Previous | Nex | Contents ESDEP WG 12 FATIGUE Lecture 12.2: Advanced Introduction to Fatigue OBJECTIVESCOPE: ‘To introduce the main concepts and defitions regarding the fatigue process and to identify the main factors that influence the fatigue performance of materials, components and structures. PREREQUISITES Lect 12.1: Basie Introduction to Fatigue RELATED LECTURES SUMMARY ‘The physical process of the initiation of fatigue cracks in smooth and notched test specimens under the influence of repeated loads i described and the relevance ofthis process for the fatigue ofreal structures is discussed, The basis of different stress cycle counting procedures i exphined for variable amplitude loading. Exceedance diagram and frequency spectrum effects are described. 1, INTRODUCTION Fatigue is commonly referred to as a process in which damage is accumulated in a material undergoing fuctuating loading, eventually resulting in fulure even ifthe maximum load is well below the elstc limit ofthe material. Fatigue isa process of local strength reduction that ‘occurs in engineering materials such as metalic alloys, polymers and composites, eg. conerete and fibre reinforced plastics. Although the phenomenological deta ofthe process may differ from one material to another the folowing definition given by ASTM [1] encompasses fatigue flues in all materials Fatigue - the process of progressive localised permanent structural change occurring in @ material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some point or points and that may culminate in cracks or complete fracture afer a sulicient number of fuctuatons. The important features of the process relevant to fatigue in metallic materials are indicated by the underlined words in the defntion above, Fatigue is a progressive process in which the damage develops slowly in the early stages and accelerates very quickly towards the end. Thus the fist stage consists of a crack initiation phase, which for smooth and mildly notched parts that are subjected to small oads cycles may ‘occupy more than 90 percent of the lie. In most case cases the initiation process is confined to a small area, usually of high local stress, ‘where the damage accumulates during stressing, In adjacent parts of the components, with only slightly lower stresses, no fatigue damage ‘may occur and these parts thus have an inf fatigue life. The initiation process usually resus in a number of micro-cracks that may grow ‘more or less independently unt one crack becomes dominant through a coalescence process atthe microcracks stat to interact, Under steady fatigue loading this crack grows slowly, but stats to accelerate when the reduction ofthe cross-section increases the local stress field near the crack ffont. Final fire occur as an unstable fracture when the remaining arca i too small to support the load. These stages in the fatigue process can in many cases be related to distinctive features of the fracture surface of components that have filed under fuctuating loads, the presence of these features can therefore be used to identity fatigue asthe probable cause of fare. 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FATIGUE FRACTURE SURFACES‘Typical fracture surfices in mechanical components that were subjected to fitigue loads are shown in Slide 1. One characteristic eature of the surface morphology which is evident in both mactographs is the flat, smooth region of the surface exhibiting beach marks (ako called ‘clamshell marks). This part represents the portion of the facture surface over which the crack grew ina stable, slow mode. The rougher rogions, showing evidence of large plastic deformation, i the final fracture area through which the crack progressed in an unstable mode. ‘The beach marks may form concentric rings that point oward the areas of nitation. The origi ofthe fatigue crack may be more or less distinct. In some cases a defect may be identified as the origin ofthe crack, in other cases there is no apparent reason why the crack should start ata particular point ina fracture surfie, Ifthe ertcal section is at a high stress concentration fatigue initiation may occur at many points, in contrast to the case of umotched parts where the crack usually grows from one point only see Figure 1. While the presence of any defects at the origin may indicate the cause of the fatigue fadur, the crack propagation arca may yield some information regarding the ‘magnitude ofthe fatigue loads and also about the variation in the loading pattern. Firstly, the relative magnitude of the areas of slow-growth and final facture regions give an indication of the maximum stresses and the fracture toughness ofthe material Thus, a large final facture area fora given material indicates a high maximum load, whereas a small area indicates that the load was lower at fracture. Simany, for a fixed maximum stress, the relative area corresponding to slow crack growth increases withthe fracture toughness of the material (or with the tensile strength ifthe final fracture isa filly ductile overload fracture),High nominal streee Low nominal etraee ‘smooth Notoned ‘Smooth Rotened Tension and tansion-carpression ¢ Single deflection bending zee e¢ (0/0 © 8 |O 6 Reversed bending Rotating bencing Figure 1 Fracture surfaces at high stress and low stress (schematic) Slide 1 : Typical fatigue fires in steel components Beach marks are formed when the erack grows intermittently and at different rates during random variations in the loading pattem under theinfuence of a changing corrosive environment, Beach marks are therefore not observed inthe surfaces of fatigue specimens tested under constant amplitude loading conditions without any stat-stop periods. The average crack growth is ofthe order ofa few millimetres per milion cycles in high cyce ftigu, and it clear thatthe distance between bands in the beach marks are not a measure ofthe rate of erack advance per load cycle. However, examination by electron microscope at magnifications between 1,000x and 30,000x may reveal characteristic surface rippks called fatigue striations, see Slide 2. Although somewhat similar in appearance, these lines are not the beach ‘marks described above as one beach mark may contain thousands of striations. During constant amplitude fitigue loading at relatively high growth rates in ductile material such as stainless steefs and aluminium aloys the striation spacing represents the crack advancement per foad cycle. However, in ow stress, high cycle fatigue where the stration spacing is less than one atomic spacing (- 2.5 x 10") per cycle. Under these conditions the crack does not advance simukaneously along the crack font, growth occuring instead only along some portions during a few cycles, then arrests while growth occurs along other Segments. Strations as shown in Figure 3 are not seen ifthe crack grows by other ‘mechanisms such as microvoid coalescence or, in bitle materials, microclevage. In structural steels the crack can propagate by all three ‘mechanism, and striations may be difficult to observe. Slide 3 shows an example of beach marks and striations inthe facture originating at a large defect ina welled C-Min steel with a yield strength of about 360Mpa, Loading direction Figure 3 Stage | and Stage Il crack growth at polvcrvstalline materialSlide 2 : Stratos in an ahuninium alloy. Slide 3 : Fatigue failures in the Alexander L Kielland platform. 3. NATURE OF THE FATIGUE PROCESS From the description ofthe characteris offitigne acturesurfices, thee stages in the iigu process may be desi: Stage I: Crack nation Stage I: Propagation of one dominat rack Stage I: Fal factre Fatigue cracking in metas is always associated with the accumulation of ireversible plastic strain, The crack process which is discussed in the following applies to smooth specimens made of ductile materials In igh cyele fatigue the maximum stress in eyeic loads that eventually cause fatigue fare may be well below the clastic limit of the material, and large scale plastic deformation does not occur. However, ata fee surface plastic strains may accumulate as a resuit of dishocation ‘movements. Dislocations are line defects in the lattice structure which can move and mutiply under the action of shear stresses, leaving a permanent deformation, Dislocation mobilty and hence the amount of deformation (or sip) is greater ata fee surface than inthe interior of ‘rystltne materials due to lack of constraint from grain boundaries. Grains in polyerytalie structural metals are indivktually oriented in a random manner. Each grain, however, has an ordered atomic structure giving rs to directional propertics. Deformation for example, takes place on crystallographic planes of easy sip along which dislocations can move more casly than other planes. Since stip is controlld primarily by shear stress, sl deformation takes place along crystallographic planes that are orientated close to 45° to the tensile stress direction, The resus of such deformation is atomic planes sling rebtve to each other, resulting ina roughening ofthe surface in slip bands. uring futher eyeing slip band deformation i intensfed a the surface and extending ito the interior ofthe grain, resulting in so-called persistent slp bands, (PSB's). The name originated from the observation in early studies of fatigue that stip band would reappear - “persist” - atthe same location affer a thin surface layer was removed by elastopolishing. The accumulation of local plastic flow result in surface ridges and troughs called extrusions and intrusions respectively, Figure 2. The cohesion between the ayers in sip band is weakened by oxidation of fesh surfices and hardening of the strained material, At some poi in this process small cracks develop inthe intrusions. These microcracks grow along sip planes, i. a shear stress driven process. Growth in the shear mode, called stage I erack growth extends over a few grains, During continued cycling the microcracks in diferent grains coalesce resulting in one or afew dominating cracks. The stress field associated with the dominating crack cause father growth under the primary action of meximum principal stress; this is called stage I growth. The crack path is now essentially perpendicuiar to the tensile stress axis. Crack advancement i, however, still inuenced by the cxystallographic orientation ofthe grains and the crack grows in a zigzag path along slp planes and cleavage planes ffom grain to grain, sce Figure 3. Most fatigue cracks advance across grain boundaries as indicated in Figure 3, i. ina transcrystalline mode. However, at high temperatures or ina corrosive environment, grain boundaries may become weaker than the grain matrix, resulting in ntercrystalline crack svowth, The facture surfice created by stage Il crack growth are in ductile metals characterised by striations whose density and width can be related to the applicd stress level.0,1, Metal t OL aaa Crack Figure 2 Slip band with extrusions and intrusion formed on the surface of a grain subjected to cyclic stress. Crack nucleation at intrusion Since crack miclation related to the magniude of stess, any stess concentration in the form of external or internal surface flaws can marked teduce fitgue i, in particular when the iiation phase occupies a signiicant portion ofthe total ie, Thus a pat with a smooth, polished surfice generally has « higher fatigue strength than one with a rough surfice. Crack initiation can also be facilitated by inchsions, ‘which act as intemal stress raisers. in ductile materials slip band deformations at inclusions are higher than elsewhere and fitigue cracks may intate here unless othcr stress raisers dominate. In igh strength materials, notably steels and akuminium alloys, a diffrent ination mechanism is often observed, In such materials, which are highly resistant to slip deformation, the interface between the matrix and inchsion may be relatively weak, andl cracks will start here if decohesion occurs at the inclusion surface, aided by te increased stress/strain fic! around the inchsion, Slide 4 shows smal itigue cracks originating at incisions ina hh strength steel Allematively, a hard britle inclusion may break and a fatigue crack may initiate atthe edges ofthe cleavage facture. Slide 4 : Fatigue crack initiation at an inclusion ina high strength steel alloy. From the discussion above its evidently not possible to make a clear distinction between crack nucleation and stage I growth, "Crack inition” is thus a rather imprecise term used lo describe a series of events leading to stage IL crack. Albough the initiation stage includes some crack growth, the smull scale ofthe crack compared with microstructural dimensions such as grain size invalidates a facture ‘mechanics based analysis ofthis growth phase. Instead, local stresses and strains are commonly related to material constans in prediction ‘models used to estimate the length of stage I. The material constants are normally obtained ffom tests on smooth specimens subjected to stress or strain controled eyeting.4, FATIGUE LOADING ‘The simplest form of stress spectrum to which a structural element may be subjected is a sinusoidal or constant amplitude stress-time history ‘with a constant mean load, as illustrated in Figure 4. Since this isa loading pattern which is easily defined and simple to reproduce in the Inboratory t forms the basis for most fitigue tests. The folowing six parameters are used to define a constant amplitude stress cycle: Figure 4 Stress parameters used to define constant amplitude loading Spax™ maximum stress in the eyele Sin = minimum stress in the eycle Spy mean stress inthe eye = (Spun? Syin2 S4~ stress amplitude ~ Soa Spin) [AS = sttess rage = Spu- Spin = 28. R= stress ratio = Syin/Sax The stress eyes is unguely defined by any two of these quantities, except combinations of tess range and stress ampli. Various stess pattems are shown in Figure 5, with definitions in accordance with ISO [2] terminology.Ro R= co R=0 O1 mt Ms > Ti TT ‘Hl Passing Pate Compression Tension Compression Alternating Tension: Compression Tension Figure 5 Stress cycles with different mean stresses and R-ratios. The stress range i the primary parameter influencing fatigue lié, with mean stress as a secondary parameter, The stress ratio offen used as an indication ofthe influence of mean loads, but the effect of constant mean load isnot the same as for a constant mean stress, The difference between S-N curves with constant mean stress or constant R-ratio is discussed inthe section on fatigue testing, ‘The test frequency is needed to define a stress history, but inthe fatigue of metalic materials the frequency is not an important parameter, ‘except at high temperatures when creep interacts with fatigue, or when corrosion in ences fatigue li, In both cases a lower test frequency results ina shorter lie ‘Typical stress-time histories obtained ffom real structures are one shown in Figure 6. The sequence in Figure 6a has a constant mean stress, individual stress cycles are easily identifiable, and it necessary to evahuate this stress history in terms ofstress range only, The more "random" stress variations in Figure 10b is called a broad band process because the power density fimction (a plot of energy vs. fiequeney) spans wide frequency range, in contrast to the one in Figure 6a which contains essentially one frequency. The difference & ilustrated in Figure 7, The load history in Figure 6 can be interpreted as a variation ofthe main load with superimposed smaller excursions that could be caused by eg, second order vibrations or by electronic noise in the load acquisition system. In case of true mean load variations not only the range but ako the mean of each eyele needs to be recorded in order to estimate the influence of mean load on the damage accumulation. In both cases itis nocessary to eliminate the smaller cycls since they may be below the fatigue limit and therefore cause no fatigue damage, or because they do not represent real load cycles. Thus a more complicated evaluation procedure is required for identifying and counting individual _major stress cycles and their associated mean stresses. Counting methods such as the range pair, rainflow and the reservoir methods are designed to achieve this. These procedures are described in paragraph 7,Narrow band {a] Narrow band Broad band (b] Broad band Figure 6 Service stress time histories Crack growth rate da/dnl (log scale) egon 1 Stress intensity factor 2 = Na" aN for linear portion AR Region 2 | Region 3 range, AK (log scale] Figure 10. Crack growth curve, with three regions of different influence of parametorsEf Ef) Figure 7 Power density spectra for the two stress-time histories in Figure 6. 5. FATIGUE LIFE DATA ‘The total fatigue lie in terms of eycles to fre can be expressed as: Ni=Ni+Np (1) ‘where N; and Np are namber of cycks spent in the initiation and propagation stages, respectively. As noted, the two stages are distinctly Tension Teneisn a YP ‘Mean eireze 6, Compreesion JON, Complotaty reversed otroze data plosted here Mean etresstS, ) (a) Smith diagram (b) Haigh diagram Figure 14 Diagrams for showing influence of mean stress6. PRIMARY FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE LIFE ‘The difference in fitigque behaviour of fill scale machine or structural components as compared with small laboratory specimens ofthe same ‘materials sometimes striking In the majority of eases the real fe component exhibits a considerably poorer fatigue performance than the lnboratory specimen although the computed stresses are the same. This difference in fatigue response can be examined in a systematic ‘manner by evaluating the various factors that influence fitigue strength. Qualitative and quantitative assessments of these effects are presented in the following paragraphs. 6.1 Material Effects Effect of static strength on basic S-N data For small unotched, polished specimens tested in rotating bending or filly reversed axial loading there a strong corcation between the hih-oyee fate strengths at 108 o 107 cycles (or fig it) S, and the uate tense strength S,. For many steel materials the fitine limit amplitude) is approxirately 50% ofthe ten strength, i. Sq ~ 0.5 Sy, The rato ofthe alternating fitigue strength S, tothe limate tensile strength S, i called the fatigue ratio, The relationship between the fatiguc iit and the timate tens strength i shown in Figure 15 for carbon and aloy steels. The majority of data are grouped between the ines corresponding to fatigue ratios of 0.6 and 0.35, Another feature is that the fatigue strength does not increase signfeantly for Sy>1400 Mpa, Other relationships between fatigue strength and static strength propertiss based on satstical analysis oftest data may be found in the lierature MPa 620 1240 1880 Altemating fatigue #90 strength, tons/in’ genotene 780 1240 +70 +60 MPa #0 40 620 230 #20: 0: © 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110120130140150 Tensile strength, tons/in * Figure 18 Relationship between the fatigue limit (stress amplitude at R=0) and tensile strength, for small unnotched specimens, carbon and alloy steel For real life components, the effects of notches, surface roughness and corrosion reduce the fatigue strength, the effets being strongest for the higher strength materials. The variation in fatigue strength with the tensile strength i ilustrated in Figure 16. The data in Figure 16 are consistent with the fict that cracks are quickly initiated in components that are sharply notched or subjected to severe corrosion. The fatigue life then consists almost entirely of crack growth. Crack growth is very litle influenced by the static strength of the material, as dlustrated in Figure 16, and the fatigue lives of sharply notched parts are therefore almost independert of the tensile strength. An important example is ‘welled joints which always contain small erack-lke defects ffom which crack start growing after a very short initiation period. Consequentlythe fatigue design stresses in current design rules for welded joints are independent ofthe uimate tensile strengih. Stress range at 10°cycks 500. iNémm 2) Plain machined specimens 400. 300. 200 100: 9° 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Ultimate tensile strength (N/mm? } Figure 16 Fatigue limit as a function of tensile strength for notched and unnotched steel specimens. Crack Growth Data Fatigue crack growth rates seem to be much less dependent on static strength properties than crack initiation, at least within given alloy system Ina comparison of crack growth data for many diffrent types of'steel, with yield strengths fiom 250 to about 2000 Mpa levels of steel, Barsom [4] found that grouping the steels according to microstructure would minimise scatter, His data for ferritic-pearitic, matensitic and austenitic are shown in Figure 17. Also shown inthe same diagram i a common scatter band which indicates a relatively small difference in crack growth behaviour between the three classes of steel. While data for aluminium alloys show a langer scatter than for steel, itis sil possible to define a common scatter band. Recognising that different alloy systems seem to have their characteristic crack growth curves, atlempts have been made to correlate crack growth data on the basis of the following expression ca (ey a -clE) @ An implication of Equation 3 stat at equal crack growrh rates, a crack na stel plate can sustain tree tims higher stress than the same crack in an aluminium plate, Thus, a rough assessment ofthe fatigue strength of an aluminium component whose lit is dominated by crack sgxowth can be obtained by dividing the fatigue strength ofa similarly shaped stee] component by three.Crack growth Crack growth rate, da/dN, rate, da/dN, mieycle infeyele T ie 10° | 10° 10° 10° 1077 10° Ferrite pearlitic el Martesite 10° 10°] evetter band 10° 10" 12 5 10 20 50 100200500 Stross intensity factor range A KMPa oom Figure 17. Crack growth data for three types of steel with large difference in tensile strength 6.2 Mean Stress Effects Im 1870 Wahler identified the stress amplitude as the primary loading variable in fatigue testing; however, the static or mean stress also affects fatigue ie as shown schematically im Figure 10. In general, a tensile mean stress reduces fatigue lif while a compressive mean stress increases life, Mean stress effects are presented either by the mean stress iself'as a parameter or the stress ratio, R. Although the two are interrelated through: 14 Sm=S, EE (4) the effects on li are not the same, is. testing with a constant value of R does not have the same effect on li as a constant value Of Spy thedifference is shown schematically in Figure 18, Alternating stress, S Sm= Compression S,,= 0 Sm= Tension 10% 104 10% 10° 107 10° Figure 18 Effect of mean stress on fatigue life As indicated in Figure 19a, testing ata constant R value means that the mean stress decreases when the stress range is reduced, therefore testing at R = constant gives a better S-N curve than the S,,~ constant curve, as indicated in Figure 19b. It should also be noted that when the same data set s plotted in an S-N disgram with R = constant or with S,, = constant the two S-N curves appear to be different, as shown in Figure 20, oe ° Sm = Constant R = Constant Tex Tao og tis Tne, [ma " LW. 4 it the Woes > > (a) Constant mean stress (b) Constant R-ratio. Figure 19 Stress cyclingLog § R=Constant S,,=Constant Log N Figure 20 Different S-N curves obtained from tests with constant mean stress and constant R-ratio ‘The effect of mean stress on the fatigue strength is commonly presented in Haigh diagrams as shown in Figure 21, where S, / S, i plotted against Sqy/ Sy. So i the fatigue strength at a given le under filly reversed (Sy = 0,R = -1) conditions. Sy i the ultimate tensile strength. ‘The data points thus represent combinations of S, and Sy giving that lie. The results were obtained for small unnotched specimens, tested at ‘various tensile mean stresses. The straight lines are the modified Goodman and the Soderberg lines, andthe curved lin isthe Gerber parabol. These are empirical rlationships that are represented by the folowing equations: Modified Goodman S/S, + Sy/Sy~ 1 (5) Gerber S4/S. + Sq/ $= 16) Soderberg Sy/ Sy + Sq/ Sy = 1 (7)Alternating stress, $5 Roversed fatigue strongth, 5 a 1,2 10 o8 Yield line 0.6 «Gerber 0.4 = 02 ee oO Soderberg 0 0,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,91,0 Moan tonsilo stross. S Uttimate tensile strength § Figure 21. Haigh diagram showing test data points for the effect of mean stress, and the Gerber, modified Goodman and Soderberg relations. ‘The Gerber curves gives a reasonably good fit tothe data, but some points fll below the Ine i. on the unsafe side, The Goodman line represents a lower of'the data, while the Soderberg line is a relatively conservative lower bound that is sometimes used in design. These expressions should be used with care in design of actual components since the effects of notches, surface condition, size and environment are not accounted for. Ako stress interaction effect due to mean load variation during spectrum loading might modify the mean stress effects sven inthe three equations 6.3 Notch Effects Fatigue is a weakest link process which depends on the local stress ina small area, While the higher strain at a notch makes no significant contribution (o the overall deformation, cracks may start growing here and eventually result in facture ofthe part. Its therefore necessary to calculate the local stress and relate ths to the fatigue bchaviour of the notched component. A fist approximation isto use the S-N curve for ‘umotched specimens and reduce the stress by the K, factor. An example ofthis approach s shown in Figure 22 for a sharply notched steel specimen, The predicted curve fis reasonably well in the high cycle region, but at shorter lives the calculated curve is far to0 conservative ‘The tendency shown in Figure 22 isin fic a general one, namely thatthe actual strenglh reduction in fatigues isles than that predicted by the stress concentration fictor. Instead the fatigue notch fictor Ki used to evaluate the effect of notches in fatigue. Ky i defined as the umotched to notched fatigue strength, obtained in fatigue testsMaximum stross, psi a 200,000 3 Fad tysiosd a 0,25 180,000 + a 160,000 + 140,000 120,000 4 Unnotzhes 100,000 4 80,000 + Notehed curve 60,000 predicted from Ky Notened 40,000 4 20,000 4 ° Ty yy > 108 10% 10° 108 107 Creoles Figure 22 Experimental and calculated S-N curves tor a notched specimen Paigue swength of unnetched specimen Ky= Bitigee strength oP notched specimen From Figure 22 itis evident that Ky varies with fitigue lie, however, Kis commonly defined asthe rato between the fatigue limits. With this definition Kris es than K,, the stess increase due to the notch is therefore no ily eflectve in fitigue. The difference between K,and Ky arse from several sources. Firstly the material inthe notch may be subject to eyekiesofcning during fitiwe loading and the lal stress is reduced. Secondly, the material in the small region at the bottom of the notch experiences a support effect caused by the constraint fom the ssurounding material so that the average strain in the critical region is less than that indicated by the elastic stress concentration factor. Final, there ia statistical variably effet arising ftom the fict thatthe highly stressed region atthe notch root is small, so thee ia smaller probabiliy of fining a weak spot ‘The notch sensitivity q is a measure of how the material in the notch responds to fatigue cycling, ie, how Kis related to Ky. q is defined as the rato of effective stress increase in fatigue due to the notch, to the theoretical stress increase given by the elastic stress concentration factor. Thus, with reference to Figure 21 49> Cnaxett F2)rax~ On) = Kia ~ 83)!K Oy ~ Op) = (Ky IMKy- 1) 9) where Graxeit the effective maximum stress, soe Figure 23. This definition of K provides a scale for g that ranges from zero to unity. When q = 0, Kr= Ky = 1 and the material i filly insensitive to notches, i a notch does not lower the fatigue strength. For extremely ductile, low strength materials such as annealed copper, q approaches 0. Ako materials with large defects, eg. grey cast iron with graphite ‘lakes have vahies of q close to 0, Hard britle materials have values of q close to unity. In general is found to be a fanction of both material and the notch root radius. The concept of notch sensitivity therefore also incorporates a notch siz effect.Figure 23. Stress reduction due to cyclic plasticity ‘The fate notch fictor applies fo the high eyele rang, at sorter ives Ky approaches unity as the S-N curves for notched and unnotched specimens converge and coincide at N = 1/4 (tensile test), In experimental investigations involving ductile material it was found thatthe fatigue notch factor need to be applied only to the aerating part ofthe stress cycle and not to the mean stress. For brite materials, however, Kshouid be applied to the mean stress as well 6.4 Size Effects Although a size effect is implicit in the fatigue notch factor approach, a size reduction fictor is normally employed in when designing against fatigue. The need for this additional size correlation arises ftom the fact that the notch size effect saturates at notch root radilarger than about 3.4mm, ie. Ky—> Ky, while itis well known fiom tests on fll scale components, also unnotched ones, thatthe fatigue strength ccontinucs to drop off with increasing size, without any apparent limit ‘The size effect in fatigue is generally ascribed to the following sources: ‘+ A statistical size effect, whichis an inherent feature of the fatigue process the nature of fatigue crack initiation which is a weakest link process where a crack initiates when variables such as internal and extemal stresses, geometry, defect size and number, and material properties combine to give optimum conditions for crack nucleation and growth. Increasing size therefore produces a higher probability ofa weak location ‘+ A technological size effect, which is due to the different material processing route and different fabrication processes experienced by large and small pars, Different surface conditions and residual stresses are important aspects of this type of size effect. ‘+ A geometrical size ako called the stress gradient effect, This efféct is due to the lower stress gradient present ina thick section ‘compared with a thin one, see Figure 24, Ifa defect, inthe form ofa surface seratch or a weld defect, bas the same depth in the thin and thick parts, the defect inthe thick part will experience a higher stress than the one in the thin part, due fo the difference in stress ‘gradient, as indicated in Figure 24 ‘A stress increase effect, due to incomplete geometric scaling ofthe micro-geometry of the notch, This takes place ifthe notch radius is nat scaled up wit other dimensions.54) Sinan 2201 Omar Figure 24 Stress gradient effect in welded joint, showing the stress at a defect to be higher in the thicker joint if the defect depth is the same Examples of components for which the latter effect is important are welded joints and threaded fasteners. The critical locations for crack inition are the weld toe and the thread root, respectively. In both cases the local stress isa function ofthe rato of thickness (diameter) to the notch radius. In welds the toe radius is determined by the welling process and is therefore essentially constant for different size joints. ‘The Ur ratio therefore increases and also the local stress when the plate is made thicker, with r remaining constant. A similar situation exists for bolts, duc to the fict that the thread root radius s scaled to the thread pitch, rather than the diameter for standard (eg. ISO) threads. Since the pitch increases much slower than the diameter the result isan increase inthe notch stress with bolt size. For boks as well as welded joints the increased noteh acuity effect comes in addition to the notch size effect discussed earlier, the resut i thatthe experimentally determined size effects for these components are among the strongest recorded. An example of size effects for welded joints is shown in Figure 25. The sold line represents current design practice, according to eg. Eurocode 3 and the UK Departwrent of Energy Guidance ‘Notes. The equation for this ine is given by: as ey A848} ao)Rolative fatigue strength SYS a2 Bek 400 (MPa) A Ground 18 atic PHT 16 358 2 WHT 14 1.2 +250 1.0 4 5009 8 1 150 >» 08 TL 1 11 5 10 50 100 200 10 20 50 100 tmm (b) Unwelded plates and welded (a) As-wolded joints joints improved by grinding Data from [9] Thicknoss mm Figure 25 Size effects in welded joints ‘The exponent n, the slope of the lines in Figure 25a, i the size correction exponent. ‘The experimental data points indicate that the thickness correction with n= 1/4 ison the unsafe side in some cases. As indicated in Figure 25a thickness correction exponent of a= 1/3 instead ofthe current value of 1/4 gives a better ft to the data in Figure 25a, For unweked plates and low stress concentration joints in Figure 25b a value of n= 1/5 seems appropriate [7] ‘There is experimental evidence that indicate a relationship between the stress gradient and the size effect. Based on an analysis of ‘experimental data similar the follwing siz reduction factor has been proposed to account for the larger stress gradient found in notched specimens [8] n= 0.10 + 0.15 bg K; (11) 6.5 Effects of Surface Finish Almost al ftgue cracks nucleate atthe surfice sine slip occurs easier here than i the interior. Additionally, simple fracture mectanies consferatons show that surfice defects and notches are much more damaging than intemal defects of similar size. The physical condition and stress situation tthe surfice is therefore of prime importance forthe fatigue performance. One of the important variable influencing the fatigue strength, the surface fish, commonly characterised by R,, the average surface roughness which the mean distance between peaks and troughs over a speciied measuring distance. The effect of surface finish s determined by comparing the fatigue limit of specimens wi a sven surfice fish with the ftigu mit ofhehly polished standard specimens. The surfice reduction fictor C8 the defined asthe ratio between the two fitigne limits. Since steels become increasinely more notch sensitive with higher strength, the surface factor C, decreases ‘with increasing tensile strength, S, 6.6 Residual Stress EffectsResidual stresses or internal stresses are produced when a region of partis strained beyond the elstc limit while other regions are ceastcally deformed, When the force or deformation causing the deformation are removed, the elastically deformed material springs back and impose residual stresses in the plastically deformed material. Yielding can be caused by thermal expansion as well as by external force ‘The residual stresses are of the opposite sign to the initaly applied stress. Therefore, if'a notched member is loaded in tension untl yielding ‘occurs, the notch root will experience a compressive stress after unloading. Welding stresses which are locked in when the weld metal contracts during cooling are an example of highly damaging stresses that cannot be avoided during fabrication. These stresses are of yield stress magnitude and tensile and compressive stresses must always balance each other, as indicated in Figure 26, The high tensile welding sitesses contribute to a large extent to the poor fatigue performance of welled joints. ew: U {a} Longitudinal residual stresses. (b} Transverse residual stresses Figure 26 Welding residual stresses Stresses can be introduced by mechanical methods, for example by simply loading the part the same way service loading acts until local plastic deformation occurs. Local surface deformation a such as shot peening or rolling are other mechanical methods frequently used in industrial applications. Cold rolling isthe preferred method to improve the fatigue strength by axi-symmmetric parts such as axles and cranksbafis. Bolt threads formed by roling are much more resistant to fatigue loading than cut threads. Shot peening and hammer peering have been shown to be highly eflective methods for increasing the fatigue strength of welded join ‘Thermal processes produce a hardened surfice layer witha high compressive stress, often of yield stress magnitude, The high bardness also produces a wear resistant surfice; in many cases this may be the primary reason for performing the hardness treatment. Surfice hardening ccan be accomplished by carburising, nitriding or induction hardening. Since the magnitude of ternal stresses is related to the yield stress ther efféct on fatigue performance is stronger the higher strength ofthe ‘material, Improving the fatigue lit of components or structures by introducing residual stresses is therefore normally only cost effective for higher strength materials Residual stresses have a similar influence on fatigue li as exterally imposed mean stresses, ie. a tensile stress reduces fatigue life while a ‘compressive stress increases lit. There is, however, an important difference which relates to the stability of residual stresses. While an externally imposed mean stress, eg, stress caused by dead weight always acts (as long as the load is present), residual stress may relax with time, especially ifthere are high peaks inthe load spectrum that cause local yielding at stress concentrations. 6.8 Effects of Corrosion Corrosion in fies or salt water can have a very detrimental effect on the fatigue strength of engineering materials. Even distlled water may reduce the high-cyel fatigue strength to les than two thirds ofits value in dry ai Figure 27 schematically shows typical S-N curves for tbe effect of corrosion on unnotched steel specimens. Precorrosion, prior to fatigue testing introduces notclelke pits that act as stress raisers. The synergistic nature of corrosion fatigue is iustrated inthe figure by the drastic lower fatigue strength which s obtained when corrosion and fatigue cycling act simuiancously. The strongest effect of corrosion is observed ‘for umotched specimens, the fatigue strength reduction is much less for notched specimens, as shown in Figure 28,Alternating stress, Ss Corrosion fatigue 10° 10% 10° 108 107 108 Applied cycles to failure N Figure 27 Etfect of corrosion on unnotched specimensAlternating stress amplitude 3 psix 10 8 20 60 \ Unnotched, water Notched, air 10° 108 10° 10° Cycles to failure Figure 28. Corrosion fatigue of notched and unnotched specimens of quenched and tempered SAE 3140 steel in water Protection against corrosion can successfilly be achieved by surface coatings ether by paint systems or through the use of metal coatings. Metal coating are deposited either by galvanic or electroltic deposition or by spraying, The preferred method for marine structures, however, is cathodic protection which is obtained by the use of sacrificial anodes or, more infequently, by impressed current. The use of cathodic protection normally restores the high cycle fatigue strength of welded structural steels to ts in-air value, while at higher stresses hydrogen embrittlement effects may reduce the fatigue life by a factor of 3 to 4 on lf. 7. CYCLE COUNTING PROCEDURE FOR VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING In practice the pattem of the stress history with time at any particular details likely to be irregular and may indeed be random. A more realistic pattern of loading would involve a sequence of loads of different magnitude producing a stress history perhaps as shown in Figure 29, The problem now arises as to what is meant by a cycle and what isthe corresponding stress range. A number of alemative methods of stress cycle counting have been proposed to overcome this difficulty. The methods most commonly adopted fr use in connection with ‘Codes and Standards are the ‘reservoir or the ‘rainlow' method.121 Figure 29 Schematic stress time history at a welded detail under random variable amplitude loading 7.1 The Reservoir Method ‘The basis ofthe reservoir method is shown in Figure 30 using the stress time history as Figure 29. it should be assumed that a stress time history of ths kind has been obtained from strain gauges attached tothe structure atthe detail under consideration or has been estimated by computer simulation. Its important that the resus analysed should be representative of ong term behaviour. To analyse these resus, a representative period is chosen so thatthe peak stress level repeats self and a ine is drawn to join the two peaks as shown in Figure 30a, “The region between these two peaks i then regarded as being filed with water to forma reservoir. The procedure i then to take the west ‘rough position and imaging that one opens a tap to drain the reservoir. Water drain out ftom this trough T, but remmins tapped in adjacent troughs separated by intermediate peaks as shou in Figure 30b, The draining ofthe frst trough T, corresponds to one cycle of stress range S,as shown, and the remaining kvel of waters now lowered to the level ofthe nex highest peak. A tap is now opened atthe next lowest trough Tas shown in Figue 30c and the water allowed 1 drain out. The eight ofthe water released by this operation corresponds to one cyele of stress range S> This procedure i continued sequentially through each next west trough, gradually building up a series of numbers offeycls of diffrent stress ranges. Its also essentalto allow forthe onc eycle ftom zero to peak stress. For the particular stress tims history shown in Figure 29 the resus obtained fom the sample time period taken would be:120 60 Figure 30a Initial reservoir for stress-time history of Figure 29 Remaining water level 1 Cycle for height of water drained S17 (120-20) = 100 Nemm + 120 60 Figure 30b Position after draining T; 1 cycle S = 100 N/mm 21 Cycle for height of water drain Remaining S2= (80-20) = 60 Némnv water level 121 Figure 30c Position after draining Tz 1 cycle S = 60 N/mm ? 1 eycle at 120Nim? 1 at 1OON Mn, 4at SON nm, 6 at 6ON/ne? 10 at SON me The important principle of the above procedure is the recognition that by taking the difference between the lowest and highest stress levels (rough and peak) is ensured thatthe greatest possible stress range is counted first, and this procedure is repeated sequentially so thatthe highest ranges arc idenlifed as the random fluctuations take place. Inthe assessment of the effects ofthe dllerent cycles the greatest damage is caused by the higher stress ranges since the design curves follow a relationship of the kind S"N=constant. The reservoir method. procedure does ensure that practical combinations of minima and maxima are considered together whereas this is not always the case in other stress cycle coating procedures. An alternative way of carrying out the reservoir cycle counting method i to tum the diagram upside down and use the complementary part ofthe diagram as shown in Figure 31. This version of the reservoir method gives identical resuts to the normal method but has the advantage of inchuling the major cycle of stress from zero to maximum and back60 120 Figure 31 Inverse reservoir counting method for the stress-time history of Figure 29 7.2 The 'Rainflow' Counting Method ‘The alternative ‘rainflow’ cycle counting procedure is illustrated in Figure 32a for the same stress time history of Figure 29, This is essentially the same picture tured onto its side as shown in Figure 322. Water (ran) is allowed to fll fiom the top onto the pattern considered as a roof structure and the paths followed by the rain are folwed. However itis important that a number of standard rules are followed and the procedure & rather more complex and subject to error than the reservoir method. For each le of the roof an imaginary flow of water 8 introduced at its highest point as shown by the dots in Figure 32b. The flow of water is followed for the outermost stating point frst, allowing the water to drop onto any parts of the roof below and continue to drain until it falls off the roof completely, The with from the stress level at which the water stated unit left the roof represents the magnitude ofone cyele of stress, Itis necessary to follow the flow paths from cach starting point sequentially, moving progressively in from the points which are furthest out. IThowever the flow reaches @ position where water has drained ffoma previous flow, iis terminated at that point as shown in Figure 32c for the flow stating from positon 3 terminated by the previous flow position 1. The stress range for a cycle terminated in this way i limited to the width between the starting point and the termination point. The complete rainfow diagram for the stress pattern of Figure 29 is shown in Figure 324. This procedure when corectly applied also counts the highest stress range cycles first and ensures that only practical combinations of minima and ‘maxima within a sequence are considered, The rainflow method is somewhat more dificult to apply correctly than the reservoir method and itis recommended that both for teaching and for design purposes the reservoir method should be used. The results forthe stress ranges ffom the rainflow method applied to the stress history from Figure 29 are identical to those from the reservoir method ie 1 cycle at 120N/mn?, | at 100N/mm?, 4 at 8ON/mm?, 6 at 6ON/mm?, 10 at 30N/mm?Rainfall LLL d | 120 60 o Figure 32a Initial trace for rainflow cycle countingRainfall Figure 32b Rainflow introduced at dot posi from outside sequenceFlow from 3 stopped by previous flow from 1 Flow from 120 60 oO Figure 32¢ Raintlow terminated at provious flow path 0-1-44=1 cycles = 120N/imm = 2Figure 32d Complete rainflow pattem for stress history of Figure 29 ‘There are two other eycle counting methods, the ‘range pair counting’ method and the 'mean crossing level which are sometimes used although they tend not to be specified in Codes. Example 1 This design example is based on the stress cycle history of Figure 29 as analysed above fr stress cycle counting purposes. Firstly the stress history represents a relatively shor time period, and has to be extrapolated to represent the total required lie. Obviously the fist requirement is to ascertain the required design lif, and to multiply the numbers of eycles of each stress range determined as above by the ratio ofthe design it to the period represented by the sample time record taken. For example ifthe design life was 20 years, and the sample time period was 6 hours, the numbers of cycles should be maitipled by 20 x 365 x 4 = 29200. Caution should be exercised with such an extrapolation however, as to Whether such a short length time sample is representative of long term behaviour. For example in the ccase of a bridge structure the traffic flows are likely to vary at diferent times of day, peaking at rush hour times and fling to low values in the middle of the night, Furthermore there i possibilty that the heaviest laads may not have occurred during the sampling time considered. Probiems of extrapolation from samples fo fill data are common in the statistical world and statistical procedures may be necessary to censure that potential differences in scaling up the data are allowed for. To a large extent this depends on the absohite size ofthe sample taken, TTo check whether the design is satisfctory for any particular detail, itis necessary to decide on the appropriate design S-N design curve for the deta. The basis of doing ths for Eurocode 3 will be explained in Lecture 12.9. For present purposes t willbe assumed thatthe stresshistory of Figure 29 analysed above applics to a detail for which the design S-N curve is $90, for which the design life is 2 x 10° cycles at stress range 90N/mny? with slope - 1/3 continued down to a stress level of 66N/mnr at design life 5 x 10° cycles, with a change in slope to V5 on down o a stress range of 36N mn? which sth fie mt at 10 milion eyes. For a twenty year desig ie assuming the stress story of Figure 29 is representative of 6 hours typical loading the folowing table can be constructed Stessrange | Cyeksappied | Ava [n Neon? 8 oe N N 120 29200 843750 o.0346 100 23200 1438x106 | 0.0200 80 116800 2.848 x 10° 0.0410 60 175200 8.053 x 10° 0.0218 30 292000 | bebweuott | 0 zaN= — [o.i7s For these assumptions the loading is acceptable for the detail and lif required, Indeed the ‘Damage Sum! vahie of 0.1174 based on a 20 year design lift indicates the available design lif i 20/0.1174 = 170 years. For this particular case the stress range of 60N/mm felin the intermediate range between 36 and 66N/mnr and the available lift N was calculated using the changed slope of the S-N curve for this region, The stress range of 30N/mm? is below the cut off for the $90 classification and does not contribute to the fatigue damage, 7.3 Exceedance Diagram Methods ‘A convenient way of summarising the fatigue loading applied to structures s by the use of exceedance diagrams, These diagrams present a summary ofthe magnitude ofa particular event against the number of times this magnitude is exceeded. Whilst in principle this presentation ‘can be applied to a wide variety of phenomena for the purposes of fatigue analyses the appropriate form is a graph of og (number of times exceeded) against the occurrence of different stress levels. An example is shown in Figure 33, This might represent the stresses caused at a particular location in a bridge by trafic passing over r by wave loading of an offthore structure. A typical feature of natural phenomena of this kind & that the number of exceedances increases as the stress level decreases, The form of the exceedance diagram for natural phenomena ofthis kind is often close to near as shown. Iti important to note thatthe diagram represents exceedances so that any particular point on the graph includes all ofthe numbers of cycles of stress range above that value. For use in fatigue analysis using Miner's Jaw the requirement is a summary of the numbers of eyeles of each stress level occurring. Thus the loading represented by the exceedance diagram of Figure 33 can be treated as an equivalent histogram with cycles as follows:Number of timos exceeded 10% 10° 20 40 60 40 100 120 140 160 180 200 Stress range Nimm Figure 33 Example of exceedance diagram ‘Stross range No. oftimes exceeded | Cycles occurring ‘Nima? 180 1 1 160 10 9 140 100 90 120 1000 900 100 10000 9000 80 100000 90000 60 1000000 900000 240 10000000 9000000 20 100000000 90000000 Some of the stress ranges willbe found to be below the fatigue iit and bence willnot contibute tothe Miners nw damage sum For example forthe detail considered in Example 1 above, the cutoff limit was 36N/mre? andthe stress ranges of 20m? would not contribute to the fatigue damage. The stress ranges above tis level wll contibute however and their effects must be inched. This s done by finding the value of 2 SPN separately forthe remaining stress evel above and below the change in slope ofthe S-N curve, and for the figures given above this will be found to be 5.692 x 10!” for stress ranges of 80N/mm? and above, and 1.621 x 10!° for the 40 and ‘6ON/inn? stress ranges. For an $90 detail wth the spectrum of loading shown above, te fatigue damage from each part ofthe S-N curve has to be caleulted based on the appropriate vahwe of S"N=constant as follows: See2ei 1621x160 TA583 10 , 6262510" — 9.208 From these fines the damage sum fictor caleubted as 0.298 is acceptable. Detaed examination ofthe figures leading upto this resuk ‘would indicate that the majorty ofthe damage caleuted occurs at the lowest stress ranges of 40 and 6ON mm contributing othe SPN, par of the design cur. 7.4 Block Loading Block loading & a particular case ofan exceedance diagram. Consider the particular case of a one lane bridge structure on which the loading is dealised as falling into three categories. Suppose that there are ny heavy lorries traveling across the bridge during is liftime, and that at a particular welded detail each lorry causes a stress range S). In addition there are ny medium lorries which cause a stress range S2, and ny cars which cause a stress range S; atthe same welded. detail as they eross the bridge. To assess the combined eflect of the different stress ranges all being applied in some form of sequence the procedure adapted isto assume that the damage caused by cach individual group of cycles of a given stress range i the same as would be caused under constant amplitude loading at that stress range. Its necessary fist to decide on the appropriate classification for the geometric detail being considered and to identify the appropriate S-N design curve. For present purposes, let us assume that the design curve is as shown in Figure 34. Ifthe only fatigue loading applied to the bridge was the crossing ofthe heavy lorries with stress range Sy atthe detail concemed, the available design lifé would be N; cycles as shown in Figure 34. In fact the number of cycles applied at this stress range is my, ‘tis assumed that the fatigue damage caused at stress range S, is ny/N. Similarly ifthe only fatigue loading applied to the bridge was the crossing of the medium lorries with stress range Sz the available design lie would be N> and the fatigue damage caused would be ny/N9. For the passage of the cars at stress range S; the available design lie itis was the only loading would be N3 and the fatigue damage caused. ‘would be nyN3. When all three loadings occur together the assumption for design purposes is thatthe total fitigue damage is the sum of that ‘occurring at cach individual stress range independently. This is known as the Palmgren-Miner law of linear damage, or more simply as Miner's law and is summarised as follows:Design curve for weld detail on bridge Fatigue damage = als aS Ni lorries Ne Figure 34 Cumulative fatigue damage for loading at differrent stress ranges and cycles MMM. --1an 7.5 Frequency and Spectrum Aspects Its not uncommon for loading to occur at more than one frequency. It is generally considered that for non aggressive environmental conditions, eg. steel in i, there is lite or no effect of frequency on constant amplitude fatigue behaviour. In aggressive conditions however, cg, steel in seawater, there may be significant effects of frequency on the crack growth mechanism leading to increased crack growth rates, shorter lives and reduction or elimination ofthe fitigue limit. In particular tis necessary in fatigue testing of materials where environmental conditions may be important to carry out the testing atthe same frequency as that ofthe service loading, An example ofthis isthe effect of ‘wave loading on offthore structures where atypical flequency of waves is about 0.16Hz. Cleary this has major implications on the time required for testing since to accumulate one rriion cycles at 0.16Hz would take about 70 days whereas a conventional test in sir at say 1.6Hz would reach the same life in less than 1 day. With any structure the response ofthe structure to dynamic loading depends on the frequency or rate ofthe applied loading and on the vibration characteristics of the structure ise. It is most important for the designer to censure thatthe natural resonance frequencies of the structure are well separated fom the frequencies of applied loading which may occur. Even so the structure may respond with frequencies of stress fuctuation which are a combination ofthe applied loading frequency and its ‘own natural vibration frequencies. Furthermore since the magnitude of the loading may also vary with tine its necessary to consider both time domain and frequency domain aspects. Figure 35 shows a typical fequency domain response for stress fluctuations at a particular location in an offshore structure, This diagram gives information on number of times different stress levels are exceeded as well as the ‘frequency data, The peaks at about 0,16Hz correspond to the applied loading whereas the higher frequency peaks are those due to the vibration response ofthe structure,Stress range Nimm? Frequency (Hz) Figure 35 Frequency domain summary of stress history With variable amplitude fatigue loading ofthis kind there are additional complexities with regard to frequency effects to be considered, Where the stressing occurs close to or ata single frequency the congiton is known as ‘narrow band!’ and when there are a range of different frequencies involved itis known as "broad band’, Ifthe frequency domain response of Figure 35 is converted back into the time domain response in which the data was originally recorded the resuil would look like Figure 36. Clearly some assumptions mst have been in the conversion of one diagram into the other and inthis case itis that stress cycle counting has been carried out by the reservoir method. In Figure 36 however, it i clear that because the higher frequency stress cycles are superimposed on top of the lower frequency cycles, some of the higher fequeney eyeles occur at higher mean stress or stress rato,Stress Time Figure 36 Broad band variable amplitude stress history. 8. CONCLUDING SUMMARY Inthis lecture it has been shown that fatigue is a weakest link process ofa statistical nature in which a crack wil ntiate at a location Where stress, local and global geometry, defects and material properties combine to give a worst case situation, The crack tus ‘uckeates at a local peak spot, and may cause failure ofthe structure, even ifthe rest ofthe structure has a high fatigue resistance. Good fatigue design practice is therefore based on clse attention to detail that increases the stress locally and therefore are potentially initiation sites for fatigue cracks. A positive aspect ofthe local nature of the fatigue process is that only a relatively small area of highly stressed material need to be improved in order to increase the load carrying capacity ofthe structure when fatigue isthe limiting design erterion, Another general conchsion that increasing the size ofa structure generally leads to a lower strength with respect to brite fracture as ‘well as fatigue, Size effects must therefore be properly accounted for. ‘The larger number of fictors influencing fatigue strength makes the combined effects of these factors very dificult to predict. The safest way to obtain design data is therefore stil to perform fatigue tests on prototype components wit realstic environmental conditions. A normal structural design analysis mist be carried out for the maximum design loads and for a series of intermediate loads with known number of occurrences in the design lif to give stress resuls at typical details. Allematively ifthe application Code gives an equivalent constant amplitude loading condition and associated number of cycles this bading should be applied and stresses determined. ‘The stresses should be analysed for range of variation in principal stress or of direct stress aligned perpendicular or parallel to the geometric detail as defined in Eurocode 3. Treatments for sbear stresses are given in Burocode 3. The stress ranges should be mutipfed by appropriate partial factors, and for variable amplitude loading ether combined together to give an equivalent ‘constant amplitude stress range and number of cyckes or used to sum up fatigue damage. ‘The correct detail classification must be identified for typical critical details and the applicd fatigue damage for the design lie checked against the design S-N curve for the detail concemed. Ifthe design isnot satisfactory ether the stress ranges must be reduced or the detail changed unt satisfictory results are obtained 9. REFERENCES Metals Handbook, ASM 1985, ISO Standard, 373 - 1964. P.C. Paris and F, Erdogan, "A Critical Analysis of Crack Propagation Laws", Trans, ASME, Vol. 85, No. 4, 1963. JM. Barsom, "Fatigue Crack Propagation’, Trans, ASME, SFr. B, No.4, 1971 H, Neuber, "Kerbspannungslehre", Springer, 1958.6. RE, Peterson, "Stress Concentration Factors", John Wiky & Sons, 1974, 7. 0. Orjaseter etal, "Effect of Plate Thickness on the Fatigue Properties of a Low Carbon Micro-Alloyed Stee, Proc, 3rd Int ECSC Conf, on Steel in Marine Structures (SIMS'87), Delf, 15-18 June 1987. 8. PJ. Haagensen, "Size Effects in Fatigue of Non-Welded Components", Proc. 9th Int, Conf. on Offshore Mechanies and Arctic Engineering, (OMAB), Houston, Texas, 18-23 February 1990. Previous | Next | Contents