P E S OF]
in communication 35 Compromising style, in conflict 117-122, 125. for comrnunication 21-24
of roles 181, 199 139, 258 Diversity 127, 153, 239, 266 for developing personal power 237-238
tolerance for 190-191, 229 for listening 4 7 4 8
Concrete-random [SEE COMMUNICATIONSNLE]
Dogmatism 190, 192,208
Anger 134,185,193 for managing conflict 127-141
Concrete-sequential [SEE COMMUNICATIONSNLE]
Effort-performance linkage [SEE MPECTANCY for managing meetings 31
Appendix 253-263 THEORY] for rnanaging politics 243
Conflict for rnanaging stress 194-1 98, 204-207
Arbitration 120,125,143 Empowerment 115,182,184,196,201
and performance 89.94-97 for rnot~ation69, 78-80
Assertiveness 117, 131,153 and project life cycle 102-108 Equity Theory 7 0 . 7 5 . 2 4 6 2 4 7 fornegotiation 161-171
conditions leading to 92
Assignrnents, and motivation 63, 69, 71, 80 ERG Needs Theory 6 0 , 6 3 Hardy personality 193-194
levels of 90-91
Assumptions lighíning rod 129, 143 Eustress 178, 198, 208 Hierarchical structure 128, 184, 231, 236, 240
about motivation 70-71 rnanagernent of 89.94. 100, 124. 127-1 28,136,
139-1 40,230 Execution phase 102,243 Hierarchy of needs [SEE CONTEM THEORIES OF MO-
and communication 20, 28, 30, 35
rninimizing 136-138 TNATION]
Attitudinal structuring [SEE NEGOTIATION, Exercise [SEE COPING WITH STRESS]
rnodels of conflict Humor 32,195
WPES OF] Thomas-Kilmann 118, 121-123, 143 Expectancy Theory 70, 73. 83,217
Filley 92, 122-123 Hygiene factors 64-65.68. 84
Audience, in communication 19-24 Experts
outcornes of (functionalidysfunctional) 97
to resolve conflict 93. 116-1 17. 139. 240 Influence
Autocratic style 218, 235 positive and negative value of 94
advice on stress 206-207 and conflict 95-96. 128
resolution rnodes
Autonomy 38, 62-63, 65. 71, 74, 82, 167 and power 21 2-215.231-233
avoiding 118, 120, 122, 142, 147 Extrinsic motivation 56, 81
and stress 183, 194
Avoiding style, in conflict resolution 118, 120, collaborating 117-120, 160
compromising 117-122, 125. 139, 258 Extroversion 190-191,251 through cornrnunication 29-30
122,142
confronting 117-120, 126126, 132, 139,258 Facilitator Informal communication 27, 33, 73-74, 138,
Balancing lorcing 93, 117-122, 136138, 258 in negotiation 159-160, 240 151
power 236, 238 major~tymle 120, 122, 124--125 project manager as 218
work and family 181, 195 problem solving 120, 123, 125-126, 131-133 Innovation 62, 72, 79, 90-91, 94, 102,
superordinategoal 120-121, 124-125 Family 39, 63, 149, 151. 181, 195, 206 114-116. 192,230