WK 8 Resp Web

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Vince Austin, University of Kentucky Revision – Respiratory System
Week 8 –The Respiratory System
(Slides 2-4, 7-24, 32,33 & 37 are revision) § Consists of the respiratory and conducting zones
§ Respiratory zone
Chapter 22 §
§ Consists of bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
Human Anatomy & Physiology, Sixth Edition

Elaine N. Marieb
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings
Revision – Respiratory System Revision – Respiratory System
§ Conducting zone
§ Provides rigid conduits for air to reach the sites of
gas exchange
§ Includes all other respiratory structures (e.g., nose,
nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea)
§
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings Figure 22.1
Major Functions of the Respiratory System Major Functions of the Respiratory System
§ To supply the body with oxygen and dispose of

carbon dioxide
3.
§ Respiration –four distinct processes must happen
1.
4. Internal respiration –gas exchange between
systemic blood vessels and tissues
2. External respiration –gas exchange between the
lungs and the blood
1
Revision – Function of the Nose Revision – Nasal Cavity
§ The only externally visible part of the respiratory

system that functions by:
§ Inspired air is:
§ Providing an airway for respiration
§ Humidified by the high water content in the nasal
§ Moistening and warming the entering air
cavity
§ Filtering inspired air and cleaning it of foreign
§ Warmed by rich plexuses of capillaries
matter
§ Ciliated mucosal cells remove contaminated mucus
§ Serving as a resonating chamber for speech
§ Housing the olfactory receptors

Revision –Functions of the Nasal Mucosa and Conchae Revision – Paranasal Sinuses
§ During inhalation the conchae and nasal mucosa:

§ Filter, heat, and moisten air § Sinuses in bones that surround the nasal cavity
§ During exhalation these structures: § Sinuses lighten the skull and help to warm and
§ Reclaim heat and moisture moisten the air
§ Minimize heat and moisture loss
Revision – Pharynx Revision – Pharynx
§ Funnel-shaped tube of skeletal muscle that connects

to the: § It is divided into three regions
§ Nasal cavity and mouth superiorly § Nasopharynx
§ Larynx and esophagus inferiorly § Oropharynx
§ Extends from the base of the skull to the level of the § Laryngopharynx
sixth cervical vertebra
2
Revision – Nasopharynx Revision – Oropharynx
§ Lies posterior to the nasal cavity, inferior to the § Extends inferiorly from the level of the soft palate to
sphenoid, and superior to the level of the soft palate the epiglottis
§ Strictly an air passageway § Opens to the oral cavity via an archway called the
fauces
§ Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium
§ Serves as a common passageway for food and air
§ Closes during swallowing to prevent food from
entering the nasal cavity § The epithelial lining is protective stratified
squamous epithelium
§ The pharyngeal tonsil lies high on the posterior wall
§ Palatine tonsils lie in the lateral walls of the fauces
§ Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tubes open into the
lateral walls § Lingual tonsil covers the base of the tongue
Revision – Laryngopharynx Revision – Larynx (Voice Box)
§ Attaches to the hyoid bone and opens into the

laryngopharynx superiorly
§ Serves as a common passageway for food and air § Continuous with the trachea posteriorly
§ Lies posterior to the upright epiglottis § The three functions of the larynx are:
§ Extends to the larynx, where the respiratory and § To provide a patent airway
digestive pathways diverge § To act as a switching mechanism to route air and
food into the proper channels
§ To function in voice production

Revision – Framework of the Larynx Revision – Vocal Ligaments
§ Cartilages (hyaline) of the larynx

§ Attach the arytenoid cartilages to the thyroid
§ Shield-shaped anterosuperior thyroid cartilage with cartilage
a midline laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple)
§ Composed of elastic fibers that form mucosal folds
§ Signet ring–shaped anteroinferior cricoid cartilage called true vocal cords
§ Three pairs of small arytenoid, cuneiform, and § The medial opening between them is the glottis
corniculate cartilages
§ They vibrate to produce sound as air rushes up from
§ Epiglottis –elastic cartilage that covers the the lungs
laryngeal inlet during swallowing
3
Revision – Vocal Ligaments Revision – Sphincter Functions of the Larynx
§ The larynx is closed during coughing, sneezing, and

Valsalva’s maneuver
§ Valsalva’s maneuver
§ False vocal cords § Air is temporarily held in the lower respiratory tract
by closing the glottis
§ Mucosal folds superior to the true vocal cords
§ Causes intra-abdominal pressure to rise when
§ Have no part in sound production abdominal muscles contract
§ Helps to empty the rectum
§ Acts as a splint to stabilize the trunk when lifting
heavy loads
Revision – Trachea Revision – Conducting Zone: Bronchi
§ The carina of the last tracheal cartilage marks the

§ Flexible and mobile tube extending from the larynx end of the trachea and the beginning of the right and
into the mediastinum left bronchi
§ Composed of three layers § Air reaching the bronchi is:
§ Mucosa –made up of goblet cells and ciliated § Warm and cleansed of impurities
epithelium § Saturated with water vapor
§ Submucosa –connective tissue deep to the mucosa § Bronchi subdivide into secondary bronchi, each
supplying a lobe of the lungs
§ Adventitia –outermost layer made of C-shaped
rings of hyaline cartilage § Air passages undergo 23 orders of branching in the
lungs
Revision – Conducting Zone: Bronchial Tree Revision – Conducting Zone: Bronchial Tree
§ Tissue walls of bronchi mimic that of the trachea

§ As conducting tubes become smaller, structural § Bronchioles
changes occur § Consist of cuboidal epithelium
§ Cartilage support structures change § Have a complete layer of circular smooth muscle
§ Epithelium types change § Lack cartilage support and mucus-producing cells
§ Amount of smooth muscle increases
4
Respiratory Zone Respiratory Zone
§ Defined by the presence of alveoli; begins as

terminal bronchioles feed into respiratory
bronchioles
§ Respiratory bronchioles lead to alveolar ducts, then

to terminal clusters of alveolar sacs composed of
alveoli
§ Approximately 300 million alveoli:
§
§
Figure 22.8a
Respiratory Zone Respiratory Membrane
§
§ Alveolar and capillary walls
§ Their fused basal laminas
§ Alveolar walls:
§ Are a single layer of type I epithelial cells
§ Permit gas exchange by simple diffusion
§ Secrete angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
§ Type II cells secrete surfactant
Figure 22.8b
Alveoli Respiratory Membrane
§ Surrounded by fine elastic fibers

§ Contain open pores that:
§ Connect adjacent alveoli
§ House macrophages that keep alveolar surfaces

sterile
InterActive Physiology®:
PLAY
Respiratory System: Anatomy Review: Respiratory Structures
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings Figure 22.9b
5
Respiratory Membrane Revision –Gross Anatomy of the Lungs
§ Lungs occupy all of the thoracic cavity except the

mediastinum
§ Root –site of vascular and bronchial attachments
§ Costal surface –anterior, lateral, and posterior

surfaces in contact with the ribs
§ Apex –narrow superior tip
§ Base –inferior surface that rests on the diaphragm

§ Hilus –indentation that contains pulmonary and
systemic blood vessels
Figure 22.9.c, d
Revision – Lungs Blood Supply to Lungs
§ Lungs are perfused by two circulations: pulmonary

§ Cardiac notch (impression) –cavity that and bronchial
accommodates the heart
§
§ Left lung –separated into upper and lower lobes by
the oblique fissure
§ Branch profusely, along with bronchi
§ Right lung –separated into three lobes by the
oblique and horizontal fissures § Ultimately feed into the pulmonary capillary
network surrounding the alveoli
§ There are 10 bronchopulmonary segments in each
lung § Pulmonary veins –carry oxygenated blood from
respiratory zones to the heart
Blood Supply to Lungs Pleurae
§ Bronchial arteries –provide systemic blood to the

lung tissue § Thin, double-layered serosa
§ Arise from aorta and enter the lungs at the hilus § Parietal pleura
§ Supply all lung tissue except the alveoli §
§ Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins

§ Continues around heart and between lungs
§
6
Revision – Pleurae Breathing
§ Visceral, or pulmonary, pleura

§ Covers the external lung surface § Breathing, or pulmonary ventilation, consists of two
phases
§ Divides the thoracic cavity into three chambers
§
§ The central mediastinum
§
§ Two lateral compartments, each containing a
lung
Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity
§ Respiratory pressure is always described relative to

atmospheric pressure
§
§ Atmospheric pressure (Patm)
§ § Intrapleural pressure (Pip) –pressure within the
§ Negative respiratory pressure is less than Patm pleural cavity
§ Positive respiratory pressure is greater than Patm
Pressure Relationships Pressure Relationships
How is the –ve intrapulmonary pressure established?

§ § Two forces act to pull the lungs away from the
thoracic wall, promoting lung collapse
§ Intrapulmonary pressure always eventually §
equalizes itself with atmospheric pressure
§ Intrapleural pressure also fluctuates with breathing, § Surface tension of alveolar fluid constantly acts to
but is always less (about 4 mm Hg) than draw alveoli to their smallest possible size
intrapulmonary pressure and atmospheric pressure
§ Opposing force –elasticity of the chest wall pulls
the thorax outward to enlarge the lungs
7
Pressure Relationships Pressure relationships - Lung Collapse
§ Transpulmonary pressure keeps the airways open

§ Transpulmonary pressure –difference between the
intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures
(Ppul –Pip)
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings Figure 22.12 Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings
Pulmonary Ventilation Boyle’s Law
§ Boyle’s law –the relationship between the pressure

and volume of gases
§ A mechanical process that depends on volume

changes in the thoracic cavity
§ P = pressure of a gas in mm Hg
§
§ V = volume of a gas in cubic millimeters
§ Subscripts 1 and 2 represent the initial and resulting
conditions, respectively
Boyle’s Law cont Inspiration
§ The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

(inspiratory muscles) contract and the rib cage rises
§ Gases always fill their container
§
§
§ Intrapulmonary pressure drops below atmospheric

§ and if small container, closer together, higher pressure (−1 mm Hg)
pressure
§ Air flows into the lungs, down its pressure gradient,
until intrapleural pressure = atmospheric pressure
8
Inspiration Expiration
§ Inspiratory muscles relax and the rib cage descends

due to gravity
§
§ Elastic lungs recoil passively and intrapulmonary
volume decreases
§ Intrapulmonary pressure rises above atmospheric
pressure (+1 mm Hg)
§ Gases flow out of the lungs down the pressure

gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0
Figure 22.13.1
Expiration Physical Factors Influencing Ventilation:

Airway Resistance
§ Friction is the major nonelastic source of resistance

to airflow
∆P
F=
R
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings Figure 22.13.2 Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings
Physical Factors Influencing Ventilation: Airway Resistance

Airway Resistance
§ As airway resistance rises, breathing movements
§ The amount of gas flowing into and out of the become more strenuous
alveoli is directly proportional to ∆P, the pressure
gradient between the atmosphere and the alveoli § Severely constricted or obstructed bronchioles:
§ Gas flow is inversely proportional to resistance with §
the greatest resistance being in the medium-sized
bronchi §
§
§ Epinephrine release via the sympathetic nervous
system dilates bronchioles and reduces air resistance
9
Alveolar Surface Tension Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome (IRDS)
§ Surface tension –the attraction of liquid molecules §

to one another at a liquid-gas interface (this
attraction is greater between molecules of a liquid § If greater than 2 months premature –insufficient
than between molecules of a gas and a liquid) surfactant, resulting in surface tension causing
§ The liquid coating the alveolar surface is always alveoli to collapse
acting to reduce the alveoli to the smallest possible § +ve pressure respirators force air into alveoli
size (keeping them inflated between breaths)
§ § Spraying natural of synthetic surfactant into
newborn’s respiratory passages helps
Lung Compliance Factors That Diminish Lung Compliance
§
§ Scar tissue or fibrosis that reduces the natural
§ Specifically, the measure of the change in lung resilience of the lungs
volume that occurs with a given change in
§ Blockage of the smaller respiratory passages with
transpulmonary pressure mucus or fluid
§ Determined by two main factors §
§ Distensibility of the lung tissue and surrounding § Decreased flexibility of the thoracic cage or its
thoracic cage decreased ability to expand
§ Surface tension of the alveoli
Factors That Diminish Lung Compliance Respiratory Volumes
§ –air that moves into and out of the

lungs with each breath (approximately 500 ml)
§ Examples include: § –air that can be

inspired forcibly beyond the tidal volume (2100–
§ Deformities of thorax
3200 ml)
§ Ossification of the costal cartilage
§ –air that can be
§ evacuated from the lungs after a tidal expiration
(1000–1200 ml)
§ –air left in the lungs after
PLAY
Respiratory System: Pulmonary Ventilation strenuous expiration (1200 ml)
10
Respiratory Capacities
§ –total amount of air that can

be inspired after a tidal expiration (IRV + TV)
§ –amount of air
remaining in the lungs after a tidal expiration
(RV + ERV)
§ –the total amount of
exchangeable air (TV + IRV + ERV)
§ –sum of all lung volumes
(approximately 6000 ml in males)
Dead Space
§ –volume of the conducting

respiratory passages (150 ml)
§ –alveoli that cease to act in
gas exchange due to collapse or obstruction
§ –sum of alveolar and anatomical
dead spaces
Pulmonary Function Tests Pulmonary Function Tests
§ –an instrument consisting of a hollow bell

inverted over water, used to evaluate respiratory § –total amount of gas flow into or
function out of the respiratory tract in one minute
§ can distinguish between: § –gas forcibly expelled after
§ Obstructive pulmonary disease –increased airway taking a deep breath
resistance § –the amount of gas
§ Restrictive disorders –reduction in total lung expelled during specific time intervals of the FVC
capacity from structural or functional lung changes
11
Pulmonary Function Tests Alveolar Ventilation
§ Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) –measures the flow

of fresh gases into and out of the alveoli during a
particular time
§ Increases in TLC, FRC, and RV may occur as a
result of obstructive disease
AVR = frequency X (TV –dead space)
§ Reduction in VC, TLC, FRC, and RV result from (ml/min) (breaths/min) (ml/breath)
restrictive disease
Nonrespiratory Air Movements Basic Properties of Gases:

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
§ Most result from reflex action § Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the
sum of the pressures exerted independently by each
§ Examples include: gas in the mixture
§
Basic Properties of Gases: Henry’s Law Composition of Alveolar Gas
§ When a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid, § The atmosphere is mostly oxygen and nitrogen,
each gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to while alveoli contain more carbon dioxide and water
its partial pressure vapor
§ The amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid also § These differences result from:
depends upon its solubility
§ Gas exchanges in the lungs –oxygen diffuses from
§ Various gases in air have different solubilities: the alveoli and carbon dioxide diffuses into the
alveoli
§
§
§ § The mixing of alveolar gas that occurs with each
§ breath
12
External Respiration: Pulmonary Gas Exchange Partial Pressure Gradients and Gas Solubilities
§ Factors influencing the movement of oxygen and

carbon dioxide across the respiratory membrane § The partial pressure oxygen (PO2) of venous blood
(these will be discussed in the following slides) is ; the partial pressure in the alveoli is
§
§ This steep gradient allows oxygen partial pressures
§ Matching of alveolar ventilation and pulmonary to rapidly reach equilibrium (in 0.25 seconds), and
blood perfusion thus blood can move three times as quickly (0.75
seconds) through the pulmonary capillary and still
§ Structural characteristics of the respiratory be adequately oxygenated
membrane
Partial Pressure Gradients and Gas Solubilities Partial Pressure Gradients
§ Although carbon dioxide has a lower partial pressure

gradient:
§
§ It diffuses in equal amounts with oxygen
Figure 22.17
Oxygenation of Blood Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling
§ –the amount of gas reaching the alveoli

§ –the blood flow reaching the alveoli
§ Ventilation and perfusion must be tightly regulated
for efficient gas exchange
§ Changes in PCO2 in the alveoli cause changes in the
diameters of the bronchioles
§ Passageways servicing areas where alveolar carbon
dioxide is high dilate
§ Those serving areas where alveolar carbon dioxide
is low constrict
13
Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling Surface Area and Thickness of the Respiratory
Membrane
§ Respiratory membranes:
§ Are only 0.5 to 1 µm thick, allowing for efficient
gas exchange
§
§ Thicken if lungs become waterlogged and

edematous, whereby gas exchange is inadequate
and oxygen deprivation results
§ Decrease in surface area with emphysema, when
walls of adjacent alveoli break through
Internal Respiration Oxygen Transport

§ The factors promoting gas exchange between
systemic capillaries and tissue cells are the same as
those acting in the lungs
§
§ Molecular oxygen is carried in the blood:
§ Bound to hemoglobin (Hb) within red blood cells
§ PO2 in tissue is always lower than in systemic
arterial blood §
§ PO2 of venous blood draining tissues is 40 mm Hg
and PCO2 is 45 mm Hg
PLAY
Respiratory System: Gas Exchange
Oxygen Transport: Role of Hemoglobin Hemoglobin (Hb)

§
§ –when all four hemes of the
molecule are bound to oxygen
§ The hemoglobin-oxygen combination is called § –when one to three
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) hemes are bound to oxygen
§ Hemoglobin that has released oxygen is called § The rate that hemoglobin binds and releases oxygen
reduced hemoglobin (HHb) is regulated by:
§ PO2, temperature, blood pH, PCO2, and the
Lungs concentration of BPG (an organic chemical)
HHb + O2 HbO2 + H+
§ These factors ensure adequate delivery of
Tissues oxygen to tissue cells
14
Influence of PO2 on Hemoglobin Saturation Hemoglobin Saturation Curve
§ Hemoglobin saturation plotted against PO2 produces

a oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
§ Hemoglobin is almost completely saturated at a PO2
§ of 70 mm Hg (normal PO2 in lungs is 104 mm Hg –
so fully saturated)
§
§ As arterial blood flows through capillaries, 5 ml
oxygen are released
§ Oxygen loading and delivery to tissue is adequate
§ The saturation of hemoglobin in arterial blood when PO2 is below normal levels
explains why breathing deeply increases the PO2 but
has little effect on oxygen saturation in hemoglobin
Hemoglobin Saturation Curve Hemoglobin Saturation Curve
§ If oxygen levels in tissues drop:

§ More oxygen dissociates from hemoglobin and is
used by cells
§ Respiratory rate or cardiac output need not increase
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cu mmings Figure 22.20
Other Factors Influencing Hemoglobin BPG: 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate

Saturation
§
§ Modify the structure of hemoglobin and alter its
affinity for oxygen
§ Increases of these factors: §
§ Decrease hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen § It is produced by RBCs as they breakdown glucose
in anaerobic glycolysis
§ Enhance oxygen unloading from the blood
§ Decreases act in the opposite manner
§ These parameters are all high in systemic capillaries
where oxygen unloading is the goal
15
Other Factors Influencing Hemoglobin Factors That Increase Release of Oxygen by
Saturation Hemoglobin
§ As cells metabolize glucose, carbon dioxide is
released into the blood causing:
§ Increases in PCO2 and H+ concentration in capillary
blood
§ Declining pH (acidosis), which weakens the
hemoglobin-oxygen bond (Bohr effect)
§ Metabolizing cells have heat as a byproduct and the
rise in temperature increases BPG synthesis
§
Figure 22.21
Hemoglobin-Nitric Oxide Partnership Hemoglobin-Nitric Oxide Partnership

§ Nitric oxide (NO, secreted by lung and vascular
endothelial cells, is a vasodilator that plays a role in
blood pressure regulation
§ The O2 enriched hemoglobin circulates and as it
§ unloads O2, it also unloads NO2, causing local
vessels to dilate, which aids in O2 delivery
§ However, as oxygen binds to hemoglobin: § As deoxygenated hemoglobin picks up carbon
dioxide, it also binds nitric oxide and carries these
§ Nitric oxide binds to a cysteine amino acid on
gases to the lungs for unloading
hemoglobin
§ Bound nitric oxide is protected from degradation by

hemoglobin’s iron
Carbon Dioxide Transport Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide

§ Carbon dioxide diffuses into RBCs and combines
with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which
§ Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three quickly dissociates into hydrogen ions and
forms bicarbonate ions
§ Dissolved in plasma –
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3–
§ Chemically bound to hemoglobin – is carried in Carbon

Water
Carbonic Hydrogen Bicarbonate
dioxide acid ion ion
RBCs as carbaminohemoglobin
§ Bicarbonate ion in plasma – is transported as § In RBCs, carbonic anhydrase reversibly catalyzes

bicarbonate (HCO3–) the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to
carbonic acid
16
Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide
§ At the tissues:
§
§ The chloride shift –to counterbalance the outrush

of negative bicarbonate ions from the RBCs,
chloride ions (Cl–) move from the plasma into the
erythrocytes
Figure 22.22a
Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide
§ At the lungs, these processes are reversed

§ Bicarbonate ions move into the RBCs and bind
with hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid
§ Carbonic acid is then split by carbonic anhydrase to

release carbon dioxide and water
Figure 22.22b
Haldane Effect Haldane Effect
§ At the tissues, as more carbon dioxide enters the

§ blood:
§ More oxygen dissociates from hemoglobin (Bohr
§ Haldane effect –the lower the PO2 and hemoglobin effect)
saturation with oxygen, the more carbon dioxide can § More carbon dioxide combines with hemoglobin,
be carried in the blood and more bicarbonate ions are formed
17
Haldane Effect Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Blood pH
§ The carbonic acid–bicarbonate buffer system resists

blood pH changes
§ If hydrogen ion concentrations in blood begin to
rise, excess H+ is removed by combining with
HCO3–
§ If hydrogen ion concentrations begin to drop,
carbonic acid dissociates,
Figure 22.23
Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Blood pH Control of Respiration:

Medullary Respiratory Centers (main control)
§ The dorsal respiratory group (DRG), or inspiratory

center:
§ Changes in respiratory rate can also: § Is located near the root of cranial nerve IX
§ § Appears to be the pacesetting respiratory center
§ Provide a fast-acting system to adjust pH when it § Excites the inspiratory muscles and sets eupnea
is disturbed by metabolic factors (12-15 breaths/minute)
§
§ The ventral respiratory group (VRG) is involved in
PLAY
Respiratory System: Gas Transport forced inspiration and expiration
Control of Respiration: Control of Respiration:

Medullary Respiratory Centers Pons Respiratory Centers (‘smooths’respiration)
§ Pons centers:
§ Influence and modify activity of the medullary
centers
§ Smooth out inspiration and expiration transitions

and vice versa
§ The pontine respiratory group (PRG) –continuously

inhibits the inspiration center
§
Figure 22.24
18
Respiratory Rhythm –not yet fully understood Depth and Rate of Breathing
§ A result of reciprocal inhibition of the § Inspiratory depth is determined by how actively the
interconnected neuronal networks in the medulla respiratory center stimulates the respiratory muscles
§ Other theories include § Rate of respiration is determined by how long the
§ Inspiratory neurons are pacemakers and have inspiratory center is active
intrinsic automaticity and rhythmicity § Respiratory centers in the pons and medulla are
§ sensitive to
Medullary Respiratory Centers Depth and Rate of Breathing: Reflexes
§ Pulmonary irritant reflexes –irritants promote

reflexive constriction of air passages
§ Inflation reflex (Hering-Breuer) –stretch receptors
in the lungs are stimulated by lung inflation
§ Upon inflation, inhibitory signals are sent to the
medullary inspiration center to
Figure 22.25
Depth and Rate of Breathing: Higher Brain Depth and Rate of Breathing: PCO2
Centers
§ Hypothalamic controls act through the limbic § Changing PCO2 levels are monitored by
system to modify rate and depth of respiration chemoreceptors of the brain stem
§ Example: breath holding that occurs in anger § Carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses into the
cerebrospinal fluid where it is hydrated
§ A rise in body temperature acts to increase
respiratory rate § Resulting carbonic acid dissociates, releasing
hydrogen ions
§ Cortical controls are direct signals from the cerebral
motor cortex that bypass medullary controls § PCO2 levels rise (hypercapnia) resulting in increased
depth and rate of breathing
§
19
Depth and Rate of Breathing: PCO2 Depth and Rate of Breathing: PCO2
§ Hyperventilation –increased depth and rate of

breathing that:
§ Quickly flushes carbon dioxide from the blood
§ Occurs in response to
§ Though a rise CO2 acts as the original stimulus,

control of breathing at rest is regulated by the
hydrogen ion concentration in the brain
Figure 22.26
Stress-related hyperventilation Hyperventilation and breath-holding
§ Because hyperventilation decreases CO2 levels, it

§ Hyperventilation decreases CO2 levels
increases breath-holding (as it takes longer for CO2
§ levels to build to the point where breathing is
stimulated)
§ This results in reduced brain perfusion → leading to
dizziness and fainting § At rest, this still happens before O2 levels become
dangerously low
§ To reverse –breathe into a paper bag (which
increases CO2 levels) § With exercise, it is possible to use up O2 before CO2
stimulates breathing –
Depth and Rate of Breathing: PCO2 Depth and Rate of Breathing: PCO2
§ Arterial oxygen levels are monitored by the aortic

and carotid bodies
§ Substantial drops in arterial PO2 (to 60 mm Hg) are
§ Hypoventilation –slow and shallow breathing due to needed before oxygen levels become a major
abnormally low PCO2 levels stimulus for increased ventilation
§ If carbon dioxide is not removed (e.g., as in

emphysema and chronic bronchitis), chemoreceptors
become unresponsive to PCO2 chemical stimuli
§
20
Depth and Rate of Breathing: Arterial pH Peripheral Chemoreceptors
§ Changes in arterial pH can modify respiratory rate

even if carbon dioxide and oxygen levels are normal
§ Increased ventilation in response to falling pH is

mediated by
Figure 22.27
Depth and Rate of Breathing: Arterial pH Respiratory Adjustments: Exercise

§ Respiratory adjustments are geared to both the
intensity and duration of exercise
§ Acidosis may reflect:
§ During vigorous exercise:
§ §
§ Accumulation of lactic acid § Breathing becomes deeper and more vigorous, but
respiratory rate may not be significantly changed
§ Excess fatty acids in patients with diabetes mellitus (hyperpnea)
§ Respiratory system controls will attempt to raise the § Exercise-enhanced breathing is not prompted by an
pH by increasing respiratory rate and depth increase in PCO2 or a decrease in PO2 or pH
§ These levels remain surprisingly constant during
exercise
Respiratory Adjustments: Exercise Respiratory Adjustments: Exercise
§ As exercise begins: § Neural factors bring about the above changes,

including:
§ Ventilation increases abruptly, rises slowly, and
reaches a steady state § Psychic stimuli
§ When exercise stops: §
§ Excitatory impulses from proprioceptors in muscles
PLAY
Respiratory System: Control of Respiration
21
Respiratory Adjustments: High Altitude Respiratory Adjustments: High Altitude
§ Acclimatization –respiratory and hematopoietic

adjustments to altitude include:
§ The body responds to quick movement to high
§ Increased ventilation –2-3 L/min higher than at sea
altitude (above 8000 ft) with symptoms of acute
level
mountain sickness –headache, shortness of breath,
nausea, and dizziness §
§ Substantial decline in PO2 stimulates peripheral

chemoreceptors
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Pathogenesis of COPD

(COPD)
§ Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and obstructive

emphysema
§ Patients have a history of:
§
§ Dyspnea, where labored breathing occurs and gets
progressively worse
§ Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections
§ COPD victims develop respiratory failure
accompanied by hypoxemia, carbon dioxide
retention, and respiratory acidosis Figure 22.28
Asthma Tuberculosis
§ Characterized by dyspnea, wheezing, and chest

tightness
§ Infectious disease caused by the bacterium
§ Active inflammation of the airways precedes Mycobacterium tuberculosis
bronchospasms
§ Symptoms include fever, night sweats, weight loss,
§ Airway inflammation is an immune response caused a racking cough, and splitting headache
by release of IL-4 and IL-5, which stimulate IgE and
recruit inflammatory cells §
§ Airways thickened with inflammatory exudates
magnify the effect of
22
Lung Cancer Developmental Aspects
§ Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in the U.S. § Olfactory placodes invaginate into olfactory pits by
the 4th week
§
§ Laryngotracheal buds are present by the 5th week
§ The three most common types are:
§ Mucosae of the bronchi and lung alveoli are present
§ Squamous cell carcinoma (20-40% of cases) arises by the 8th week
in bronchial epithelium
§ By the 28th week, a baby born prematurely can
§ Adenocarcinoma (25-35% of cases) originates in breathe on its own
peripheral lung area
§ During fetal life, the lungs are filled with fluid and
§ Small cell carcinoma (20-25% of cases) contains blood bypasses the lungs
lymphocyte-like cells that originate in the primary
bronchi and subsequently metastasize §
Respiratory System Development Developmental Aspects
§ At birth, respiratory centers are activated, alveoli

inflate, and lungs begin to function
§ Respiratory rate is highest in newborns and slows

until adulthood
§ Lungs continue to mature and more alveoli are
formed until young adulthood
§
23

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PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Vince Austin, University of Kentucky Revision – Respiratory System

Week 8 –The Respiratory System

§ Consists of bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli

Human Anatomy & Physiology, Sixth Edition

Revision – Respiratory System Revision – Respiratory System

§ To supply the body with oxygen and dispose of

§ The only externally visible part of the respiratory

§ Housing the olfactory receptors

§ During inhalation the conchae and nasal mucosa:

§ Minimize heat and moisture loss

Revision – Pharynx Revision – Pharynx

§ Funnel-shaped tube of skeletal muscle that connects

Revision – Laryngopharynx Revision – Larynx (Voice Box)

§ Attaches to the hyoid bone and opens into the

§ To function in voice production

Revision – Framework of the Larynx Revision – Vocal Ligaments

§ Cartilages (hyaline) of the larynx

§ The larynx is closed during coughing, sneezing, and

Revision – Trachea Revision – Conducting Zone: Bronchi

§ The carina of the last tracheal cartilage marks the

§ Composed of three layers § Air reaching the bronchi is:

§ Tissue walls of bronchi mimic that of the trachea

§ Defined by the presence of alveoli; begins as

§ Respiratory bronchioles lead to alveolar ducts, then

Respiratory Zone Respiratory Membrane

Alveoli Respiratory Membrane

§ Surrounded by fine elastic fibers

§ House macrophages that keep alveolar surfaces

§ Lungs occupy all of the thoracic cavity except the

§ Costal surface –anterior, lateral, and posterior

§ Apex –narrow superior tip

§ Base –inferior surface that rests on the diaphragm

Revision – Lungs Blood Supply to Lungs

§ Lungs are perfused by two circulations: pulmonary

Blood Supply to Lungs Pleurae

§ Bronchial arteries –provide systemic blood to the

§ Supply all lung tissue except the alveoli §

§ Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins

§ Visceral, or pulmonary, pleura

§ Respiratory pressure is always described relative to

§ Positive respiratory pressure is greater than Patm

Pressure Relationships Pressure Relationships

How is the –ve intrapulmonary pressure established?

§ Transpulmonary pressure keeps the airways open

Pulmonary Ventilation Boyle’s Law

§ Boyle’s law –the relationship between the pressure

§ A mechanical process that depends on volume

Boyle’s Law cont Inspiration

§ The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

§ Intrapulmonary pressure drops below atmospheric

§ Inspiratory muscles relax and the rib cage descends

§ Gases flow out of the lungs down the pressure

Expiration Physical Factors Influencing Ventilation:

§ Friction is the major nonelastic source of resistance

Physical Factors Influencing Ventilation: Airway Resistance

§ Surface tension –the attraction of liquid molecules §

Lung Compliance Factors That Diminish Lung Compliance

Factors That Diminish Lung Compliance Respiratory Volumes

§ –air that moves into and out of the

§ Examples include: § –air that can be

§ –total amount of air that can

§ –volume of the conducting