Svetlana Velimirac

ENGLESKI
JEZIK
zbirka tekstova sa vetbanjima
 (.:,

Contamination of'Earh's enviror:n:ent interferes u,ith humar.: i:eallh,lhe quality of

life, a::d the natulal funclicning of ccosyslems (living organisms and their physical
sur:oundings).
There are 1wo maia categories of pcllutirrg rraterials, or poilutants. tsiodegladable
pollutants arc rnatedals, such as sewage, lhal rapidly decompose by natural procl:sses.
These pollutants becorne a prohlem rvhel added to the enviroalrenl &ster than thcy cart

decompose. Nonrlegradable pollutants are materials that eitlrer do not decompcse or

deocmpose siorvly in the nalural environment. Once contamination occurs, it is difficult

or impossible to remove these pollulaats from thc environmetit. Because humans are al
the top oltLe food chain, thcy are particularly r,'-ullorable tc the effects of nondegradable

poliutanls.

Pr:jl::tion also has a dramatic elTect on natural r<;sources. Ecosystems such as forosts.
wetlands, coral reef:, and rivers perlbrm tnany importanl services fcr Eafih's
environment. Any r:r a1l of these ecosystorn functio*s may be irnpaired or destroyed by
pollution. Moreover, because of the complex relatir:nships ainong the many tlpes of
orga*isms and ecosystems, environmental ccntaminaticn may have far-reaching
consequences thal a;e nol i::xrediately obvious or that are diffrcult to predict. Fot
instance, scientisls can only speculate on some of the potential iinpacts of the depleticl of
thc ozone layer- 1fus protective layer in the atmosphere thal shields Earth from the Sul's

harmfu I u ltravioict rays.

Another major eJfecl of pollu1icn is the tJenl:ndou1:ost of pollution cleaaup and

prevenlion. The global effort to coatrol emissions of carbon dioxidc, a gas produced from

the coml:ustion of tossil fuels such as coal or oil, or of oll:er organic materials like wcod,
is r:rle such examp'le. The cost of maintaining annual aational carbon dioxide emjssions a1

1990 levels is estiinated to be 2 percent of the gross domestie product for developed

countries.
I.t.ll.',ATEl?

Mosl o*'tl,te Eafilr's water is in the oceans (97 per cent) ot'locked away as ice. The
largest volumes of ieshn,ater are stnred undergrculd as groundwater, accnunting for

about 0.6 per cenl of tire (otal. Only a tiny fi'action {0.01 per cent) is presenl as fiesh

surface water in lakes, streams and rivers.

The quality of this *esh waler is vitally important. Wr: depend on surface and

groundwate,: sources for our drinking water. We alsc need water to generate ersrgy, to

grow our crops, to harr,,es1 fish, to run nachinery, 1o carry wastes, to enhance the

landscape and for a great deal more. We use water fcr washilg and cleaning, recreation,

ccoking, gardening, in industry, as well as simply tc eljoy it. Water is also vital as a
habitat for bcth freshwater and nrarine platts and alimals.
Many humaa activities aad their bfppdu ye the potential to pollute water. Large

and small industrial enterprises, the water industry, the urban infrastructure, agriculture,

horticulture, transport, and deliberate or accidental pollution incidents all affect water
qualify. Pollutaats from these ard many other activities may cnter surface or groundwater
directly, may move slowly within the groundwatel t., emerge eventually in surface water,
may run off the land, or may be deposited from the atmospher"e.
<-----_-

1.2. soIL o'> 'oJ ' &ct(-

Soil is a mixture of mineral. plaat, and an md materials that forms during a long
process that may take thousands of years. It is necessary for most plaat growth and is

essential for all agricultural production. Soil pollution is a buildup of toxic chemical

compounds. salts, pathogens (disease-causing organisms), or radioactive materials that

can affect plant and animal life.

r.3. AtR Y)'^at--',,ob'79s'

Cc'od air quality is important for our envircnment. Substances we put into the air can

affect the health of plants, aniilals and people, and can conkibute to global warming.
Air polluticn is addition 6f ha1trful substances to ti:e almospherc lesulting in daniage to

the environneri, hu::lan Leallh, and quality of life. One of many fbnas of poilulion, air'
pcllttion occurs inside homes, schools, and cffices; in cities: across coutinents; ard evel

globally. Air pollutiorr r::akes per:ple slck-it causes breathing problems and proltotes
cancci._-and it har:ls plalls, aninrals. and the ecosystems in rvhich they live' Some air
pcllutants retum 1o Earth in the form of acid rail and snow, which corrode statues and

buildings, damage crops and forests, and make lakes and streams unsuitable for fish and
other plant and animal life.

Pollutio:l is changing Harth's atmosphere so that it lets in more harmful radiation f'.}om
the Sut. At the same time, cur polluted atrnospirere is becoming a better insulator,
preventing heat from escaping back into space and leading 1o a rise in glcbal avbrage

temperatures. Scientists preilict that the temperature increase, referred to as global

warming, will affect world food supply, alter sea 1evel, nake weather more extreme, and
increase the spread ofkopical diseases.

Most air pollution comes from one human activity: burning fossil fuels_.natulal gas,
coal, and oil__to powgr industrial proeesses and motor vehicles' Among the harmful
chernical compouads this burning puls into the atmosphere are carbon dioxide, earbon
moroxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and tiny soiid particles-including lead &om
gasoline additives. Betwesn 1900 and I970, motor vehicle use rapidly expanded and

sorne of the most damaging pollutants in vehicle exhaust increased 690 percent'

\ ^tr\r{, u

I.4. GLO3AL 1YARMING a\l ,o|

Humans are bringing abor:t another global-sca1e change in the atmosphere: the
increase in what are called fa.eQ+houto gases. Like glass in a greenhouse, these gases

a6mit the Sun's light but tend to reflect back dowaward the heat that is radiated *om the
ground below, trapping heat in the Earth's almosphere. This process is known as the
greenlzouse e$ect.

r
Carbor: ciioxide is tlie most significant of these gases-{here is 3 I percelt more cartcn

dioxide in :he atmospliore today tlian there was in 1750. the result of our buming coal and
fuels derivcd lio:l oil.

I.5. WHAT YOU CAN DO

-Select products that are durable, easy to repair, have good warranties, ar€ eaergy

efficient, funstional, aesthetic and non-polluting in both manufacture and use.

-Buy goods in retr:ma!1e and recyclable conlainers;
-Leam where you can take items to be recycled &en show ycur support by recycling;
-Read labels and learn more about coatents in household products.

-Try not tc purchase items rvith harmful ingredients;

-Make suggestions to stores to offbr paper bags in the produce section and to discontinue

using plastic bags at the check-out line, except for special products or upon request;
-Let stgre managers and manufacturers who are making good environmental chcices
kncw you recognize and appreciate their efforts;
*Request larger qualtilies and sizes of products by iakoducing a bulk buying section for
grains, pasta and other dty goods;

-Explain the need for environmertal shcpping and why you suppod i1. Companies are
very interested in how their products are perceived by oonsumers'

I Think about the goods, services and uctivities iou buy or support,
In whal ways do they conlribute to tke solid waste problem?
How could you purchase and dispose af items in ways that generate less trash?
What cen you do to voiee yoar opinion about solid waste isszes in your community?
II Coarylete the turt with the npprapriate words in brackets:
( s*fetn; qu*aryry p ollu to n t s, djsposfl, #e?filuurtSns, egirowe#t l

Inelfective or irrespons;Ufe hS(oga,[ of waste can pollute ttre g4rUifOr,e4hnA

--__]-
pose a health risk to the public.

Current disposal
The er?on,
is reduced.
TLe maln is carboa dioxide.
Trafficjarns{itt tho air wi-th .^th^kM$'.
\

Iff Gipe theverbfarm afthefollo*ixg ilaan$:

POLLUTION
PROTECTION
PREVX}IT]ON
RSCYCLlNG
CON?AMINATION

(,ttJa]L .a
f^pl
rafl,.ttrJ-.,Ve
&..
Aa lrti{V
 2. CRAT'-XIC DESIGN

Graphic design is a for:r: of commu:"rication in which visual iltbrmalio:r is useil tir

convey a message. Unlike ile art. it is nonnally used for conmercial p;rposes, t<:

convey a specific and persuasive message to a large audience.

The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic aad prof'essional disciplines

which tbcus on visual communication and presentation. Various methods are used to
create and combine s1,mbols, images and/or u.ords tc create a visual representation of
ideas and messages. A graphic designer may use tlpography, visual arts and page layout

techniques to produce the final result. Common uses of glaphic design include

magazines, advertisements and product packaging. For example, a product package might

include a logo or other artrvork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes
and color which unify the piece.
Graphic design often incorporates tlpography, pags laycut, image development, and
branding, but it is not limited to these elements.
Like many {brms of communication, graphic design often refers to both the process by
which the communication is created, and the tinal form that ia takes - 1he product
(design).

For example:
Print Design * magazine & newspaper la1,out, posters, corporate logo/letterhead/business
card design, book & album cover desigl, packagellabel design.

hteractive/l\dotion Desigr - Web page layout, Web animation, filmlvideo 1i1le design,
, software interf'ace design.

Computers are now eonsidered to bo an indispensable tool used in the graphic design
industry, and they are generally in tho industry seen as more effqctive than the traditional
methods. However, a few designers continue to use manual and traditional tools.

As a process, graphic desigl is complex and multi-faceted.

 2"'. GRAP}IIC }ESICI! THEORY

Acci:rding 1o the classic theory of design. or graphic design, r,isual design, art, the
visral impressicn cf a rvork of design is a result of horv the cor:rposition of the desigr:
elemei:1s create urood, slyle, message, and a look.

There is research and planning that is needed for most design work:

-the design process, which sncolnpasses the step-by-step and o{1en complex path that a

designer takes toward a design solution through rosearch, exploratior:, re-evaluation, and

revision of a design problein.

This process stads with thc client and ends with the finished design product.

-use of a grid to help imprr:ve or speed up the layout of irrages and text. Like the steel

internal &ame ofbuilding, the gnd helps rhe 2D designer place information o:t paper or
screer ia a way thal improves the design visually and its usability"

-irnpact and use of techlology for design solutiotrs. Graphic designers are usually firsl to

adopt and incorporate aew technology in solutions cr concepts when possible. This
experime:rlation is not always to the bei:efit of ths design or the user.

\ \___,
2.2. ELEMENTSOF DESIGN --/
-\_--._-
Design elemenls are the basic tools il every desiga discipline. The elements of design
may vary by source but otei: include spa€e, shape , /brm, mQS& line, texlure, pattern,
time, light, and color. They are the most basic visual compcnents of any composition.
The elemeats are the materials upon which the principles of design act.
Artists a:rd designers discovsr, incorporate, and balance these elements to create a strong
solution tc a given problem siluaticn.
 /' -z_,--_--._-...-_-':.. '*-\
\
('- PRINCIPLES OF D}.]SIGT$...
2.3.
\

Design principles coilstitule the broadel siructural aspects of the composilion. The
numller ald names of the principles of design can be variable. Most lists include sc{11€,

proparliotx, balwrce (,rytnntelry), r/ryflzm (patfern) (movetnent), enxplxasis (focal pr;int),

vurietry, contrcst and u,xity. The principles are used in all visual design fields such as

graphic design, industrial design, architecture ard fine afi. The pri:rciples govern tho

relationships of the elemelts used and organize the composition as a whcle. Successful
design incorporates the usc of the principles and elements to sen,e the designer's purpose

and visual goals. There is ao hard and fast rule fur their use - it is directed by intent. The

designer's pulpose drives the decisions made to achieve appropriate scale and good
propo*ion, as rveil as the degree of harmclny betrveen all the elemsnts achieved through
the sensitive balance of variety and unity.

These co::cepts and elements drive all intentional design strategies, Awareness of tlie

elements and principles is the first step in creating successi:l visual compositions.

VERSUS
//
'TSIGN
,/

There is much debate about the degree of overlap between art and graphic design. Art
and graphic desi'ga aro two dislinct disciplines - graphic design being a predominantly
commercial and client driven profession, while art is created for its own sake. Howevel
the two are intrilsically entwined - design could be said to be a branch of art. Many
artists are also commercially driven and have, historically and up to the present day, even
created ad o:r a commission basis. And, it is hte that graphic design can be created ol a

non-profit basis.
 { Answer the.following questions:

I. What is graphic design?

2. Enumerate the elements of visual design.

3. Enumercte the principles of visual design.

4, Describe the design process.

5. What ts tlie difleronce between afi afid *aphic design?

6, .A,re designers'artists?
7. What isthemost useful tool in tlre graphio desig:r industry today?
8. lVhatis, ia your opinion, a good desigl?

$ Give rhe verb form af tkefollowing ,uoilns:

VARIETY
gMP}tASIS

CONTRAST
CREATION
UNITY
USABTL]TY

t0
 3: FUNNY }3SIGN TERMS

Aesthetic What I like (see also Kitsch)

Apple The ultimate temptatiorr for a desigler as il "Aa Apple a day keeps the IBM
away!'

Art Any'thing you can get away with

Art Works Rarely
3alance Something all designers lose sometime or the other
Beauty The lie in the eye of the beholder
Calligraphy Art form that reminds us that one must rever cry over spilt ink
Concepts Things made after finalizatiol of product or design to show that a lot of work
has been done

Consumer The man who matters to the sales deparlment but not to the designer
Contrast The difference in paynent belween a new and an established designer

&legance of sclutiol/ simplicity Refusal to do hard work

Kitsch What others like
Macintosh Computer A machino rvhich calculates the dimensicns of mincoats
Originality Copying from some unknown designer
Qualify Something always lost ir: the race against time
Presentation To make a mountain out of a molehill
Unity Something a design group never has

User Hypothetical creature whose profile changes along with the product being designed
Yisual Communicatior: Something that has to be explained verbally to be understood
visually
Visual Impact Expression on the clients face rvhen he sees the bill or the producl
ZZZThe usuai reaction to a presentation

(Compiled by Punyashloke Mishra)

1l
 4. INDT]STRIAL DESIGN

Industrial design - 1lre corceplion and planning of products for multiple repraduclion -

is a creative arrd inventive ptoeess concemed with the engineeri::g, technology, matedals
and aesthetics, which finds rnachine-producible solutions that balance all user needs and

desiles within teclnical and sacial constraints.

4.I. "THE FATHER OF INDUSTRIAL }ESIGN''

Raymond Loewy (1S93 -1936) was the greatest pioneer of industrial design. Always a
self-prornoler, he had a card printed that read: "Between trvo products equal in price,
functio:r and quality, the better looking will outssll the other'r, and sent it to everyone he
knew.
After a brjef but pramising carecr as a fashion illustrator, RayT nond Loewy dedicated his

talent to the tield of industrial design. Loewy's creative genius rvas innate, and his effeot
on the industry was irnmediate. He literally revolutionized the industry, working as a

colsultant for more than 200 companies arrd creating prcduct desigas for everything from
cigarette packs and re*igerators, to cars and spacecrafts. Loewy lived by his own famous
MAYA prineiple - Most Advanced Yet Acceptable. He beiieved that, "The adult public's
taste is not necessarily ready to accept the logical solutiorts to their requiremelts if the

solution irnplies too vast a departure &om what they have been conditioned iato
accepting as the no!nl."

Raynond Loewy launched his career in industrial design i\ 1929 when Sigmund

Gestetner, a British manufacturer of duplicating raachites, commissioned him to improve

the appearance of a mimeograph machine. In three days 28-year-old Loewy designed the
she11 that was to encase Cestetner duplicators for the next 40 years. In the process, he

helped launch a profession that has changed the look of America.

12
The Ceslctner duplicator u,as tlie fi:'st oi'ccultiess items transformed by strearnlining. a

techaique thal Lr.rer,r,y is credited wi:h originating. Calling the concept "beauty th:'cugh
funciion and sirnplification." Lc;er.vy spell cvcr 50 years streamlining everyihing iom
postage stamps to spacecraJls. llis more fatrous c.reations include the Lucky Strike
cigarette package, the CG1 and S1 locomotives, the slenderized Coca-Cola bottle,lhe

John F. Keirnedy memorial poslage stamp, thr: interior ol Satura I, Satura V, and Skylab,
the Greyhound bus and lcgo, the Shell Iltemational logo, the Exxon logo, the U.S. Postal
Service emblem, a line of religerators and fieezers, ald the Saude.baker Avanti,
Champion and Starliaer.

By 1951, his industrial design finn was so prolific that he rvas able to claim, "the average
person, )eading a normal iife, whether in the country, a village, a city, or a mehopolis, is

bound to bs in daily contaot with some of the things, service$, or structures in which
R.L.A" [Raymold Loeu,y Associates] was a party during the design or planniag stage."
While Loewy established his reputation as a designer, he boosted his profession by
showilg the practical benefits to be derived llom the application of functional styling. In
the book Industrial Design, Loewy notes, "Success finally came when we wer€ able to

convince some creative men that good appearance was a salablc ccmmodity, that it often
cut costs, enhanced a product's prestige, raised corporate prcfits, benefited the custonrer

and increased employr:leat. "

4.2. 'lTtrIE MAN W]IO S}IAPE} AMARICA"

4.2.r. Lucky Strike

In addition tc his achievements in the transportation fie1d, l,oewy was undoubtedly

among the world's most talsnted commercial arlists. He began designing packaging and

logos in 1940 rvhea George Washington Hi1l, then president of the American Tobaccc

l3
 Colnpany, rvagcrctl hi:l $50.000 tirat he could not irnprove the appeal"ance of the alrearly
familiar^green and red Lucky Strike cigarette package. Accepting the challenge. Loervy
began by changing the package background fi'orn green to white, thereby reducing

printing cr:sts by eliminatirg the need fcr green dye. Next he placed the red Lucky Strike
targel ol both sides cf the package, increasing product visibility and ultimately product
sa1es. A satisfied Hilt paid offthe bet, an<l for over 40 years the Lucky Strike pack has
rernained unchanged.

He was looking for a very high index of visual retention and he wanted anyone who has

seen the logotype even fleetingly to never forget it. Amcng Loewy,s highly visible
logotype designs are those for Shell Oil Company, Exxon, Greyholnd and Nabisoo.

4,2.2. Shell Oil Company,s Logo

In 1967, the shell company approached Lcewy with a design problem - its emblem was
difficult to distinguish frcm a distaace, or in poor lighting. The logo is still in use today.
The pecten (shell's version) has gone through some facelifts over the years. In fact the

first pecten wasn't a pecten (scallop shell) at all.

1t was a mussel shell inhoduced in 1900 and replaced in 1904 by the first version of the
scallop shell motif,
The pecten synbol currently in use woridwide was designed in I 971by Loewy. The
desigt and testiag process completed by Loewy's firm took more than four years. One of
the tests involved hanging various prototype pectens on poles where they could be

viewed by drivers paSging on a learby British motorway. Drivers were later contacted for
their opinions on the prototypes.

t4
I Ansx,er the questions:

l. What is the MAYA principle?

2. How did Raymcnd Loewy's career in induslrial design begin?

3. What are the claracteristics that all Loewy's desigls share?

4" What are Loevqfs famous designs?

5. How often does an average person encoulter items designed Qr R.t.A.?

6. How did Raymond Loewy win the bet with George Washington Hill?
7. How was the new peeten symbol tested?

8. Why is tle appeararce iinportant for a product?

II Fill in the table:

action result per*on(s) involved

EMPLOY EMPLOYMENT EMPLOYER / EI\,{PLOYEE

ITLUSTRATE

REVOLUTIONIZE

M"A.NUFACTURE

ORICINATE

III Explsin the way in whteh R"aymond Loewy change.d the warld af d.esign.

l5
 5. SIEMENS

Siemens is a highly innovative electrical e::gir:eerir:g ald electronics ccmpa:ry that

manufirctrres approximately ole rrrillion differenl products and aims to "berrefil:::ankind,
help protect the envirolment and utilize resources responsibly" within its six areas of
operation- energy: industry, information and communioations, healthcare, transpofaticn
and lighting.

The company was fr:r.rnded in 1841 by Werner vol Siemens (1816- 1892) and .lohann

Georg Halske (1814-i890) as the Siemens &. Halske Telegraph Construction Company.
The following year, the company began the construction of Europe's first long-distarce
electrical teiegraph linc between Frankfiirl and Berlil. Siemeas continued laying its
telegraph pables, including the Indo-Suropean line *om London to Calcutta in 1870 aad
the first transatlantic lire from lreland to the United Slates ia 1874.
The cornpany demoastrated the first electric railway at the 1879 3erlin Trade Fair and
two years later built the filst electric tramway in Lichterfeide, lear Berlil.
Siemens understood eariy on the benefits thal standardization could offer industrial

produclion, and implemented an extensive program of standardized component

interchar:geability for its products. 1n 1919 tle company, together with two other Getman
lamp manufacturers, founded Osram GmbH for the large-scale mass production of light
bllbs.
During the First V/crld War, the Nonnendamm industrial quarter of Berlin was officially
named Siemensstadt (Siemens City), but by the end of the conflict the cornpany had lost

approximate$ 4Ao/a of its plant capacity, In 1932 another subsidiary was founded,
Siemens-Reiniger-Worke AC, which develcped and manufactured diagnostic and
tirerapeutic medical equipment. including microscopes and X-ray equiprrent.
After the Second World War some 90% of the three companies'manufacturing facilities
and equipment was expropriated, but the firms survived and merged in 1966 to fonrr
Siemens AG with headquarters in Munich.

Since thcn, Siemens has grown into a global company with over 49,000 ernployees

actively engaged in product research, design'and development.

r6
I Complete the table:

Noun Yerb Adjectlve

differ

benefit

protectiv€

operate

continue

including

product

il Answer the questions:

1. In what areas of opsration is Siemens active?

2. How maqydiffer:ent products does Siemens rnanufasture?

3. What i.s Siemens today2

17
 6. SWATCI{

Unable tc ccmpete with the plethora of cheap electronic watches being mass-prcduced
in the Far East, and in particular Japan, by the mid 1970s the Swiss watch industryr was
deep in crisis. Against this background, Nicolas Hayek snr. {b. I928) masterminded a

four-year reorganization of the ASLJAG and SSIH watch companies which eventually
merged il 1983 into the SMH (Swiss Corpcration for Microelectronics and Watchmaking

lndustries). Hayek alsa made the straiegic decision to develop a now watch brand that
would dval the sales of Japanese models and rescue the embattled Srviss watch industry.
The resulting slim plastic watch was based on a prototypical design by Ernst Thonke,

Jacques Muller aad Elmar Mock of Hayek Engineering AG. Comprising only 51

components (compared to the 90 or more components normally required in a

conventional watch), it was very well s*ited to large-scale mass production. By

ccmbining high technology with affordability and artistic, emotioaal st1'1ing, the Swatch
became a must-have fashion accessory following its launch in 1983. Its success was

boosted by the fact that the watch was being marketed along the same lines as haute

coutur,e, with new "collections" launched every season. By producing limited editions for
collectors as well as a range of "classie" watches in every possible style and colour,
Swatch ensured that it had a design to suit almost every taste.
Thanks to the rqrrarkable success of the Swatch, the Swiss watch industry regained its

Ieading position in the sector ia 1984. The following year, Hayek and a number of Swiss

investcts gained control of the Swatch Group, which included other brands such as
Omega, Longines, Rado, Tissot, Certina, Hamilton, Balmain, Calvin Klein and the

chil.dren's range Flik Flak. Today, the company is the world's largest manufacturer of fin-

ished watches,

18
I Answer tlre questiorts:

1. What is the secrel of success that Swatch discovered?

Z,Have you sver owned a Swatch?

II Find the corresponding wardfroTtt the text:

1. Unable (
to ccmpete with a 1q{ge amstint of cheap electronic watches... )
2. Nicolas Hayek plerued in detail a four-year reorgaai2ation... ( )
3. The Sw,atcb became a must-have fashion non-esqe.ati*1.. ( )
4, Jts suceess wa$ improved by'the fact.., ( )

IItr U,se the wards ia, brseke,t$ to $,lt in the g.eps:

1, The murders wore by a well.-tnowc crimiual,

2. We need abigwin to ". eur confideace.
3. She likes shiny and colourful

4. A ofnew products will enter the rnarket,soon.

-.
-

19
 7. IKEA

With a loan fi'om his fathor of f,150, the 17-year-oid Ingvar Kanprad founded IKIA
in the town of Almhult, a few n:iles from his hor:re village, in 1943. Situated i:r the
Smaland region, historically one of the poorest parts of Sweden, the company originally

sold a variety of products through:nail order, from scap to stockings.

1:r the early 1950s, IKEA began retailing furniture at factory prices through rnailorder
catalogues. This move was met with such resistance by the establishsd furniture trads that

IKEA was not allowed to exhibit at tho large furniture trade fair held in Stockholm, and
suppliers threatened to boycott the company. Observing &at "most nicely designed
products were very, very expensivel, Kamprad wanted to manufacture well-desigaed

practical producls that the majority of people could afford. With this "social mission" to

democratize design, Kamprad realized that there were three essontial priorities -
aesthetics, function and suitability for mass producticn.
During the lats 1950s he recruited his first designers, Cillis Lundgren, Bengt Ruda and
Erik Worts, u.iho, while working within the Modern idiom, designed fumiture for sslf-
assembly - a revolutionary development in furaiture design. Lundgrenis Regal bookshelf

(1959) \ryas ore ofthe first IKEA products sold in flat-pack f,orm. Aaother concept which

lKEA's designers helped to pioneer was "modular thinking" the development of

-
modular conponents and inteilinking systems rather than individual one-off products.
This led 1o the company's co*ordination of its product range and promotion of an
integrated home-furnishing look an early and importaat example of lifestyle retailing.
-
The advent of particleboard in the 1960s heraldd the arrival of really low-cost funiture and
influencd IKEA's product-line immarsely. An inexpensive yet relatively hxd-wearing
material, particleboard contiaues io be used extansively by II(EA for all kinds of self-assembly

fumiture.
Whiie &e 1970s were aperiod ofgeneral inswurity, IKEA p:tspered and expandd. During this
time the cornpany retailed several products in plastics, including rhs Telegtno lamp (1970) by
the avant-garde Iklian dcigaer, Vico Magistretti. Tlxoughout its history however, IKEA has
mainly concentrated on producing interpretations of well-kaowri classic designs - from the

2A
ubiquitous 7-lxtnat cale r:lrair" lo the l)o|.ry;x4s by Robil l)ar,. 'lhe 197{}s *,cr e also llrc dccade iil'
strippeii pire ar:d b:-ightly colourecltextiles. anci IKEA deyehled thjs irlirmtal look u,ithin its
product l'ange specitically for 1,oul,uer consumers. l'he lalloq,ir,g decade, IKBA begal
producilg stylish yet pmctical fur:niture designed by Niels Can:nielgaard - his lrtontent
tuble (1987) u,olt tl,re Excellent Swedish Design pdze. Other award-rvinrring designs
included lhe Puzzle range of chjldrer:r's fuiniture ( 1988) designed by Kaut and Madame
Hagberg, which combined primary colours and simple fonns and became a best seller.

Throughout the 1990s, IKEA continued to expand its intemational operatiols and
poprilarize its version of Scandinavian Modernism.
Today the company boasts annual sales of f3.8 billioa. Kamprad is not content with just
producing home furnishings, however, and plans to diversify his product line into small
pre-fabricated flats.

As the design theorist Victor Papanek wrote: "One thing is certain: IKEA will coatiaue
in the foreftont - ecologically, socially and culturally - of making things that work,
possess beauty and are afFordable."

I Give antonymsfor thefollowittg words:

LOAN v.
POOR adj.
EXPENSIVE adj.
IMMENSE adj.
EXPAND v.
BRIGHT adj.
FOLLOWING adj.
DIVERSE adj.
CERTAIN adj.

II Answer the questions:

1, What was the "social miSsion" of Ingvar Kamprad?
2. Whal are the priorities for mass production?
3. What novelties were introduced by IKEA in fumiture design?

21
 8. FORD

Henry Ford's vision uias to rr:ake a car"accessible to literally:uillions of people" His

prilrat"y goal was 1o "build a n:otor car for the greal rlultitude ... it will be so lorv in price
thal no man ... will be unable to own one."
Funded by twelve i::vestors the Ford Motor Company was established in June 1903 in a

conve*ed Detroit wagon factory. The first car was sold only a nronth later and was
described as "the most perfect machine on the market..,. so simple that a boy of fifteen can

run it". Over the following five years, Henry Ford directed a research and development
programxe that resulted ia a plethora of models.
These vehicles were coded alphabetically, included two-, four- and six-cylinder cars. Not

every model made it into production, and of those that did, not all were successful: while
the Model N, which retailed for a modest $500, sold well, for example, the expensive
Model K limousine did poorly. Following the failure of the Model K, Henry Ford insisted
that the company's destiny lay in the manufacture of inexpensive cars. The Ford Motor

Ccmpaly coltinued to expand and in October 1908 the Model Tcame into being.
)escribed by Helry Ford as the "universal car", the low-cost and reliable Model T
became an instant success. The Model Iwas so much in demand that Heary Ford

instigated a system of compartmentalized production and came up with the coacept of a

moving assembly line. This approach 1o manufacturing, which became known as Fordistn,
drarnatically reduced assembly time aad resulted in over l5 million Model Is being built
betweea 1908 and 1927. Thesucceeding Model A (narned afia Ford's first car) placed
greater emphasis on saf,ety and comfofi than its predecessor and became known as "the

baby Lincoln" becalse of its softer contours. Although sales were impacted by the Great
Depression, some 5 rrillion Model As were produced before it was succeeded in l932by
the V-8. In 1948 Ford launched the F-Series, a pick-up truck that was "built stronger to
last longer". Becoming the best-selling vehicle in Nodh America (a title it still holds) -
over 2'7 millicn F-series trucks have beel manufactured to date.
In Surope, Ford became better known for i1s practical "ever;/mal" cars, such as the
Escort and Fiesta. During the Iate 1990s, the company evolved a new language of design

22
knou,r: as "New Edge Design", rvlrich ci-;nrbines "sr1rr)oth. sculpted surfaccs u'ith clear.
crisp iltelseclions". This liesh approach lecl to such innovative velticles as lhe Ka" Purna.
Cougar and Focus, r,hicl: rvas yoled Clar of the Year il Europe in I 999 and in Aur erie a irr
2000. Ford's ccxnmitrnent to design inlovalion rrsulted irt ii cexn:nissioning tlre producl
designer Marc Newson (b. I 963 ) to develop a corcept car for the 2l st cenlury. the Fod
012C, n4rich fealures a number of i::raginative details such as a slide-out luggage tray and
a single LCD headlight.
Ford also acknowledges its heritage and its new retro design ?hunderbit"d is an iritriguing
reinterpretation of the legendary 1950s original.
Like all motor manufacturers, Ford has become inereasingly mindful of environmental
issues and is committed to developing a new generation of vehicles that radically reduce

CO2 omissions.

I Answer the questions:

L What was the one thing that Henry Ford was mindful of when he started building cars?
2. Retellthe story of the Ford Motor Company.

l1 Gh:e adjectives of opposite meaning by adding the pre$xes.' -in I -im; -nn

ebcnsstgLs
ABLE
PERTECT
SUCCtsSSFUL
MODEST
EXPENSIVE
RELIABLE
SAFE
COMFORTABLE
CLEAR
IMAGTNATIVE

23
 9. BAUHAI.JS

As c::e of the firsl art scl"rools lo pioneer the teaching of ildustrial design" tlre Bauhaus
had a fundanrental impact on irrdustrial design education and praclice.

The Weimar State Bauhaus was bom in April 1919 out of the merger cf the city's
School of Arts & Cralls ar:d Academy of Art into one new interdisciplinary school of
crail and design. For Walter Cropius, the school's first director, consttuction was an
importa*t social, synbolic and inlellectual endeavour and this sentiment pervaded
Bauhaus teaching. 'While based in Weimar, the Bauhaus promoted an inter-disciplinary

approach to the arts aad was fundaurentally craft-based. The curriculum included a one-

year prolirr:inary co-urse where students were taught the basic principles of design and

colour theory. After completing this foundation year, sfudents entered the varicus
workshops and trained ia at least one craft. These workslops were intended to suppolt
them selv es fi nancially through private commi ssions.

During the earliest period of the Bauhaus, it was Johannes Itten (1888-1967) who played
the most imporfant role withirr the teachiag staff. He laught theories of form, colour and

contrast as well as the appreciation of art history; Itten believed that spatial compcsition
was go'v€rned by nalural laws and students were taught the importance of simple
geometric forms such as the circle, square and cone. These elemental shapes came to
exemplifu Balhzus design, which was characterized by unadorned s:rrfaces and
functional forms. Eventually, conflict arose between Cropius and ltten and the latter leff
in March 1923,marking the ead of the Bauhaus'Expressionist period.

Josef Albers (1SSS-1976) and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy (1895-1946) were appointed as

Itten's successors and pursued a more industriai approach, with studeats being taken on
factory visits. ln 1923 the Bauhaus staged a landmark exhibition highlighting the full
scope of its activities, One development seen at this exhibition was the new image that

the Bauhaus had forged for itself- the graphics from this period were self-consciously

{
i
24
:llodettt, il:corporalittg "Netr, 1-y;ogl'aphy". The exhihitir:n. s,lrich also fbalured De Stiil
designs. won the sc.lti:ol ir:ternalional critical acclaim. Tl-ris success rvas short-liveil.

hou,ever, u,hel the r"ighf-rving padies rvt'rn tlre rtrajolity vote irr the State electit"lts in
Thuringia tn 1924, tlie Baul.raus'budgel was slashed by half.

ln 1925 the Masters voted to dissclve the schcol in Weimar and Cropius relocated the

Bauhaus to Dessau, where the ruling Social Democrats and the liberal mayor were far

more receptive to its ideals. This industrial city offered the Bauhaus the financial support
it so desperately required on the understanding that the school would part-fund itself
through the manufacture and sale of the designs it produced. The mo:rey it put up was
sufficient to allow a new purpose-built school to be constructed, and in 1926 the Bauhaus
moved into its newly-completed Dessau headquarters designed by Walter Cropius.

The Dessau Bauhaus, with its highly rational pre-fabricated building, marked an
important tuming-point in the school's evolution away from craft and towards
industrializod production. By now, Cropius had become disillusioaed with socialism; he
believed that Heary Ford's type of industrial capitalism could belefit workerc and that, in
order to survive, the Bauhaus needed to adopt an industrial approach to design,

I Answer thefollowing questions:

l. What is a typical Bauhaus design?

2. Why was Johannes ltten the most valuable teacher in &e school?

3. What is the significance of the Bauhaus?

25
ll Fint{ lke v'ortlt in the le.rt lhul corresltond:

- is a piece of tvork that so:r':eore is asked to do and is paid {rx'.

- the people who work lbr an otganization.

- the person who takes someone's job after they have left.

- an irnportant stage in the development of samething.

- to ernphasize sornelhing.

- a public praise for someone or something'

: fior€ than half of people or things in a group.

- the person in a town or city who has been elected to represent it.

- the main offices.

- a lime at which an important change takes place which affects the

future of a person or thing.

26
 (}. I-EATI{gR
'

Leatl:er is a; ali:ral skin (or hide) u,hich has been tlealed and :"::ade suiiable for use

so that it can be sewn into a required shape . The process of conyerting skils jnto leatlrer
is called tanning. Tannir:g convens the otherwise perishable skin to a stable and
nondecaying material. Though the skins of such diverse animals as ostrich, lizard, eel,
aad kangaroo have beel used, the more cornrron leathers come &om cattle, including calf
and ox; sheep and larnb; goat and kid; horse, mule, and zebra; bu{falo; pig; seal, walrus,

whale, and alligator. Leather making is an ancient art that has been practiced for more
than 7,000 years.
Leather, skin or hide of animals, cured by tanning to prevent decay and to impart
flexibility and toughness. Prehistoric and pdmitive peoples preserved pelts with grease
and srnoke and used them chiefly for shoes, garments, coverilgs, tents, and containers.

Today pelts are prepared for tanning by dehairing, usually with lime, followed by
fleshing and cleaning. After tanning, leather is generally treated with fats to assure
pliabilily. The practice of shaving leather to the required thickness was abandoned early
in the 18th century after the invention of a machinE that split the tanned leathq into a
flesh layer and a grain (hair-side) layer.
Today, most leather is made of cow hides, but many exceplions exist. Lamb and deer
skin are used for soft leather in more expensive apparels. Kangaroo leather is used to
make items which need to be strong but flexible, such as molorcycle gloves. Kangaroo
leather is favored by motorcyclists specifically because of its lighter weight and higher

abrasion resistance as compared to cowhide. Leather made from more exotic skins has a1

different times in history been considered very beautiful. For this reason certain snakes
and crocodiles have been huated to near extinction.

27
I Arrswer the .fbllotoi n g questi otrs:

1. What is leatl.ler?
2. Which skils,rhides are used in leather;rroductiol?
3" What is the rame of the pl?cess by which skins are prevented fronr perishing?
4. What did primitive peoples do to pressrve hides?

5, Eaumerate adieles $ade of leather.

II Give adjectlvesfar the following nouw:

SUITABILITY
PERISfiINC
STABILITY
USAGE
G.REASE
PLIAB]LITY
THICNNESS
R.SSISTANCE
EXOTICA
BEAUTY
EXTINCTION

28
 I I. RUBSER

I T.I. NATURAL RUBBER

Rubber is natuml or s1,r:thetic substance characterized by e1as1ici1y. tvater repellelce,

and electrical resistance. Natural rubber is obtained &onr the milky white fluid called
latcx, {ound in many plants; syrthetic rubbers are produced from unsaturated
hydrocarbons.

To gather the latex frorn plantation trees, a diagolal cut aagled downward is made
througl the bark; this cut extends one-third to one-half of the circumference of the trunk.
The latex exudes frorn the cut and is collected in a small cup. The amount of latex
obtained on each tapping is about 30 ml.
In the United Slates, rubberized goods had become popular by the 1830s, and rubber
bottles and shoes made by the Native South Americans were imporled in substantial
qirantities, Other rubber adicles were imported &om England, and in 1832, a, Roxbury,

Massachusetts, John Haskins and Edward Chaffee organized the first rubber-goods

factory in the United States. However, the resulting products, Iike the imported articles,
became brittle in cold weather, and tacky and malodorous il summer. In 1834 the
Cennan chemist Friedrich Ludersdorf and the Arnerican chemist NathanieJ Hayward
discovered that the addition of sulfur to gum rubber lessened or eliminated the stickiness

of finished rubber goods. In 1839 the American inventor Charles Goodyear, using the
findings of the two chemists, discovered that cookiag rubber with sulftr removed the
gum's ualavorable properties, in a process called vulcanization.

Vulcanized rubber has increased strength and elasticity and gleater resistance to changes
in temperature than unvulcanized rubber; it is impermeable to gases, and resistant to
abrasion, chemical action, heat, and electricity; vulcanized rubber also exhibits high

frictional resistalce on dry surfaces and low frictional resistance on water-wet surfaces.

29
I 1.2 SYNTTIC'nC l{ll3t}gR

Ary artifieially producecl subslance lhat rese:"nbles nalural :"ubber in essential chen:ical

ar":d phvsical properlies can ire called synthelic rui:ber. Such substances are produced b1,

chemical reaclions, kntrvn as ccndensatio:r cr polymerization, cf cerlail ul:saturated

hydrocarbons. The basic urils of synlhetic n:bber are monomers, which are colrpounds
of relatively low molecular weight that fonn the buildi:rg units of huge molecules called
polymers. Afler lbbricaliol, the synthetic rubber is cured by vuleanization.

I Ayswer llt e .followittg q uestions:

1. What is the difference between natural and synthetic rubber?

2. How do we get latex?
3. When did rubberized goods become popular in the United States?
4. In what way vulcanized rubber differ from unvulcanized rubber?
5. Wl:a1 is the name of chemical reaction by which synthetic rubber is obtained?
6. If you combine several basic units of synlhetic rubber, what do you get?

II Give the nounform of thefollowing verbs:

RUBBERTZE NATURALIZE

INCREASE COLLECT

CHARACTERIZE RESULT

DISCOVER POPULARIZE

REPEL IMPORT

RESIST ELIMINATE

PRODUCE INVENT

GATHER EXHIB]T

EXTENl) FABRICATE

ORGANIZE QUANTIFY

30
 I2. PLASI'IC]S

Whetlier vot: ale aware of it or nct, plastics play an inrl'rorlant pai in yr:ur'1ife.
Plastics'r,ersatilily a:'e resporlsible lor its mary uses: evel/thing flottl car parts to doll
parIs, ilom soft drink bottles to the refrigerators they get stored in. From the car you drive
to rvort in to the television you watch wher you get hcme, plastics help rnake your life
easier and better. So how is it that plastics have acquired so many usss? How did plas:ics

become the material of choice, for so many varied applications?

The sirnple answer is that plastic is the rnaterial that can provide the things consumers
watt and need. Plastics have the unique capability to be manufactured to meet very

specific functional needs.

The first man-made plastic was unveiled by Alexalder Parkes at the 1862 Great

lntematicnal Exhibition in London. This material - which the public dubbed Parkesine -
was an organic material derived from cellulose that once heated could be mclded but that

retained its shape when cooled. Parkes claimed thal this new material could do an1'thing

rubber was capable of; but at a lower price. He had discovered somethiag that could be
transparent as well as carved into thousands of diffeient shapes. But ?arkesine soon lost

its luster, when iavestors pulled the plug on the product due to the high cost of the raw
materials needed in its production.

In 1933, two organic chemists working for the Imperial Chemical Industries Research
Laboratory were testing various chemieals under highly pressurized conditions. In their
wildest imaginations, the two researchers E.W. Fawcett and R.O. Gibson, had no idea
that the revolutionary substance they would come across - polyethylene - would have an

enomlous impact on the world.

Thb researchers set off a reaction between ethylene and benzaldehyde, utilizing two
thousald atmospheres of internal pressure. The experiment went askew when their testilg
container sprang a leak and all of the pressure escaped. Upon opening the tube they were
surprised to find a white, waxy substance thal greatly resembled plastic. When the

31
 cxllt't'itl')enl \\as ciireltjlly lcpeated and anaiy,'zed the scienlisls discorer"ed lhal llre lllss o1'

1:lressu;'e u'as iinly pafily due to a leakl the glealer reitson rryas tlre polyr:rerizaliolr pr"ocess
that harl occurred leavir;g irehind polyelh-vlene. In 1936" In:perial Cherrical Industries
rleveln;:ed a large-volume compr"essor that r.:'rade the p:-oduction of yast quantilies ol
polyethylele possible. This high-volun:e productio:: of polyethylele actually lecl to sonte
lislory-making events.
For instance, polyethylene played a key supporting role during World War II - first as an
undetwater cable coating and then as a critical insulating rnaterial for such vital rnilitary
applications as radar insulalion. This is because it was so light and thin that it made
placing radar onlo airplanes possible; something that could not be done usilg traditional
insulating materials because they weighed too much. In fact, the use of polyethylene as

an insulating material reduced the weight of radars to 600 pounds in 1940 and evea less
as the war progressed. It was these lightweight radar systems, capable of being carried
onboard planes, that allowed the out-numbered Allied aircraff to detect Cennan bombers
under such difficr:lt conditions as nightfall ald thunderstorrus.

It was not until after the war, though, that the material became a tremendous hit with
con$lm€rs and frorn that point on, its rise in popularity has been almost unprecedented.
Plastics engineers are always working to do even more with less material. Since 1977, the
Z-liter plastic soft drink bottle has gone from weighing 68 grams to just 51 grams today,
representin g a 25 percent reduction per bottle. That saves more thaa 206 million pounds
of packaging each year. The l -ga1lon plastic milk jug has undergone afl even greater
reduction, weighing 30 percent less than what it did 20 years ago.

loing more with less helps conserve resources in another way. It helps save energy. In

fact, plastics can play a significant role in €rergy conservation. Just look at the decision
you're asked 1o make at the grocery store check-out: "Paper or plastic?"
Not only do plastic bags require less total energy to produce than paper bags, they
conserYe fuel in shipping. It takes five trucks to carry the same number of paper bags as
fits in one truckload r:f plastic bags.

32
 The uses of plastic tnaterials have grorvn rapidly in recent years. Plastics today play ar:r

important part it cutting-edge technologies such as the space progra:r, bullet*procf vests
and prnsthetic lilrbs, as well as in everyday ploducls such as beverage bottles, medical
devices ald automobiles.

I Answer thefcllowittg qaestions:

L When did Alexander Parkes develcp plastic?

2. How did researchers Falvcet and Gibson make polyethylene?

3. What role did polyethylene play during World War II?

4. How do.we use plastics in everyday life?

5. Enumerate the pros and cons of using plastic materials.

fi Mstch words with explanstions:

cutting-edge something that has nsver happened before

beverage a gap through which a liquid or gas can osgape
to retain the most advanced in a particular field
to undergo a layer of substaace that keeps something warm
irculation a drink
leak to end something
unprecedented to endure
to pull the plug to continue to have somcthing

33
 I3. MARKE']']NC

13.1. DEtr'INITIOI.{S

Marketing, as suggested by the American Marketing Association, is "an organizational

function and a sel of processes for creating, communicating aad delivering value to
cuslomers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization

and its stakeholders".

Another definition, perhaps sirnpler and more universal, is this: "Marketing is the
ongoing process of moviag people closer to making a decision to purchase, use,
follow...or conform to someone else's products, services or values. Simply, if it doesa't
facilitate a "sale" then it's not marketing."
Philip Kotler in his earlier books defines as: "Marketing is human activity directed at
satistring needs and walts through exchange processes".
There is also The Institute of Marketing's definition that claims marketing to be the

"management process of anticipating, identifying and satisfying customer requiremeats

profitably". Thus, operative marketing involves the processes of market research, new
product development, product life cycle managoment, pricing, channel management as

well as prcmotion.

13.2.IIISTORY

The practice of marketing is almost as old as humanity itself. Whener.er a person has

an item or is capableof performing a service, and he or she seeks another person who

might want that item or service, that person is involved in marketing" A market was
originally simply a gathering place where people with a supply of items or capacity to
perform a service could meet with thoss who might desire the items or services, perhaps
at a pre arranged time.

34
Such :.:rectings enrbodied all the aspeels of today's markelirrg:let}:ods, although in an

infonnal way. Sellers and buyers soughl to understand each otlier's needs, capacities, and
psychology, all rvith the goal of getting the exchange of iter:rs or services to take place.

Open mar-kets throughout tl:e world, with buyers and sellex liee1y mingling, are today's

example of this basic activity.

The riso of agricultule undoubtedly influenced markels as the earliest means of 'mass
production'of an item, namely foodstuffs. As agriculture ailowed one to grow more food
than could be eatel b;, the grower alone, and most food is perishable, flrers was likely
motivation to seek out others who cnald use the excess food, before it spoiled, in
exchange for other items.

13.3. MARKETING PLAN

Prior 1o the advent of market researgh, most companies were product-focused,

employing teams of salespeople to push their products into or onto the markel, regardless
of matket desire. A market-focused, or customer-focused, organization instead first
determines what its potential customers desire, and then builds the product or service.

Maiketing theory and practice is justified or the belief that customers use a
product/service because they have a need, or beeause a product/service has a percoived

benefit.

Two major aspects of marketing are the recniitment of aew customers (acquisition) and
the retention and expalsion of relationships with existing customers (base management).

Once a marketer has colverted the prospective buyer, base managemellt marketing takes

over The process for base management shifts ths marketer to building a relatirrnship,
nurturing the lilks, enhancing the benefits that sold the buyer in the first placo, and
improving the product/service continuously to protect business from competitive
encroaclxnents.

For a marketing plan to be successful, the mix of the four "Ps" must reflect the wants and

desires of the sonsumers in the target market. Trying to convi:rce a market segment to

35
buy sanrething tLey don't wart is extrerlely expensive and .seldon: successful. Malketers
depend on matteting research, bcth fcnnal and infor:nal, io determine rvhat consumers

want and what they are willing to pay for. Nlar"keters hope that this process will give therr
a sustainable competitive advantage. Marketing management is the practical applicaticn

of this process. The ofler is also an important addition to the 4P's theory.

13.4. FOUR Ps ( MABKTTTNG Mrx )

E. Jerome McCarthy divided marketing into four geleral sets of activities. His typology
has become so universally recognized that his four activity sets, the Four Ps, have passed

into the language.

The four Ps are:

Product: The Product management ar:d Product marketing aspects of marketing deal with
the speci{icalions of the actral good or service, and how it reiates to the end-user's needs
and wants.

Pricing: This rsfsrs to the process of sefting a price fcr a product, ircluding discounts.
Promotion: This includes advertising, sales promotion, publicity, and personal selling,
and refers to the various methods of promoting the product, brand, or company.

Placement or distributioa refers to how the product gets to the custcmer; for example,
point of sale placement or retailing. This fourth P ha.s also sometimes been called Place,
refering to o'where'o a product or service is so1d, e.g. in which geographic regiol or
industry, to wlich segment (young adults, families, business people, women, men, etc.).
These four elemeats are often referred to as the marketing mix. A markeler can use these

variables to craft a rnarketi:rg plan. The four Ps model is most useful when marketing low
value consumer products. Industrial products, services, high value consumer ptoducts
require adjustments to this model. Services markeling must account for the u:rique nature
of services. Indushial marketing must account for the long term contractual agreements
that are typical in supply chain transactions. Relationship marketing attempts to do this

36
 by looking a1 :l:arketing fi'om a ii:ng Jern: relationship perspectirue ratirer tiral inr;jvidual
tt ansacticxs.

As a counter to this. Morgan, in lliding thc l4tut'c,t o.f'Ckarge (Jossey-Bass, 198g). adds
"Perhaps the most significant criticisrl of tJre 4 Ps apprcach, which you should be aware

of, is that it unconsciouslv emphasizes the inside*oul view {looking from the company
outwards), whereas the essence of marketing should be the outside-il approach,'. Even
so, having made this important cat eat, the 4 Ps offer a memorable and quite workable

guide to the rnajor categories of marteting activity, as well as a framew<lrk within

which
these can be used.

13.5. SEVEN Ps

As well as the standard four Ps (Product, Pricing, Promotion and Placemenl), services
marketing calls upon an extra three, totalling seven and known together as the extended
marketing mix. These are:
People: Any perso:r coming into contact with customers car have an impact cn overall
satisfaction. Whether as part of a supporling service to a product or iavolved in a total
senrice, pecple are particularly important because, in the gustomer,s eyes, they are

geleraiiy inseparable &om the to]al service. As a result cf this, they must be
appropiiately traiaed, well motivated and the right type of perscn. Fellow customers are
also sometime referred to under'people', as they too cal affect the customer's service
experience, (e.g., at a sporling event).

Process: This is the process(es) involved in providing a service and the behayioar of
people, which can be crucial to customer satisfaction.

Physical evidence: Unlike a product, a service cannot be experielced before it is

delivered, which makes it intangible. This, therefcre, means that potential cuslomers
could perceive greater risk when deciding whether or not to use a service. To reduce the
feeling of risk, thus improving the chance for success, it is often vital to offer potential
custcmers the chance to see what a service would be tike. This is done by providing

physical evidsnce, such as case studies, or testimonials.

5t
L3.6" For{MS 0F ADV[r{?isrNG

Prinl
Newspape$ and lAagq44$
Advantages - A lot of ilfor:::alion is kucwn about tlie people wbo read certain papers
Sisadvanlages - Often lot in eolor ald are statjc and silett

Posters and BillboaUlf

Advaalages - High visual iurpact for a long time and will be seen by a lot of different
people
Disadvantages * Are only seen for a few seconds by ddvers and are rrulnerable to wealher
and graffiti

Yellow Pages
Advantages - Anyone looking in the yellow pages wants to buy
Disadvaltages - A 1ot of your competitors are on the same page yor are

Media
Television
Advantages - Can reach millions eif people all over the country
Disadvantages - Very expensive

Radio
Advantages - Cheaper than TV, caa be used tc reach certain listeners
lisadvantages - Sound only, smaller audiences

Cinemas
Advantages - Very high visual and sound effect, higler brand recall, captive audieace
Disadvantages - Are relatively expensive

Communicatiotts

LeaflelS and direct niail

Advantages - Cheap to produce and distribute
Disadvantages - Are easy tc ignore

Telephone
Advantages - Direct to customer, interactive, receive instant feed back
)isadvantages - makes some customers feel their privacy has been violated, sometimes
has negative results

Websites
Advantages - High visual impact, interactive and can link directly to buying the producl,
is relatively cheap
Disadvantages - Thore is a lot of competition so getting people's atteation may be
difficult, needs to be continually updaled, cal become expensive

38
 As*lspiLqrie
Advaatages - Targel od, i n slan lan eous, r,i sually
ath'active, audio/vi su alltextual
Disadvan:ages - l-isers :r:ust dorvnload an application,
and users o*en find the,r
extremely annr:ying, so n:uch so lhal they riay avoid the
advertisenrent I - ----- because of this for:n
product cf

T3.7. CRITICISM OF MARKETING

Some aspects ofmarketing, especiallypromotiol' are tho

subject of criticism. It is
especially problematic in classical economic lheory, which
is based on the assumption
that supply and dernand are independeni. However, product
pro:r:otion is an attempt
ccming from the supply side to irrfluence demand. In this
'way producer market power is
attained as measured by profits that would not be realized
under a llee market. Then the
argumelt follows that non-free markets are imperfect
and lead ta production and
consumption of suboptimal amounts of the product.
critics acknowledge that marketing has iegitimate uses in connecling goods and services
tc the consumers who want them. Critics also poilt out that
marketing techniques have
been used to achieve morally dubious ends by businesses, govemments
and criminals.
Critics see a systemic social evil inherent il marketing.
Marketing is accused of creating
ruthless exploitation of both consumers and workers
by treatiag people as commodities
whose purpose is to consume.

Most marketers believe that marketing, like any other technology,

is amoral. It san be
used for good or evil purposes, but the technique itself
is ethically neutral.

I Answer the follawing questions:

1, I:* many definitions of marketing do you know?

? I&r:l one do you find the most accurate and why?
3. Explain the origir of marketing.
4. Ia what way did ths rise of agriculture influence markets?
5. What are the two major aspects of marketilg?
6. What are the elements ofthe markoting mixi
7. What is the extended marketing mix?
8. How can organizations improve their sales?

?.-t-rr examples of several products and the forms of a,ilvertising them.

10. How do critics view marketing?

39
 I4. MANAGEMEN'T

"Managentent" cha:acterizes the process of leading a*d directing all or parl of an

organization, r:ften a business, through tire deployment and ma:ripulation of resources
(humal, financial, material, intellectual or intangible). Early trventieth-century
management writer Mary Par:ker Follett defiled management as "the a:1 of getting things

done through people."

One caa also think of manage:nent functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on

a regular basis and of adjusting some initial p1al, and as the actions taken to reach one's

intendsd goal. This applies even in situatioas where planning does not take place" From
this perspective, there are five management functions: planning, orgonizing, leading, co-
ordinating and contrclling. For others, this definition, while usefu1, is far too tarrow.
The phrase "management is what managers do" is also prevalent, conveying the difficulty
with which management is defined, ths shifting nature of definitions, and the connection
of managerial practices with &e existence of a managerial cadre or class.

Managemetrt is known by some as "business administration", allhough this thea excludes

managemenl in places oulside business, eg. charities and tho public sector. University

departments that leach management are nonetheless usually called "business schools'i.

The term "management" may also be used as a collective word, describe the maaagers of
an orga:lization, for example of a corporation,

From the most general systemic perspeetive, managetnent is a high level mental and
communication activity, of the indirect goal-orielted conlrol of the domain of interest
using autonomous execution and information units. The main management geaeric
missions are: confrontation of objectives with the possibilitios, planning, and leading of
autonomous human units to the goal achieving. In every such situation, a continuous
decision-makiag is required.

40
:4.r. NATUT{E O}- WORK

'I'he objective of any fir:rr is to market and seil its products or sen ices profitably. In

sl:all ti:"ns, llte owler or chief executive oflicer night tssll11l€ al1 adverlisilg,
promotioas, n:arteting, sales, and public lelations responsibilities. In lalge finns, which

may offer nume:ous products and seryices natioaally o:: eyor wor{dwide, an executive
vice president directs overall advertising, promotions, marketing, sales, and public
relations pclicies. Advertising, mar.teting, promotions, public relations, and sales

malagerc coordinate the market research, marketing strategy, sales, adveltising,

promotion, pricing, product development, aad pubiic relatiotrs activities.

Advertising nxanagers oversee advertising and promotion staffs, which usually are small,
except in the largest firms. In a small firm, managers may serve as Jiaisons between the

firm aad the advedising or promotion agency to which many advertising or promotional
funotions are contracted out. ln larger fimrs, advertising managers oversee in-house
account, creative, and meriia services departments.

The accoun! executive maltages the account senices department, assesses the need for
adverlising, and, ia advertisiug agencies, maintains the accounts of clients. The creative
services departmenl develops the subject matter and presentation of advertising.

Prcmotions managers supervise staffs of promotion specialists. These managsrs direct

promotion programs that cr:mbine advertising with purchase iacentives to increase sales.
In an effort to establish closer contact with purchasers*dealers, distributors, or
consumers-promotion programs may use direct mail, telemarketitrg, television or radio
advertising, catalogs, exhibits, iaserts in newspapers, Intemet advediseneriis or Web
sites, in-store displays or produet endorsements, ald special events. Purchasing

incettives may inClude discounts, samples, gifts, rebates, coupons, and contests.

*{arketing managers develop the firm's rnarketing strategy in detail. lVith the help of
subordinates, includi*g product deye.lapntent managers a*d market reseurch mqnQgers,

41
they estiinate the deilald for prcducts ald services offered by the finn and its
ccxrrpetitors. ln addition, they identi*y potential lrrarkets--fbr example, business firnls,

wholesalers, retailers. goyei.rrment. or tire general public. klarketilg lranagers develop

prir:ing strategy to lielp finns naximize profits and market share while ensuring that the
flrm's cuslomels are satisfied. In collaboration with sales. product developnient. and

other managers, they nronitor trends that indicate the aeed for new products and services,
and they oversee produet ilevelopment. Marketing managers work with advertisiug and

promotion managers to promote the firm's products and services and to attract potential
lsers,

Public relations ma,?agers supervise public relations specialists. These managers direct
publicity programs to a targeted audience. They often specialize il a specific area, such

as crisis managemett, or in a specific industry, such as health care. They use every

available communication medium to maintain the support of the specific group upon
whom their organization's success depends, such as consumers, stockholders, or the
general public. For example, public relations managers may clarify or justi$ the firm's
point of vierv on health or environmerrtai issues to community or special-ilterest groups.
Public relations managcrs alsc evaluate arlvertising and promotiol programs for
compatibillty with public relations etforts aad serve as the eyes and ears of top
maRageinent. They observe social, economic, and political trends that rnight ultimately

affect the firm, and they make recommendations 1o elhaace the firm's image on the basis
of those trends.
Public relations manag$rs may confer with labor relations mallagers to produce internal
comparry communicalions-such as newslelters about employee-management relations-
and with fir:aacial managers to produce company reports. They assist company
executives in drating speeches, arranging interviews, and maintaining other fonns of
public contact; oversee company archives; and respond to requests for information. In
additioa, some of these managers handle special events, such as the sponsorship of races,
parties iatroducing new products, or other activities that the firm suppcrts in order to gain
public attention through the press without advertising directly.

42
 Sulcs munager:s direcl lJre tr'it':tt's sales program. They assigri
sales tesitories. set goais.
and establish trailing llrograms fol the sales lepresentalives.
Sales managers adrrise the
sales representalives oil ways to improve thei;"sales perfor:nance.
In large, nulliprcduct
finr:s, they oversee regional ald lccal sales managers and their- stafls"
Sales rnanagers
maintain contact with dealers and distributors. They analyze
sales statistics gathered by
their stalls to detennine sales potential and inventory requireinents
and to nrcnitor
custcmer's' preferences. Such iltormation is vital in the development
of products and the
maximization of profi ts.

I4.2. WORKING CONDITIONS

Advertising, marketirrg, promotions, public relations, and sales managers

work in
offices close to those of top m&nagers. Long hours, including evenings
and weekends, are
eommon. Ir.2A04, about hvo{hirds of advertising, markedng,
and public relations
managers worked mi:re than 40 hours a week. Working under pressure js
unavoidable
whel sehedules change aad probrems arise, but deadrines ard goals must
stilr be met.
Substantial travel may be involved. For example, attendance at
meetings sponsored by
associations or industries often is mandatory. Sales managers travel
to national, regional,
and local offices and to the offices of various dealers and dishibutors.
Advertising and
promotiols managsrs may favel to meet with clients or represeltatives
of
communioations media. At times, public relations managers travel to
meet with specia!
inierest groups or govemment officials. Job traasfers between headquarters
and regional
offices are common, particularly amCIng sales managers.

43
 I Answer th e .followitrg questi otts :

1. Explain the tern *managernent" in your own words.

2. What qualities should a good manager possess?
3. What are the responsibilities of an advertising manager?

4. What is the di{ference tietween promotion maxagers and marketing managers?

5. llow iraportant is a PR manager in the media world?

6. Yfhat do sales rnaaageisdo?
7. What are the ups and downs of being a manager?

II Fiu,d in the text synanyrvs or €xpr€ssiens slmilar in meaning to fhe follow*tg:

AIM,GOAL n. REFTIND n.

SUPERVISF v. COOPERATION,n,

DISTRIBUTE v. IM?ROVEv.

ENCOURACEMSNT.,
INDUCEMENT n. DISCUSS v.

BUYER n. COIv{PULSORY adj,

i

I
t
i
I
t

I
I
I
!

44
 SAFETY AI\I} HEALTI1 AT WORK

**
Safety and healll,l at work's job is to protect people against risks to healtli or safety

arising out of work activities. It is concerned with prctecting the safety, health and

welfare of people engaged in work or employment. The goal of it is to create and

maintain a safe work environmenl. As a secondary effect, it nray also protect co-workers,
family melnbers, ernployers, customers, suppliers, nearby communities, and other
members of the public who are impacted by the workplace elvironment.

Since 1950, the International Laborr Organization and the World Health Orgaaization
l:ave shared a common deflrrition of occupalional health. It was adopted by the Joint
Cornmittee on Occupational Health at its first sessiol i:r 1950 and revised at its twelfth
session in 1995.

The definition reads: "Occupational health should aim at; the promotiol arrd maintetanco

cf the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in al1

occupations; the preveltiol amongst workers of departures *om health caused by their
working conditiols; the protection of workers in their employment from risks rJsuking
&cm factors adverse to health; the placing and maintenance of the worker in al
occupational environment adapted to his physiological and psychologicai capabilities;
and, to summarize. the adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job."

Every year more th'an 2 million people die Aom ocopational acciderrts or work-related
diseases. By conservative estimates, there are270 million occupational acsidents and 160
million cases of occupational disease. The safety of work varies enormously between
countries, economic sectors and social groups. Deaths and iajuries take a particularly
heavy toll in developing nations, where large numbers of people ale engaged in
hazardcus activities such as agrieulture, construction, logging, {lshing and mining.

Throughout the world, the poorest and least protected * often women, children and
migrants - are among the most affected.

45
 The reasons for eslablislling good safety and healfb at work standards ar"e lir"equently

identified as mo:"al, economic and legai. All workers are en1i1!ed to wor* in enviroltnents
rvl:ere risks to their health and safcty are properly controlled.

Wor"kers in every occupation can be faced with a multitude of hazards in the workplace.

Preverrting work-related dissases and accidents must be the goal of occupational healtl:

and safety programmes, rather than atternpting to solve problems after they have already

developed.

Hazards in the rvorkplace caa be found in a variety of fotms, including chemical,

physical, biological, psychological, non-application of ergonomic principles, etc. Because

of the multitude of hazards in most workplaces and the overall lack of attention givan to
healtl and safely by many employers, work-related accidents and diseases oontinue to be
serious problems in all parls of the world.

Management oomrnih::ent to health and safety and strong worker participation are two
essential elements of any successful workplace health and safety programme. The most

effective accident and disease prevention begins when work processes are still iu the
design stage.
\)bq.r,*Js .S55 lU.r$
G',\{" : f56o 2r.,r\O,".
{ Answer tke.follawing questions:

1. What is health and safety at work?

2. Why is health and safety at work imporlant?

3. What hazards do you know exist in some workplaces?

46
 vOCABULARY
POLLUTION
pollution n.- zagadenje
soil n.-zamlji5te
sew&ge n"-ctpad, kanalizacija
impair v.- pokvariti. o5tetili
depletion n.-oitedenj e. srr:lalj er:j e
shield v.- zaklanjati
crop n.Jetina
enhance v.- poboljSati
by-product n,-nusproizvod
enterprise n. - preduzeie
afTect v.-uticati
acid rain n.- kisela ki5a
carbon dioxide n.- ugljen dioksid
carbon mcnoxide n.-ugljen monoksid
nitrogea n.-azot
sulfi.rr dioxide n.-sumpor dioksid
lead n.-olovo
greelhouse effect n.-efekat stakleae
ba31e
GRAPHTC.pESISN
convey v.-preneti
persuasive adj.- ubedljiv
layout n.-priprema za $tampu
typeface n.-slog
typography n. - itamparstvo
(stationery) leterhead n.- list sa logom
firme
indispensable adj. - lezamenljiv
steel n.,adj.-delik, od ielika
overlap v.- preklapati se
entwire v.- preplitati se
INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
skeam I ine v. -moderni zov ati,
dali aerodinamidan izgled
slender adj.- vitak, tanak
prolific adj.- plodan, produhivan
boost v.- podstaii
wager v.- opkladiti se
fl eetingly adv. -letim idno
mussel sheli n.- dagnja
S]EMENS
implement v.-sprovesti. izvr'Siti
subsidiary adj.- filijala
lbcilities n.- objekti, kapaciteti
expropriate v.-oduzeti posed
merg€ v.- spojiti
'-#
IKEA ,E
plethora n.-obilje
variety n.-raznovrsnost
stockings n.-ienske iarape
retailing n.- prodaja na malo
recruit v.- angaiovati
oao-off ad,- jedinstven
hard-wearing adj. -trai an, izdriljiv
piae n.*tror
pre-fabri cated adj. -montain i
to be in/at the forefiont -biti na ielu
FORD
accessible a{.- pristupaian
multitude n.- mno3tvo
reliabie adj.- pouzdan
in;tigate v.- zapodeti, podstaknuti
come up wi& v.- izmisliti
assembly line n.- pokretna traka
- emphasis n.- isticanje, nagla$avanje
predecessor n"- prethodnik
launch v.- promovisati
vehicle n.- vozilo
evolve v.- razviti
smooth adj.- gladak
crisp adj.- odsedan, dvrst
intersection n.- presecanje
headlight n.-far
heritage n.-naslede
BAUHAU$
craft n.* zalat
endeavour n.- poku5aj, nastojanje
curricllum -nastavni plan
n "
commission n.-porudZbina
47
stafTn.- osoblie al'rrasion n "-s1ru ganje. bruienje
circle n.- krug extinction n. -istrebljelj e
squaro n.-kvadrat
cone n"-kupa
unadomed adj.-i ednostava:l, neukraien
landmark n. -znak, prekretnica RUBtsER
tuming-point n. -prekretaica repeilence n.-odbij anj e
r:nsaturated adj.-r:ezasi den
hydro carbon n. -u gij ovodonik
LEATHER bark n.-kora drveta
I eather n.-koia {Stavlj ena) extend v.- protezati se
hide n.- koia (sirova) circumference n.-obim
tanning n.- Stavljenje trunk n.-stablo
sewn (p.ptc.) sew v.- 5i1i exude v.-izluditi
peri shable adj.-kvarljiv, koji propada substantial adj.- znatan
decay v,-truliti goods n.- roba, dobra
sheep n.-ovca brittle adj,-krt
ostrich n.- noj tacky adj.-lepljiv
lizxd n.-guSter malodorous adj.Joieg mirisa
eel n.-iegulja gum a.-smola
calf n.-tele lessen v.- smanjiti
ox n.- vo stickiness n.- lepljivost
lamh n.-jagnje impermeable adj,- nepromoiiv,
kid n.-jare nepropustljiv
mule n.-mazga friction n.-trenje
sea1n.-fcka artifi cia11y adv.-veltadko
walrus n.-mort resemble v.- liditi
whale n.-kit weight v.- teiiti
ancient adj.-starinski, davni huge adj.- ogroman
prevent v.- sprediti vulcan ization v. -wlkanizacij a
impart v.-dati, pruZiti l]lonomer 1}.- monomer
flexibility n.-gipkost, savitljivost polymer n.* polimer-
toughncss n.- izdrZljivost
pelt n.- krzno ili koZa za obradu PLASTICS
chiefl y adv.- prevashodno, uglavnom versatil ity n.- raznovrsnost, svestranost
garment n.-odefa acquire v.-postiii
tent n.-Sator unveil v. -otkriti, cbelodaniti
lime n.-krei dub v.*nazvati
pliability n. -elastidnost heat v.-grejati
abandone n.-napustiti mo(u)ld v.- oblikovati, izliti
split v.-rascepiti retain v.- zadrYzali
grain splitting n.- cepanje lica ciaim v.- tvrditi
layer n.-sloj luster(lustre) n.- sjaj, siava
deer n.-jelen pu11 the plug-zaustaviti, spreiiti
apparel n.- odeia due to-zbog
gloves n.-rukavice raw adj.-sirov

48
pcly'ethylene n, -pclielitrer
set offv.- pokrenuti
intemal adj.-u::utra3nii
go askew-poii naopakc
spring a leak-procuriti
waxy adj.-lalik aa vosak
unprecedenled adj.-:reduvsn. bez
presedala
cutting-edge adj. -n aj savremeni j e,
poslednja red
bullet-procf adj.- neprobojan
prosthesis n.- proteza
beverage n.- pi6e
MARKETINC
stakeholder (stockholder) n.-deoniiar
purchase v.- nabaviti, kupiti
facilitate v.- olak5ati
exchange n.* tazmena
alticipate v. -predvideti
thus adv.-tako, prema tome
sought (p.t, )seek v.-tragati
wdoubtedly adv.-bez sumnje
means n.-sredstvo
excess n.-vi5ak
prior to-pre
justified adj.-opravdan
retention n. -zadrZavanj e
marketer (ma:&eteer) n.-osoba koja
u oblasti marketinga
marketing-drivenadj.-triiSnoorijentisan
nurture v.-negovati
enhance v.-uveiavati
encro achment n.-pri sv aj anj e
seldom adj.-retko
sustainable adj.- odriiv
discount n,-popust
adjustment n.-prilagodavanj e
caveat n.-opomena
inseparabl e adj -neodvoj iv
.
intangible adj.-nedodirljiv
instantaneous adj.-trenutan
dubious adj.-sumajiv
exploitalion n. -iskoriltavanj e
commodity n. -rotra, artikal,sirovirre
MANAGEMEN'f
lead v.- voditi
deployment n.-grupisanje,
rasporedil,anje
preval ent adj. -rasprostra:rj en
shifting adj.-promsnljiv
cadre n.-kadat
exclude v.-isklj uditi, zanemariti
ge:reric adj.-tipiian
liaisor n.-veza
oversee v.- nadgledati
assess v.- ocenili
supervi s e v .-nadzir ati,upravlj ati
incentive n.- podstrek
endorsemenl n. -rekl amiranj e
rebate n.- popust
estimate v.-proceniti
wholesaler l.-trgovac aa veliko
confer v.-savetovati se
newsletters n.-bilten
unavoidable adj.-neizbeZan
deadline n.-kraj4ji rok
mandatory adj. -obavezno
SAI'ETY AND HEALTH AT WORK
safety n.* bezbednost
health n.- zdravlje ,
welfare n.- dobrobit
radi goai rr.- cilj
maintain v.- odriati
communityn.-zajednica
labour n.- rad
session n.- zasedaaje, sednica
disease n.- bolest, oboljenje
toll n.- danak, gubitak
oocupaticaal adj.- profesionalni
hazardous adj.- opasan
muititude l.- mno$tvo
49
 REFERENCE;

Collins COBUILD Englislz Dic:tionary Harper Collins Publishers, Londcn, 1997.

Quirk,R., Greenbaurn,S., Leech,G., Svartvik,J. A Gr{tntmar o{Corxtempord4v English,

Longmaa Croup Limited, London, 1972.

Leech,G., Svartvik,J. A Comrnunicative Grammar of English, Longman Group Limited,

London,1989.
Swan, M. Practical English Usage, Oxfcrd University Press, Oxford, 1996,
Filipovii, k. Englesko-hrvatski ili srpski rjeinik,Grafid.ki zavod Hnratske i Skolska
kqjiga, Zagreb,1990.
Charlotte & Peter Fiell,Industrial Design A-Z,TASCHEN Gmbh, 2006.
Butler, J. Management: An fn*oductioru, Oxford Business Publishing, Oxford, I992.
Mack, L.& Manse r, J. Howe Design, Orbis Publishing, London, 1982.

http://www. eb.com/librarylonline/.bcl.html
http //www. answers. som/variou stopic/
:

http //www,raymondloewy. coml

:

http://www.art.net
http ://www.desi gnboom. com
http :l/www. idc.iitb.ae.in
http :/lwww.mgrketingrower. oofi
htlp //www.marketingabout.com
:

http:/1www.bls.govl
http ://www.b1s. govloco/ocosO20.htm
http ://rubb ertechnol o gy, info/en/glo s sary-o trubbertenn s/
http :l/rubbertechno lo gy. in fo/en/overvi ew-rubberqualiti es/sol ect-
http /iwww. rubb erworld. com
:

http://www.defra. gov.uk
http://www.environment-ageacy. gov"uk/subjecte/waterres l?l*g= e
http ://edis.ifas.ufl edu/TOPIC Natural Resources_and the-Envirouent
.

http ://www. environment-agency. gov. uk/subj ects/waterrls/fl an g=-e

http :l/en.wikipedia.org/
http ://actrav.itcilo.org
http ://encarta.msn. com
http://encata,msn.ccm/encycloped ial 61 57 7 41 3lAir_Pollution.hhnl

50