TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

10. FREE OSCILLATIONS

1. Objective
Determining period and logarithmic decrement of damping oscillations in a circuit consisting
of an inductor L , capacitor C and resistor R .

2. Equipment needed
Generator of impulses, inductor, set of capacitors and resistors, oscillograph.

3. Theory
Free oscillations are oscillations (electrical or mechanical) that rely on systems internal forces
only.
Let us examine this feature in case of an ideal resonant circuit. This is a closed electrical
circuit consisting of an inductor L and capacitor C . We charge the capacitor initially and then
stop interfering with the circuit.
Free oscillations means that electrical and magnetic properties of the system (q, u, i, B, E etc)
will start changing periodically in time.
Capacitor discharges through inductor during time T/4: energy of its electric field is converted
into energy of magnetic field of the inductor. Electromotive force (emf) of self-inductance
appearing during this process will slow down capacitor discharging (Lenz law). During next
T/4 time slot magnetic field of inductor decreases causing an emf that forces recharge of
capacitor (the Lenz law again). Energy of inductors magnetic field is converted to energy of
capacitors electric field. During third T/4 slot the capacitor is discharged again and in final
time slot it is charged with opposite polarity. Then the whole process is repeated – free
oscillations appear in resonant circuit.
An ideal case was described here. In real life a resonant circuit consists of a capacitor C,
inductor L and of an (active) resistance R consisting of resistance of inductors turns and
connection wires. Energy is dissipated as heat on mentioned resistance causing decrease of
amplitude of free oscillations until they are damped soon.
Let us examine closer a circuit shown at figure 10.1 consisting of active resistor R,
inductor L and capacitor C . According to Kirchhoff's II law the sum of voltage drops over
capacitor and active resistor must be equal to the emf on an inductor i.e. i (t ) R + u C (t ) = ε (t ) .
In formula i (t ) is momentary value of current, u C (t ) voltage on capacitor and ε (t )
momentary value of emf of inductor.

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 TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

Figure 10.1

di (t ) q (t )
Replacing ε (t ) = − L and u C (t ) = gives us following equation:
dt C

di (t ) q (t )
L + i (t ) R + = 0,
dt C
where q (t ) is momentary value of charge on capacitor.
Some more maths is needed – let us divide the formula with L and perform replacements:
di (t )
i (t ) = q& (t ) and = q&&(t ) . This gives a formula for capacitor's charge:
dt

R 1
q&&(t ) + q& (t ) + q (t ) = 0 . (1)
L LC
R 1
Replacing = 2β , = ω 02 , gives equation (1) following form:
L LC

q&&(t ) + 2 β q& (t ) + ω 02 q (t ) = 0 . (2)

Now we have a „standard“ 2. Class linear homogenous differential equation with constant
multipliers describing oscillations both in mechanical and electrical systems.
According to theory, solution of equation (2) depends on β 's sign and mutual relations of β
R
and ω0 . Since in our case = β ≥ 0 , we have three possible possibilities: 1) β < ω 0 ,
2L
2) β = ω 0 , 3) β > ω 0 .

1) In case β < ω 0 , equation (2) has following solution:

q (t ) = q m (0) e − β t cos (ω t + α ) , (3)

where q m (0) and α are determined by initial conditions (the way oscillations were started in
circuit) and

ω = ω 02 − β 2 . (3a)
Although function (3) is not periodic, it has maximums and minimums after equal time
2π
intervals T = . This is why value T is called a period and ω – angular frequency. T can
ω
be written as follows taking in account formulas for ω and β :

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 TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

2π 2π 2π
T= = = . (4)
ω ω −β
2
0
2
1  R 
2

− 
LC  2 L 
This formula (4) free oscillations in (our) system having a period T (angular frequency ω ).
Value q m (t ) = q m (0 ) ⋅ e − β t describes decrease of charge oscillations amplitude in time.

Figure 10.2: a) R = 0; b) 0 < R < Rkr

Since charge and voltage on capacitor depend of each other [q(t ) = Cu (t )] , voltage on
capacitor oscillates according to following formula relating to solution (3):

u C (t ) = U C (0) e − β t cos (ω t + α ) , (5)

where U C (t ) = U C (0 ) ⋅ e − β t describes amplitude of voltage oscillations (figure 2b).
Oscillations of voltage can be observed with an oscilloscope.
Now let us take a look at solution (3) of equation (2) in case β = 0 ( R = 0) . Oscillations will
take place with maximum angular frequency ω = ω 0 and we have free undecreasing
oscillations – natural oscillations ( ω0 is angular frequency of natural oscillations). Graph of
these oscillations in case of u C is shown on figure 10.2 a.
2) In case of β = ω 0 , differential equation (2) has following general solution:

q (t ) = e − β t ( A + Bt ) , (6)
where A and B are constants that can be found from initial conditions (the way oscillations are
started). Function (6) does not describe oscillations and this situation in oscillations is called
R 1
critical (aperiodic) and resistance found from condition β = ω 0 , i.e. = is called
2L LC
critical resistance. Formula (7) describes critical resistance:

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 TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

L
Rkr = 2 . (7)
C
As soon as R = R kr , oscillations in circuit turn to aperiodic process. Exact form of function (6)
and also its graphs shape depends on constants A and B. One possibility to change voltage on
capacitor in case of R = R kr is shown on figure 10.3.

Figure 10.3 (R = Rkr)

3) Finally we shall examine equation (2) in case of β > ω 0 ( R > R kr ). Equation (2) has then
following solution:

q (t ) = C1e λ1t + C 2 e λ2t , (8)

where C1 and C2 are constants depending on initial conditions and λ1 = −β + β 2 − ω 02 and

λ2 = −β − β 2 − ω02 ( λ1 and λ 2 have negative values). In this case we do not have oscillations
as well, it is a superaperiodic (overdamped) mode when charge and voltage on capacitor
decrease to zero slower than in case 2. Shape of graph again depends on initial conditions. In
present experiment described mode is not examined any closer.
Let us sum up. Oscillations in resonant circuit take place only in case 0 ≤ R < R kr . When
R ≥ Rkr , we have an aperiodic mode.
Let us examine values related to decadent oscillations. We shall use oscillations of voltage in
defining values and analyse solution (5) amplitude part:

U C (t ) = U C (0) e − β t . (9)
R
One can see that amplitude decreases quicker if β = has bigger value. Constant β is
2L
called damping constant of oscillations. Formula (3a) shows that the bigger the damping
factor (bigger active resistance) is, the lower is frequency of oscillations. The analogy is
obvious with mechanical oscillation of the pendulum in the environment. The higher the
resistance of the environmental factor is, the faster the pendulum oscillation dampened and
the slower the pendulum oscillates around. Taking natural logarithm from (9), gives us
formula for damping constant:
1 U C (0)
β = ln . (10)
t U C (t )
One can see that β describes the decrease of amplitude in time unit.

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 TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

Supposing t = T , formula (10) gives:

1 U C (0)
β= ln .
T U C (T )
Replacing Λ = β T gives:

U C (0)
Λ = ln . (11)
U C (T )
Value Λ = βT is called logarithmic decrement of damping. Knowing that
−Λ
U C (t + T ) = U C (t ) e , one can write:

U C (t )
Λ = ln . (11a)
U C (t + T )
On the other hand knowing that Λ = β T and counting also formula (4):

C
Λ = 2π R . (11b)
4L − R 2C
 U (0) 
A time τ, during which amplitude of oscillations decreases e times  C = e  , is called
 U C (τ ) 
systems time constant or relaxation time. Replacing t = τ in formula (10) gives

1 1
β = ln e → β = .
τ τ
Reverse value of logarithmic decrement shows number of full oscillations N e performed by
system in time τ:

1 1 τ
= = = Ne . (12)
Λ βT T
Q- factor Q describes energy loss in system:

W (t ) W
Q = 2π = ,
W (t ) − W (t + T ) ∆W
where W (t ) = W is energy stored in circuit at the moment t and W (t ) − W (t + T ) = ∆W loss of
energy during one period.
Since energy stored in circuit at time t is proportional to square of voltage amplitude on
capacitor, one can write:

U C2 (t )
Q = 2π .
U C2 (t ) − U C2 (t + T )
Counting formula (9) gives:

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 TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

Q = 2π
[U (0)e ]
C
−β t 2
=
2π
=
2π
(13)
[U (0) e ] − [U (0)e
C
−β t 2
C ]
− β (t +T ) 2
1− e −2 β T
1 − e −2Λ
.

This formula can be made simpler in case of low damping 2Λ << 1 :

π
Q= . (14)
Λ
Counting formula (12) gives:

Q = π ⋅ Ne , (15)
where N e is number of oscillations performed during time τ . As we can see, quality factor is
bigger when system can perform more oscillations before amplitude decreases e times.
Main properties describing oscillations like damping factor β , its logarithmic decrement Λ
and quality factor Q , were introduced in above short theoretical part. All parameters are
mutually dependent. Constants β and Λ describe decrease of oscillations from point of view
of decreasing amplitude. Quality factor Q on the other hand characterizes damping from
energetic standpoint (the lower losses we have the higher quality factor).
In present experiment stand short pulses (of voltage) are used to induce oscillations in
resonant circuit. A generator generates pulses with frequency 50 Hz. Every impulse charges
capacitor, in meantime (0,020 s) free oscillations will take place. Voltage from capacitor C is
fed to oscillofraphs Y-input to observe mentioned oscillations (see figure 10.4). Oscillographs
time base generator (the X-axis) is set to be equal to impulses frequency (50 Hz). In this case
series of oscillations will coincide and sharp frozen, image can be observed on screen.

Figure 10.4

4. Experimental procedure
1. Record all data of measuring devices you have (type, serial nr. etc).
1. Make connections according to figure 4. Ask instructor for values of L, C and Rs (Rs is
value shown on an inductor).
2. Ask instructor to check connections.
3. Adjust oscillograph buttons (see manual on the stand).
4. Switch the oscillograph on and wait for image to appear (a straight green line when
generator is switched off).
5. Switch on generator of impulses (left to the oscillograph in experiment stand).
6. Adjust oscillographs time-base and sync buttons until a standing image of at least 5 full
periods of decaying oscillations is achieved.

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 TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

7. Using devices input mode switch short the Y-input and correct Y-shift is beam (green line)
is not in centre of screen. Switch input button back to normal.
8. Adjust Y-gain button to achieve highest possible image on screen ( A1 ≈ 40 mm) .
9. Determine active resistance corresponding to critical regime at given C and L by changing
R s (see figure 3). Remember that value of resistance consists of number shown on
resistance box R s and inductors own resistance R0 : (R = R0 + R s ) . Compare critical
resistance Rk found in experiment with theoretical value calculated by formula (7).
10. Instructor gives you a series of different values of R s . Perform following measurements:
a) Using the grid on oscilloscope's screen measure (for each R s ) measure values of sequential
oscillations A1 , A2 , A3 and A4 , shifting them previously by the horizontal displacement knob
to the Y-axis. Adjust Y-gain so that for each R s value of A1 will be 40 mm. Write results in
table 1.

Table 1
Determining the logarithmic decrement of damping

Ex Rs, A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , A1/A A3/A Λ1 Λ3 Λ eksp Λ teor

p. Ω m m m m 2 4
nr m m m m
1.
...
7.
L=… C=… R0 =…

b) Measure the length of N full oscillations (periods) l on x-axis (oscillographs axis of

time) in case of minimal resistance in the experiment (R = R0 ) and in case of three
relatively big values (150 − 300 Ω ) of resistance given by instructor. (In case of R = R0
the N ≥ 3 , in case of big resistance values N = 1 ). Find time t spent on N full periods and
experimental period of oscillations Teksp. Knowing X-axis' resolution (see time base
button, it shows the time corresponding to one grid unit). In case of big resistance values
choose resolution so that one period fills the screen. Write the results in table 2.
Table 2
Determining period of decadent oscillations
Rs , Ω N l, cm M, t, ms Teksp , Tteor, ms
Exp nr ms/cm ms
1.
...
4.

11. Ask instructor to check your results and only then disconnect wires on the stand.

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A1 A
12. Calculate experimental Λ 1 = ln and Λ 3 = ln 3 . Find their mean value Λ eksp for each
A2 A4
value of R s . Write the results in corresponding columns of table 1.
13. Calculate Λ teor (formula 11b) knowing that R = R0 + R s .
14. Plot Λ teor = f (R ) and Λ eksp = f (R ) on one graph.
15. Find theoretic period Tteor, (formula 4 and account that R = R0 + R s ) for minimal
resistance and three given bigger values of resistance (table 2). Compare calculated
number value with experimentally found value Teksp. Calculate uncertainties for both
conditions given by instructor.

5. Questions and tasks

1. What are free oscillations? Why do they decay?
2. What does the term electromagnetic oscillations mean – what is oscillating?
3. What is inductivity, what is its unit in SI-system?
4. On what factors and how does the inductance of an inductor depend of?
5. What is (electrical) capacity, its unit in SI-system?
6. On what factors and how does the capacitance of a capacitor depend of?
7. Explain how the resonant circuit works, define the Lenz law.
8. How does capacitors energy in resonant circuit change?
9. How does resistance of circuit affect amplitude and period of decaying oscillations? Do
they change in time?
10. Do electromagnetic free oscillations decay if active resistance of circuit is zero? Why?
11. Define damping constant.
12. Define logarithmic decrement of damping.
13. Define time constant and quality factor. What factors do they depend on and how?
14. Characterize different modes of oscillations in resonant circuit.
15. Where is resonant circuit often used?

6. Literature
1. Halliday, D., Resnick, R., Walker, J. Fundamentals of Physics.–6th ed. New York,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001, §§ 33-2 – 33-5.