Accepted Manuscript

Perceptions on the use of bottled water in restaurants in Harare's Central Business

District (CBD)

Olivia Sakhile Juba, Vincent Itai Tanyanyiwa

PII: S1474-7065(16)30125-5
DOI: 10.1016/j.pce.2017.12.003
Reference: JPCE 2638

To appear in: Physics and Chemistry of the Earth

Received Date: 2 June 2016

Revised Date: 11 December 2017
Accepted Date: 22 December 2017

Please cite this article as: Juba, O.S., Tanyanyiwa, V.I., Perceptions on the use of bottled water in
restaurants in Harare's Central Business District (CBD), Physics and Chemistry of the Earth (2018), doi:
10.1016/j.pce.2017.12.003.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Perceptions on the Use of Bottled Water in Restaurants in Harare’s Central

Business District (CBD)
by
Olivia Sakhile Jubaa,*and Vincent Itai Tanyanyiwab

PT
a,b
Faculty of Science and Technology. Zimbabwe Open University. P.O. Box MP 1119. Mt.
Pleasant. Harare. Zimbabwe. *Corresponding Author: olivzw@yahoo.co.uk
b
tanyanyiwavi@yahoo.com

RI
Abstract
Bottled water use continues to expand worldwide and in the last two decades, a significant

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number of consumers have shifted from tap water to bottled water due to Cryptosporidium
outbreaks. Bottled water consumption has increased in Harare due to erratic tap water supplies.
Since 2011, forty bottled water brands have been banned because of failure to meet safety and
quality standards due to contamination, unsuitable packaging, and wrong labelling. Nevertheless,

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the bottled water industry continues to thrive as local authorities fail to adequately purify
municipal water. The study assessed the perceptions on drinking bottled water in restaurants
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within Harare’s CBD. Demographic and social factors associated with bottled water users were
established and the role and influence of stakeholders in bottling and distribution of water
documented. A field survey through the administration of questionnaires to fifty restaurant users
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was carried out to assess the perceptions of people on the use of bottled water in terms of its
safety and potential health benefits. Key informant interviews were conducted using a semi-
structured interview with ten local water bottling companies as well as representatives from the
Environmental Management Agency (EMA) and Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ).
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Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and logistic regression analysis. Standard
descriptive statistics were generated, with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Consumers used
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bottled water as their primary drinking water source when they perceived that tap water was not
safe. Perceptions of purity of water, bottled water convenience, and tap water unavailability
seemed to determine consumption patterns among users. Females in the 18-48 age groups were
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more likely to think that bottled water was cleaner, safer, tasted better and was more convenient
than tap water. Consumers regularly purchased bottled water for drinking and used bottled water
as their primary drinking water source regardless of cost implications. Government and local
authorities need to ensure that pure and clean water is availed in Harare. In addition, the public
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must be engaged in recognizing the relationships that exist between water quality and the
capacity of local authorities to maintain taste and safety standards.
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Keywords: bottled water, perceptions, purification, tap water quality, water quality

1. Introduction
Access to safe drinking water is critical to human development, and this is clearly articulated in
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Goal 6; which aims to ensure access to safe and
affordable drinking water and sanitation for all by 2030 (United Nations, UN, 2015). In sub-
Saharan Africa, challenges exist in water provision with 31.9% of the population still lacking
access to reliable drinking water sources (World Health Organization, WHO, 2015). In

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Zimbabwe, the supply of safe water faces many challenges mainly due to deterioration in service
delivery. An increasing population and deteriorating waste management infrastructure have
resulted in water resources being overburdened. According to Hove and Tirimboi (2011), a
shortage of potable water exists in the city of Harare, Zimbabwe which has led the Zimbabwe
National Water Authority (ZINWA) to effect water rationing measures in a city with a
population of over two million (Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency, ZimStats, 2012). Some
factors that have aggravated this problem include economic recession, poor local governance

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structures, corruption, dilapidation in water supply infrastructure, and disregard for water quality
standards and laws (Mtisis 2008).
Since the advent of acute water shortages in Harare from 2001, Harare City Council has been

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working to mitigate the effects of water shortages by implementing water demand management
as well as financial mobilization towards the repair of existing and investment in new
infrastructure (Manzungu and Machiridza, 2005). Since the establishment of the city, the

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infrastructure has continued to age and maintenance activities have not been adequate resulting
in the malfunctioning of the water distribution systems (Muzondi 2014). A gap therefore exists
between demand and supply of water. According to Chigumira and Mujere (2009), the water

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system in the city has several underground leakages putting the volume of water lost to 500,000
litres of water per year. The daily water demand in Harare has increased from 850 megalitres per
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day in August 2007 to 1400 megalitres per day to date. This increase has not been matched by
adequate supply with Morton Jaffray works only maintaining a capacity of 614 megalitres per
day (Muzondi 2014). A study carried out by Hove and Tirimboi in 2011 revealed that only
50.4% of the respondents in various suburbs within Harare confirmed that they had a 24-hour tap
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water service. Harare City Council has replaced water load-shedding with water rationing
measures, which is also supported by portable water supply to selected suburbs. The year 2016
was marred by an intermittent water supply as well as low water pressure in most residential,
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commercial and industrial properties (https://www.africaurban.org/city-harare-water-sewer-

performance-review-2016/#_ftn1).
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Apart from issues to do with the supply of water, concerns also exist on municipal water quality
in Harare. Epidemics of cholera and typhoid have been rampant in the city due to chronic
underinvestment in the maintenance of water and sanitation infrastructure, breakdown in the
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supply of clean water leading to erratic water supplies, challenges in protecting drinking water
supplies, and the breakdown of sanitation systems (Polonsky et al., 2014, Mason 2009). Cholera
epidemics have been occurring every year in Zimbabwe since 1998 with large outbreaks being
recorded in 1999 and 2002. However, from 2008-2009, an epidemic with a total of 97,933
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suspected cases and 4,268 deaths due to cholera was reported by the Ministry of Health and
Child Welfare (MoHCW) (WHO 2009). Fifty percent of the total number of cases recorded were
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from Budiriro, a high-density suburb in Harare (Ahmed et al., 2011). In October 2011, a typhoid
fever epidemic was declared in Harare, the fourth enteric infection epidemic since 2008. The
high-density suburbs of Dzivaresekwa and Kuwadzana in Harare were the two most affected
suburbs of Harare (Polonsky et al., 2014). To date, Harare residents continue to face water
challenges and struggle to maintain hygienic living conditions.
As a result of these factors, some Harare residents have been forced to resort to alternative
sources of water including borehole as well as bottled water, which they perceive to be of better
quality than tap water. Most residents in Harare collect their drinking water from boreholes and
wells located in various parts of the city as well as from Lake Chivero, Harare’s main water

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source (Musemwa, 2008). The government has tried to mitigate the water crisis existing in
Harare by drilling public boreholes, supplying storage tanks and rehabilitating water supply
systems. In addition, individuals have responded by taking measures into their own hands. For
instance, the Upper Manyame sub-Catchment Council (where most of Harare City lies) has
13,000 registered boreholes most of which are private with a bulk of the boreholes existing in the
city being unregistered (Makurira and Tumbare 2014). All these measures have stabilized, but
not solved the water crisis in the city.

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1.1 Bottled water use in Zimbabwe

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Consumption of bottled water is due to dissatisfaction with tap water organoleptics, i.e. the water
characteristics that affect the senses of taste, odour, and sight. In this context, as observed by
Doria in 2006, the taste seems to be particularly relevant. This has created a market opportunity

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for numerous bottled water suppliers who give the impression that their products are clean and
safe for human consumption. Influxes of counterfeit and/ or unregistered brands have flooded the
market regardless of the mandatory requirement for all bottled water companies to register for
quality production (Environmental Management Agency, EMA, 2008). Unless Good

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Manufacturing Practices (GMP) are implemented by water bottling companies, drinking water
can easily become contaminated by chemicals and micro-organisms. Although most suppliers
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indicate the mineral elements content on the label, the quality of water is not just about mineral
elements, but also microbiological safety, among other quality requirements (Kabade 2010).
Some vendors though refill bottles with tap or borehole water and sell the water to unsuspecting
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consumers.
Concerns, therefore, exist on how clean bottled water really is, including issues on waste
generation, proper use of groundwater, and economic costs. Various media reports seem to
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indicate that the public is concerned about the quality of bottled water sold in Harare. In 2012,
the Zimbabwean government condemned and banned some water bottling companies for failing
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to implement basic hygienic practices in their processes (Share 2012). Studies conducted by
students at the University of Zimbabwe and Masvingo Polytechnic on some brands of bottled
water revealed levels of lead, cadmium and chromium which were well above the set limits and
would pose a threat to human health (Gombiro et al., 2014). In addition, some brands they
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analysed had microbial contamination and a presence of heavy metals at limits above those
recommended by the World Health Organization. The study also revealed the presence of high
levels of nitrites in some bottled water brands. These nitrites have been found to be a risk factor
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in some gastric and oesophageal cancers in humans (Song et al., 2015).

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According to the WHO guidelines for drinking water quality, water intended for human
consumption should not contain any faecal coliforms such as Escherichia coli including
thermotolerant strains (WHO 2011). Drinking water should be free of contamination by
pathogenic micro-organisms and hence samples should be analysed regularly to ensure
compliance to set Zimbabwe Food and Food Standards (Mineral and Bottled Water) Regulations
(Government of Zimbabwe 2002). Sources of chemical contamination of water include toxins
arising from water bottles, contamination of groundwater sources by agrochemicals as well as
lead pipes and fittings used to transport water (Friis 2007).

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Under Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ) national standard ZWS 457:1995 voluntary
certification of water is conducted and certified products are issued with a Product Mark
Certification if they comply with the required standards
(http://www.saz.org.zw/index.php/certifications/product-certification). All minimum
requirements for water standards in Zimbabwe are set by the Ministry of Health and Child
Welfare. Accreditation of SAZ laboratories for Water Chemical Analysis testing is done in
accordance with ISO/IEC 17025 (Nyakazeya 2014). Once a brand of bottled water has been

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analysed in the SAZ laboratories the bottling company is issued with a three-year valid
certificate provided the bottling company is already registered with the Ministry of Health and
Child Welfare. SAZ also is responsible for an on-site verification of their entire production

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process to ensure that Good Manufacturing Practises (GMP) are used in their entire operations.
During the three-year certification cycle, surveillance auditing and sample testing is conducted
by SAZ to ensure that their products comply with set standards

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(http://www.saz.org.zw/index.php/certifications/product-certification). Table 1 shows bottled
water brands that have been certified by SAZ.
Table 1 SAZ product mark certified clients as at January 2017 (Source

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http://www.saz.org.zw/index.php/certifications/product-certification).
Organization Trade/Product Name Standard Number
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1. Somerby Water 457:1995
2. Schweppes Water 457:1995
3. Bon Aqua 791:2015
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4. Rainbow Beverages Mr Juicy 348:2007

5. Chromopak Adlife 457:1995
6. Mukati Investments Well Pure 457:1995
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7. ZLG Purified Water 457:1995

8. Dairibord Aqualite ZWS 457:1995
9. Vivon ZWS 457:1995
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10. Hayling H2O Pure ZWS 457:1995

11. Bubble Springs Bottled Water ZWS 457:1995
12. Kumakomo Beverages ZWS 457:1995
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13. Baobab Water ZWS 457:1995

14. Bescom Enterprises Bottled Water 457:1995
15. Datlife water 457:1995
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16. Healthy Lifestyle Bottled Water 457:1995

17. Les Nouveau Venu Bottled Water 325:1992
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18. Milset Enterprises Bottled Water 457:1995

19. Liquid Asset Bottled Water 457:1995
20. Redlight Investments Bottled Water ZWS 457:1995
21. Peakstyle Investment Bottled Water ZWS 457:1995
22. Norsemen Nyanga Water ZWS 457:1995
23. Mucklow Investments Bottled Water ZWS 457:1995
24. Hurricane Spring Water ZWS 457:1995
25. Velez Investments Bottled Water ZWS 457:1995
26. Win King Investments Bottled Water ZWS 457:1995
27. Denver Beverage Bottled Water ZWS 457:1995

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28. Dream Tree Bottled Water 457:1995

29. Cairns Foods Bottled Water 457:1995
30. Victoria Falls Water 457:1995
31. LS Waters 457:1995
32. AquaMist Beverages 457:1995
List of brands not on the SAZ list

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1. Tanganda Tingamira purified still water
2. Well pure
3. Nestle purified water

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4. Border still streams purified water
5. Super choice
6. Crystal purified water

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7. Aqua sport water
8. Jojo purified water
9. Century
10. Reichmark Aquasplash

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11. Nilestroom Krystal Water
12. Ellengrow Investments Mr Water
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13. Oasis Oasis
14. Natures Paradise
15. ZimpacZimZim
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16. Inwai
Although SAZ is not a regulatory authority and only performs voluntary certification, the
mandate to carry out compulsory certification of all food products including water, in Zimbabwe
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lies with the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare through the Food Safety and Advisory Board
(FSAB). FSAB is the regulatory board that performs random inspections on the quality and
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safety of water for domestic and commercial use. Bottlers are required to keep their own
continuous water quality check records for up to two years. However, premises owned by some
bottling companies do not meet the required minimum basic hygienic requirements, while others
are not bottling their water at the source as required by law (Share 2012).
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Although FSAB makes continuous random inspections on the quality and safety of bottled water,
a proliferation of non-certified and non-compliant water brands still occurs. Of the numerous
companies selling bottled water, only thirty-two have been certified after meeting basic
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minimum hygienic requirements and supplying satisfactory chemical and microbiological

sample test results (Musarurwa 2014). Uncertified brands could result in disease outbreaks
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occurring in unsuspecting individuals.

Previous studies have focused on perceptions on water and sanitation of residents in various
suburbs within the city of Harare (Tanyanyiwa and Mutungamiri 2011), assessment of Harare
water service delivery (Hove and Tirimboi 2011) as well as the potability of different sources of
water in Harare (Kativhu 2013). It is against this background that the research sought to describe
bottled water use and beliefs and attitudes about water use among people who frequent
restaurants in Harare’s Central Business District (CBD). This research assessed how restaurant
users in Harare’s CBD perceive the safety of bottled water against the background of conflicting
reports on which water source is best in terms of health benefits and cost-effectiveness.

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Understanding the motivation behind bottled water choice is essential to developing effective
recommendations on how restaurant users can decrease bottled water use. The reasons behind the
choices of bottled drinking water sold in Harare’s restaurants will be described.

2. Methodology

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2.1 Description of study area
The city of Harare was founded in 1890 and is located in the north-eastern part of Zimbabwe
(Fig. 1). It is the capital and largest city in Zimbabwe and is surrounded by the satellite towns of

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Chitungwiza, Norton, Epworth, and Ruwa. The city sits on a watershed plateau between
Limpopo and Zambezi and is located upstream in the Manyame river catchment at an elevation
of 1,483m. Lake Chivero is the city’s main source of domestic water which consists of water

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from storm runoff and wastewater generated from the city flow. Morton Jaffrey Water Works,
the water treatment plant for the city is situated in Lake Chivero. The city has had a significant
increase in growth over the past three decades and has a population size of about 2.1 million
(Zimstats 2012). This paper presents a study of perceptions on the use of bottled water in

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restaurants within Harare’s Central Business District (CBD), Simon Muzenda Street, Robert
Mugabe Road, Leopold Takawira Street and Samora Machel Avenue (Fig. 2).
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2.2 Sample and Procedures
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Field studies were conducted in selected restaurants, with selected suppliers of bottled water as
well as with representatives from relevant organizations. The study was conducted from March
to August 2015. Data collection strategies included observation, key informant interviews, and a
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field survey. A field survey through the administration of questionnaires was carried out to
assess perceptions of people on the use of bottled water in terms of its safety and potential health
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benefits. A total of fifty customers were selected using simple random sampling from twenty
low- to mid-scale restaurants located within the study area. The data was collected using a
questionnaire administered mainly during lunch service over a 15-day period from mid-April to
early May 2015. Lunch service was selected as an ideal sampling time as the majority of the
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restaurants had a peak in the numbers of clients they hosted during this period. The twenty
restaurants studied had an average hourly client flow of 30 customers during lunch hour, of
which more than half that number opted for takeaway services. The questionnaires used assessed
respondents on general water consumption, bottled water consumption including the reasons for
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choosing particular types and brands of bottled water, water use in terms of perceived health
concerns, as well as the demographic characteristics such as gender and age. Key informant
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interviews were conducted with ten local water bottling companies as well as representatives
from EMA and SAZ using a semi-structured interview from mid-May to the beginning of June
2015.

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Fig. 1: Location of Harare in Zimbabwe and Africa (Source http://www.maphill.com/).

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Samora Machel Avenue
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C EP
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Fig. 2: Map of Harare’s CBD Simon Muzenda Street, Robert Mugabe Road, Leopold
Takawira Street and Samora Machel Avenue (Source http://www.maphill.com/).
Key informant interviews assessed the patterns of bottled water use in Zimbabwe, monitoring of
bottling in the country as well as protection of consumers through adherence to the Public Health
Act.

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The survey questionnaire included 36 questions divided into three sections: (i) habits of drinking
water; (ii) bottled water preference; and (iii) customer demographics. The primary variable of
interest was the use of bottled water by restaurant users in Harare’s CBD area. It was categorized
as primarily (mostly or exclusively) bottled water or primarily tap water. Independent variables
included the respondent’s occupation, the level of education, and responses to the survey items
about beliefs, attitudes, and sources of information.

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2.3 Data analysis
Data were analysed using descriptive analysis and logistic regression analysis. Standard

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descriptive statistics were generated, with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) where
appropriate. Independent variables included sex, age, education, and occupation. Age was a
continuous variable measuring the ages of respondents, and gender was recorded as 0 = female

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and 1 = male. For education five categories of formal education levels were provided for the
respondents to choose from, ranging from “no school” to “degree level.” Univariate logistic
regression was used to analyse the associations between individual risk factors and bottled water
use. Factors associated with primarily bottled water use were identified using stepwise

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multivariate logistic regression and adjusted ORs at 95% confidence interval were calculated.
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3. Results and discussions
3.1 Respondent characteristics
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Table 2 presents the social demographics of the respondents. More than half of respondents
(60%) were men. Most of the respondents had a formal education having at least attained a
certificate. The ages of the respondents ranged from 18-75 with a mean age of 45 (Standard
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Deviation= 15.36). A typical respondent was thus a 45-year-old male with formal education.
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Table 2 Characteristics of respondents

Variable Responses Mean (%) Standard Deviation (%)
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Gender 0= Female 39.6%

1=Male 60.4%
Age Range from 18 to 75 45.08 15.36
Level of education 1 = No schooling
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2 = O’ Level
3 = A’ Level
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4 = Certificate Level 4.60 1.355

5 = Diploma Level
6 = Degree Level

3.2 Sources of drinking water

In total four main sources of drinking water were identified. Overall, 42% of the respondents
reported that their main source of drinking water in the restaurant was bottled water (Fig. 3).
Borehole water usage was the second highest at 32% of the total respondents. Borehole water

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was usually collected by restaurant owners and provided with meals in three of the twenty
restaurants studied. Two out of the twenty restaurants had water filters within their restaurants
which they used to filter either tap or borehole water. No water fountains exist in the city hence;
most of the respondents were forced to buy bottled water.

50

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40
Percentage

30

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20 Source of drinking water
10

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0
Tap water Bottled Borehole Filtered

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water water
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Fig. 3: Respondent’s sources of drinking water.

3.3 Bottled water use in restaurants

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The mean consumption of bottled water amounted to 4.68 bottles per week with a median of 5.0
bottles per week and a range of 0 to 9 bottles (Standard Deviation= 2.18). Individual
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consumption of bottled water was measured in terms of frequency of buying bottled water per
visit to the restaurant and was divided into three categories: always, sometimes and never.
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Overall, 33% of the respondents reported that they always buy at least one bottle of bottled water
with their meals, while 15% of the respondents reported that they never buy bottled water in the
restaurants (Fig. 4). Sixteen out of the twenty key informants in the restaurants assessed reported
that most of their clients ordered at least one bottle of water per meal. Five of the twenty
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restaurants reported that they provide water with all meals ordered, thus their bottled water sales
were low. Bottled water has an average retail price of US$0.50 per 500ml bottle in the
restaurants assessed. With a mean bottled water consumption of 4.68 per week, the respondents,
therefore, spend an average of US$2.34 per week on bottled water, which translates to US$9.36
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per month. Given an average monthly net salary of US$340 (https://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-

living/country_result.jsp?country=Zimbabwe), the respondents are spending 2.8% of their
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salaries on bottled water.

3.4 Types of bottled water consumed

Each respondent was asked to identify the type of water they normally bought in the restaurant
including their preferred brand of bottled water. As shown in Fig. 5, the majority of respondents
in this study (47%) preferred to buy purified water, while 24% of the respondents preferred
mineral water. The respondents preferred to drink purified water brands such as ZLG, Wellpure,
Jojo, Oasis and Vivon. Restaurants tended to stock on cheaper brands so as to maximize sales

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and profits by pushing volumes. The choices of bottled water available for the respondents were
thus limited. Brands such as Jojo and Oasis did not have valid licences and consumers were
unaware of this and only bought those brands because they were available and also cheaper than
some of the brands such as Schweppes and Rainbow Beverages Mr Juicy.

100

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90
80
Percentage

70

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60 Always
50
Sometimes
40

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30 Never
20
10

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0
Frequency of buying bottled water
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Fig. 4: Frequency of buying water
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100

80
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Percentage

60
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40
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20

0
Purified Spring Mineral Sparkling Well
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Water Water Water bottled Water

water
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Fig. 5: Types of bottled water consumed.

3.5 Beliefs about sources of drinking water

Of the four belief statements about bottled water analysed; most respondents agreed to the
positive statements (Table 3). 100% of the respondents agreed that bottled water tastes much
better than tap water. All respondents felt that bottled water was of a higher quality, cleaner and

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better-tasting than tap water. The unfavourable organoleptic characteristics of Harare Municipal
water could have been the major contributory factor to this result. Most of the participants
believed that compared to tap water, bottled water was a safer and healthier option.
Table 3 Beliefs about bottled water
Statement Agree % Disagree %
Bottled water is cleaner than tap water 96 4

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Bottled water is safer than tap water 88 12
Bottled water tastes better than tap water 100 0

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Bottled water is more convenient than tap water 46 54
3.6 Factors associated with water use

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Logistic regression analysis was used to examine the factors associated with bottled water use.
The following factors were independently associated with bottled water use: belief that bottled
water is cleaner, safer, tastes better, or is more convenient than tap water. The results of
multivariate logistic regression are shown in Table 4. Age and gender were found to be

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significant in determining bottled water use. Females in the 18-48 age group were more likely to
think that bottled water is cleaner, safer, tastes better and is more convenient than tap water.
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Respondents with a Diploma or better were more likely than those with a Certificate or less to
think that bottled water tastes better than tap water (Odds Ratio, OR 2.43; Confidence Interval,
CI 1.031-18.99).
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Eating habits also had an important effect on the use of bottled water. People who frequented
restaurants in Harare’s CBD were more likely to think that bottled water tasted better and was
more convenient to use than tap water. However, results indicated that concerns of availability
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rather than safety and cleanliness of tap water resulted in respondents who frequented restaurants
opting for bottled water.
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Table 4 Results of Stepwise Regression showing factors significantly associated with

primarily bottled water use.
Factor Adjusted OR (95% CI) P-value
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Bottled water is cleaner than tap water

Sex
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Male 1 (Reference) -
Female 2.0000 (0.5274-7.5844) 0.3081
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Age
18-48 1 (Reference) -
49-75 0.4643 (0.0865-2.4917) 0.3708
Education
Certificate level, or less 1 (Reference)
Diploma level, or more 1.1979 (0.3113-4.6093) -
Eating habits 0.7928
Frequents restaurants in Harare’s CBD 1 (Reference) -
Does not frequent restaurants in Harare’s CBD 1.5000 (0.6294-3.5747) 0.3601

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Bottled water is safer than tap water

Sex
Male 1 (Reference) -
Female 3.2807 (0.7815-13.7716) 0.1045
Age
18-48 1 (Reference) -
49-75 0.5333 (0.0685-4.1502) 0.5482

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Education
Certificate level, or less 1 (Reference) -
Diploma level, or more 1.5000 (0.3730-6.0325) 0.5680

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Eating habits
Frequents restaurants in Harare’s CBD 1 (Reference) -
Does not frequent restaurants in Harare’s CBD 1.7378 (0.7774-3.8846) 0.1782

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Bottled water tastes better than tap water
Sex
Male 1 (Reference) -

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Female 3.2727 (0.6161-17.3860) 0.1641
Age
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18-48 1 (Reference) -
49-75 0.4643 (0.0865-2.4917) 0.3708
Education
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Certificate level, or less 1 (Reference) -

Diploma level, or more 2.4286 (0.3106-18.9870) 0.3977
Eating habits
Frequents restaurants in Harare’s CBD 1 (Reference) -
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Does not frequent restaurants in Harare’s CBD 0.2097 (0.0341-1.2899) 0.0919

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Bottled water is more convenient than tap water

Sex
Male 1 (Reference) -
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Female 0.2017 (0.0487-0.8357) 0.0273

Age
18-48 1 (Reference) -
49-75 2.3571 (0.7011-7.9252) 0.1658
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Education
Certificate level, or less 1 (Reference) -
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Diploma level, or more 0.0417 (0.0071-0.2429) 0.0004

Eating habits
Frequents restaurants in Harare’s CBD 1 (Reference) -
Does not frequent restaurants in Harare’s CBD 0.1467 (0.0247-0.8692) 0.0345

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio.

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3.7 Bottled water standards in Zimbabwe

Interviews conducted with key informants from EMA, SAZ and Harare City Council revealed
that bottled water use in Zimbabwe is not quantified. Although government prohibits bottling
away from source, this is not well monitored. Sentiments by EMA and Harare City Council are
that the Public Health Act is not adhered to. In addition, Zimbabwe has no legislation to
safeguard consumer rights.

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3.8 Role and influence of local water bottling companies

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The bottling companies assessed confirmed that they fully complied with SAZ requirements for
product certification and were subject to mandatory surveillance audits. They also reported that
significant costs are involved in the manufacture and transport of bottles, particularly costs

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involving energy, which is a scarce commodity in this country. Key informants from local
bottling companies interviewed reported that in general bottling water usage in the city has
increased. With its population of approximately 2.1 million inhabitants, Harare consumes almost
300 000 litres of bottled water daily (Zimstats 2012). All ten bottling companies assessed owe

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the increased volumes of bottled water being consumed in Harare to the decline in the quality of
Harare Municipal water, which most residents find to be undrinkable. In addition, public
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drinking water fountains have become increasingly scarce.
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4.0 Discussions
Our study examined perceptions of respondents to bottled water consumption, and perceptions of
bottled water versus tap water use among people who frequent restaurants in Harare’s CBD, as
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well as associations with other demographic characteristics such as age and gender. Results
obtained from the logistic regression supported findings by Hu et al. (2011) that age and gender
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are significant predictors of bottled water drinking patterns. The study documented bottled water
drinking patterns of restaurant users in Harare’s CBD and investigated how consumer preference
for bottled water is affected by a negative perception of tap water taste and safety. Overall, the
results from the study indicated that only a small percentage of the customers (15%) did not use
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bottled water in the restaurants and preferred to consume tap or borehole water. The study also
established that among bottled water users, a strong relationship exists between bottled water use
and unfavourable organoleptic characteristics of Harare City Council water. The results obtained
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are important because to date, no studies have been conducted exploring consumer perceptions
about bottled water and the factors that motivate people to buy it in Harare’s CBD.
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The agreeable organoleptic characteristics of bottled water led most of the participants opting to
select bottled water in restaurants within the CBD. Health beliefs about bottled water were also a
strong motivating factor for purchasing bottled water. In addition, most participants felt that
there was a significant health benefit in drinking bottled water compared to tap water. From this,
it is likely that bottled water consumption is due to beliefs about health benefits associated with
bottled water. Other factors such as convenience cost and taste emerged as important reasons for
any preference for bottled water. These results complement findings by Ward et al. (2009) and
Hu et al. (2011) that apart from issues to do with health, factors such as safety, convenience and
taste are important reasons for consumer preference for bottled water. Consumers are thus
motivated to buy bottled water.

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Perception of drinking water safety is found to be highly associated with bottled water use. A
study by Francisco in 2014 conducted in the Philippines revealed that households that perceived
their primary source of water to be unsafe were more likely to buy bottled or purified water. In
addition, the level of education and the presence of children aged 0–5 years, were found to have
significant effects on bottled water use. The findings on water quality perceptions generally
confirmed that when the public doubt the safety of their tap water, they look for alternatives like
bottled water (Ferrier 2001). Safety has previously been identified as an important motivating

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factor for buying bottled water (Mackey 2005, Levallois 1999). This was also established in the
study with the respondents being of the impression that Harare City Council water was unsafe.
The frequent outbreaks of cholera and typhoid in the city have most likely resulted in residents

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having a diminished trust in the quality of tap water (Ahmed et al., 2011, Polonsky et al., 2014).
Harare Municipality has also not communicated sufficient information on the safety of the water
they provide. The water from the tap is often so contaminated that residents usually get a

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brownish, greenish or yellowish liquid. The situation is aggravated by corroded and worn-out
water distribution systems with close to 60% of treated water being lost through underground
leaks and burst pipes (Manzungu and Mabiza 2004).

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Despite these perceptions about the safety and health effects of bottled water, a question still
remains on the actual health benefit of bottled water over tap water. Indeed, several studies have
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suggested increased rates of contamination of bottled water and illness (Raj 2005). Considering
the current state of the economy, the use of bottled water may lead to less availability of
resources for other health needs, as respondents might have to give up on other things to be able
to pay for water. In addition, most bottled water products available on the market (40–60%
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globally) consists of packaged tap water, which in some, but not all, cases may have been
reprocessed (Doria 2006).
As bottled water use continues to expand around the world, there is growing interest in the
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social, environmental and economical implications of that use. Although in general, strict
standards need to be maintained in the production of bottled water, some substances are difficult
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to manage more than in tap water. Containers used in bottling water, pipes and fittings for
transporting the water as well as the fact that the water has to be stored for longer periods and at
higher temperatures than tap water increases the risk of contamination of bottled water. In
addition, reuse of bottles, closures and containers poses a health risk if the containers are not
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adequately cleaned or disinfected (Gorelick et al., 2011). A proliferation of potentially dangerous

micro-organisms may occur to higher levels in bottled water leading to disease outbreaks in
unsuspecting and or vulnerable individuals.
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Debates on the safest source of drinking water from bottled water, borehole water to municipal
water have been made in light of recurrent cholera and typhoid outbreaks (Ahmed et al., 2011).
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Conflicting reports have been published in the press with experts disagreeing on which water
source has the least health implications for human health. Harare residents have had to spend
money buying bottled water which they consider to be safe with some having to travel long
distances in search of borehole water in a bid to avoid drinking the readily available municipal
water which they can often get from their taps.
In a study carried out in Zimbabwe which involved 60 samples from 3 companies, 11.7% of the
water tested exceeded the total coliform count (Okagbue, 2002). Of the five water brands
analysed in a study by Gombiro et al. 2014, all were found to be contaminated by nitrites, lead
and chromium. Two of the brands had Total Viable Counts that exceeded recommended limits.

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Similarly, a study conducted by Moyo et al. in 2014 revealed that bottled water brands analysed
in Bulawayo, the second largest city in Zimbabwe, had a 10% mean prevalence for total
coliforms while E. coli and faecal coliforms had a mean prevalence of 2.5 and 5%, respectively.
The results from all these studies revealed that the local bottled water brands failed to comply
with the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, suggesting that they may not be safe for
consumption.

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All the registered bottling companies have to comply with the SAZ product certification scheme
for bottled water. This scheme includes testing or inspection of product samples from production
facilities, assessment of production processes as well as compliance with surveillance activities
(SAZ 2015). The cost associated with bottled water production in the unstable Zimbabwean

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economy has resulted in most bottled water companies struggling to meet demand and maintain
the quality of their product. According to Gleick 2009, cited in Demszky et al. 2014, 2000 times
more energy is needed to produce bottled water than tap water. Bottling companies reported that

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sales were however not as high as expected due to a proliferation of numerous bottling
companies in the city including ‘backyard bottlers’ who use their bottles and refill them with
borehole water. Such backyard bottlers were not only taking business away from them but were

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also tarnishing their image by using contaminated water and improperly cleaned bottles which
pose a threat to the health of consumers.
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5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations
The respondents opted to drink bottled water as they perceived tap water unsafe for drinking.
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They viewed the consumption of local tap water to be a potential health risk. We concluded that
there are important differences in the use of bottled water and that the increased bottled water use
among restaurant users is usually due to an unavailability of clean tap water in the city.
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Unfavourable tap water organoleptics might be contributing to increased use of bottled water.
Also, the consumption of bottled water is likely to be driven by the fact that the buying of water
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is more convenient for consumers as most restaurants sell relatively affordable brands of bottled
water. Government and municipality need to work to assure that public drinking water supplies
are reliable. They should find effective ways to communicate to residents the safety of their
water supply. Overall, it is hoped that findings from this study will provide a basis for
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intervention from various stakeholders and bring more sustainable solutions to the challenge of
the urban water crisis in Zimbabwe.
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5.1 Recommendations
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Efforts to upgrade and improve Harare’s water systems should be made so that clean and
disease-free water comes from Harare City Council. Technology to remove new contaminants,
improvements to old pipe and distribution systems, better monitoring, and special assistance in
areas that do not normally receive tap water should be priority areas. Also, more education of
consumers should be availed on the quality of tap water, and the true environmental and
economic costs of bottled water. Better comprehensive independent monitoring and enforcement
of bottled water standards, better labelling of bottled water, and the elimination of misleading
names and descriptions should be enforced by other bodies apart from SAZ and EMA which are
parastatals or quasi-government departments. There is need for more access to drinking water
fountains in Harare’s CBD and these should be properly secured to minimise vandalism.

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Consumers need to exercise intrinsic motivation by carrying around reusable, and refillable
bottles, and to support improvements in tap water system in one’s area. By demanding better
labelling and transparent information from bottled water, companies’ money is saved,
environmental footprints are reduced and bottled water prices are reduced.

Acknowledgements

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The authors would like to acknowledge all the restaurant owners within the study area who
allowed us time to gain access to their premises and talk to their clients. We would also like to
acknowledge members of staff from EMA, SAZ and Harare City Council who took the time to

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answer all the questions we had. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors.

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• Respondents perceived bottled water to be safe for drinking.

• Participants viewed consumption of local tap water to be a health risk.
• Unfavourable tap water organolepticsare contributing to increased use of bottled water.
• Government and municipality need to work to assure the public that drinking water
supplies are reliable and safe.

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