©Saxe-Coburg Publications, 2007.

Civil Engineering Computations: Tools and Techniques

B.H.V. Topping, (Editor)
Chapter 0123456789 Saxe-Coburg Publications, Stirlingshire, Scotland, 888-888.

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The Use of Information and
Communication Technologies in Construction
A.P. Chassiakos
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Patras, Greece

Abstract
This paper provides an overview of recent research and industrial developments on
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) use for improving the efficiency
of the construction process. ICT applications in construction include Electronic
Document Management Systems (EDMS), Web-based Project Management
Systems (WPMS), Application Service Providers (ASP), E-work and E-business
applications, Virtual Reality (VR) applications, mobile computing, and wireless
communication. It is believed that ICT, when appropriately used, can significantly
contribute to the timely, economical, and successful deployment of construction
projects. Main constraints in its use are the reluctance or difficulty of the
construction industry to adopt new technologies in conjunction with a difficulty in
identifying clear benefits of ICT use, the limited budget for ICT investment, the
need for computer-skilled staff, issues of ICT standardisation, and technological and
financial constraints.

Keywords: information and communication technology (ICT), construction,

information management systems, web-based project management, e-business,
virtual reality, mobile computing, wireless communication.

1 Introduction
The development of construction projects includes several stages during which a
large number of human resources of different specialties interact and cooperate. An
important element in this interaction is the information management and
communication process which constitutes a determinant factor for the efficiency of
human resource cooperation. Enhancing communication among project participants,
however, proves to be a challenging task due to the extended fragmentation of the

123
construction industry and the huge amount and wide dissimilarity of the information
involved in the construction process. The wide variation of specialties, expertise,
educational background, professional skills, computer acquaintance, and working
environment among the project participants impedes the information management
and communication of the project team. The distance between the construction
company headquarters and the (often remote) construction sites renders the
communication even harder. The information types and volumes associated with
construction projects are such as to make information management a difficult task
while the uniqueness of such projects makes the effort for information
standardisation arduous. Effective information communication requires the existence
of structured and reliable information. As construction projects become larger and
more complex, an efficient way to provide such information is through the use of
information management systems.
In order to surmount these information management and communication
deficiencies, more emphasis is given to ICT tools. Both researchers and
software/hardware developers have recruited several ICT tools for providing
solutions to the construction industry. This paper aims to present an overview of
recent research and industrial developments on ICT use for improving the efficiency
of the construction process. As a result of the amount of existing work and paper
length limitations, this paper concentrates on more recent work.

2 Collaborative working and ICT

Collaborative working is thought to be a key element for the timely, economical,
and successful deployment of construction projects. As a result, the construction
industry has put significant effort into advancing such types of working.
Collaborative working depends heavily on the effectiveness of information
management and communication in the project life cycle. To provide a simple
illustration of conventional and envisioned trends in information management and
communication, Figure 1 depicts the information communication process among
project participants as it is conventionally done and as it is ideally imagined. The
lines in this figure represent (one way or bi-directional) information transfer. With
current practice, project participants generally keep their own files with the
necessary data and information is commonly transferred directly between participant
pairs, using common but often time consuming and expensive means (e.g.,
telephones, faxes, mail, and in-situ visits or meetings). As the number of participants
increases, this information communication process becomes complicated and
difficult to organize and control. In an advanced project information management
and sharing system, all project information is gathered into a central database from
where it is transferred to the appropriate participant, thus facilitating the organisation
and control objectives.
 Figure 1: Conventional and envisioned information management approaches

A number of research efforts and industrial advancements have dealt with the
information management and communication needs of the construction industry and
the use of information and communication technology (ICT) for improving the
efficiency of the construction process. To provide a better illustration of specific ICT
advancements in construction, a number of development directions have been
identified and an attempt to group existing works according to its main targets and
content has been made. In general, academic/industrial efforts that relate to
information and communication technology applications in construction can be
classified as follows:
• Information analysis in construction
• Electronic Document Management (EDM) systems
• Web-based information management in construction
• Application Service Providers (ASP)
• Construction Information Standardisation
• E-work and e-business in construction
• Virtual reality in construction
• Mobile computing and wireless communication
• Reviews, discussions, and case studies

3 Information analysis in construction

Information systems that involve database development require a thorough analysis
of the information that is generated and exchanged throughout the construction
process. In this respect, Atkin [1] discussed some information management
problems in construction and existing solutions. Chassiakos [2] presented the key
elements of the information management process in construction and discussed the
use of computers for information management and communication. Froese et al. [3]
described the conceptual stage of computer tools that support construction
management and provided a partial listing of project documents and functional
categories for project management. Shahid and Froese [4] studied project
information and information flows in construction, mapping various types of
information against the documents that typically provide the information and the
construction management functions that provide and access the information. Saaban
et al. [5] noticed the increasing popularity of architectural, engineering and
construction (AEC) online information resources and the need for domain specific
systems that acknowledge both the user’s information tasks and skills. This study
concentrates on analysing the users’ information behaviour when involved in an
online information seeking session. This analysis aims to find out whether there are
patterns of information seeking behaviour among the AEC professionals.

4 Electronic document management systems

The term EDM has a vague meaning and, as a result, no exact definition can be
found in the literature. There are three major perspectives in which the EDM term is
commonly perceived (and further used) by researchers:
• A document management approach tries to manage existing and ready to use
documents. A typical approach of this kind is the one that defines and stores
documents, indexes them by single or multiple content, and supports retrieval by
index. Documents are not necessarily in electronic format; they can also be
shelved hard copies.
• A model-based approach aims to generate or retrieve documents through data
models. A usual case of this approach is the automatic production of documents
through a query. This occurs by selecting the desirable pieces of information to
be contained in a document.
• An information management approach attempts to organize and handle all
information circulated in the construction process in an integrated and effective
way.
Electronic document management systems (EDMs) have been developed to track
and store electronic documents, providing storage, versioning, metadata, security, as
well as indexing and retrieval capabilities. An early research effort on EDMs is
presented by Björk et al. [6] who provided the functional description of an
integrated construction project document management system. The approach
adopted concentrates on the management of documents in digital form and not on
the management of the information within documents or databases. Finch et al. [7]
proposed a method of bar coding hard copy drawings in order to electronically
transfer secondary document information from designer to contractor. Rezgui and
Debras [8] aimed at demonstrating the computer-aided generation of project
documents via a construction project data model, in which hypertext references
enable navigation from one documentary item to another, internal or external to the
document. Hayes et al. [9] described the state of the art in EDM systems for the
construction industry and, among others, three EDM systems used in the European
Esprit Condor project. Hajjar et al. [10] presented an integrated approach for an
electronic document management system, based on the concept of specialized
construction data models. The relationship between a document and certain aspects
of the constructed facility and the construction company are explicitly represented.
 More recently, Bäckblom et al. [11] presented the results of empirical studies
concerning the current usage of EDM systems in the Finnish construction industry.
Results indicate that while around 1/3 of big projects already have adopted the use
of EDM, very few small projects have adopted this technology. Further, the results
illustrate that use is yet incomplete in coverage and that only a section of the
individuals involved in the project used the system efficiently, either as information
producers or consumers.
Sionti et al. [12] developed an electronic document management system for
public construction projects. The proposed system is a model-based approach and
allows the automatic production of official documents circulated among the project
owner, the contractor, and other participants during the development of such
projects. The proposed system consists of a database and a user interface module.
Through the user interface module the user can submit a query for a specific project
and request generation of the desired documents, which is done by the program by
entering in the appropriate project information into the corresponding document
templates.
Björk [13] presented a set of research questions and methods that can be used in
order to make observations on the research knowledge about the introduction of
EDM systems in the construction industry and clearly articulate these questions,
helping in the definition of an agenda of research needs for the near future.
Questions dealt with include: What features should EMD systems have? How much
are they used? Are there benefits from use and how should these be measured? What
are the barriers to wide-spread adoption? Which technical questions need to be
solved? Is there scope for standardisation? How will the market for such systems
evolve?
Hjelt and Björk [14] found that the key issues in taking EDM systems into use are
no longer technical or cost-related, but are rather related to business models and
psychology. Results from a case study with end users of an EDM system in a large
construction project indicate that users cannot be treated as a homogeneous group
but differ considerably in attitudes towards the system, based on previous EDM
experience, differing roles in the construction project (designer, contractor,
subcontractor) and usage pattern.

5 Web-based information management in construction

The development of information management systems that combine database and
web technologies are considered significantly beneficial for the communication
process. Figure 2 illustrates a simple architecture of such a system, which consists of
a repository database, a server, a web application, and end user terminals [15]. End
users access this information through the internet using a web browser. The
electronic data exchange is allowed among the project participants through a set of
appropriately designed web pages, which constitute the web application.
 Figure 2: A web-based information management architecture [15]

Conceptual frameworks of such systems have been presented and discussed in

Garcia et al. [16], Abudayyeh [17], and He [18]. Tam [19] and Deng et al. [20]
proposed the development of an internet-based system that comprises six major
functions including data exchange, emailing information exchange, internet chat,
live video-cam, search engine, and auxiliary services.
Regarding web-based applications in construction management, Faraj et al. [21]
proposed an IFC-based collaborative computer environment that enables the
communication of distributed applications such as design, visualisation, estimating,
planning, specifications, and supplier information. Abudayyeh et al. [22] designed
and implemented an intranet-based cost control system that allows the automated
production of specific cost reports. Dawood et al. [23] designed an internet-based
information management system for commercial retail buildings, focusing mainly on
drawing management. Mokhtar [24] developed an intranet-based information model
for facing the problem of incompatibility errors in drawings. Chan and Leung [25]
presented a conceptual model of a metadata-based information system for data
exchange among web-based documents for construction project management.
Cheung et al. [26] developed a web-based performance monitoring system that
includes performance indicators in the categories of people, cost, time, quality,
safety and health, environment, client satisfaction, and communication. Zhiliang et
al. [27] summarized the characteristics of the exchanged information in construction
projects in China based on literature survey and field investigation, and proposed a
web-based approach to develop a system for the management of exchanged
information in construction projects using XML. Chassiakos and Sakellaropoulos
[15] raised the importance of information modelling i.e., the representation of the
construction process in data to facilitate exchange and interoperability of
information and presented a web-based system for managing construction
information focusing on the daily site reporting process.
Castro-Lacouture and Skibniewski [28] attempted to specify the relationships
between the user’s expectation and the actual performance of a given web-based
system for the approval process of reinforcing steel design and estimation. These
relationships are categorized with respect to the type of organization, prevailing type
of construction and use of CAD components extracted from historical designs of
similar structures.
Chan and C. Liu [29] presented the corporate portals for the construction industry
with an aim of solving the collaboration problem in the construction industry in
Hong Kong and nearby regions of China. From this research result, it is realized that
the corporate portals will particularly fit to the needs of the construction industry.
Scheer et al. [30] presented some case study results from an enterprise
management project conducted during a building design and construction process,
using a web based environment for project management. The communication plan
proved to be very important in maintaining the project teams’ dynamics as a whole,
and the flow of information for the entire process. A critical review of the system
performance was presented, including the benefits and shortcomings observed
during the information and communication flows in the management project carried
out.

6 Application Service Providers

With the boom of the internet, a number of professional information technology
companies developed commercial web-based systems for the Architectural,
Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry. These systems are either leased as
services by the so-called Application Service Providers (ASP) or sold as web-
enabled software. Through ASPs, the complexities and costs of specialized software
can be cut down. In addition, the issues of upgrading have been eliminated from the
end-firm by placing the onus on the ASP to maintain up-to-date services, high
quality technical support, physical and electronic security and in-built support for
business continuity and flexible working. A summary report of indicative
commercial web-based systems is shown in Table 1.

7 Construction information standardisation

The lack of data standardization has been a major obstacle for computer-integrated
construction research projects. The recognition of this problem has led to the
ongoing development of such standards. The prominent efforts for the
standardization of product models are the STEP (Standard for the Exchange of
Product model data) standard by the International Organization for Standards (ISO)
and the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC’s) by the International Alliance for
Interoperability (IAI). The ISO-STEP 10303 is a standard for the human and
computer interpretable representation and exchange of product data, with the
objective of providing a neutral mechanism to describe the product data throughout
the life cycle of the product, independently of any particular system or software.
This standard refers to all industry-wide sectors that deal with a product rather than
focusing on specific industries, e.g., the AEC industry. The IAI is an industry-based
consortium, which develops similar standards in the form of IFC’s for exchanging
data between computer systems within the AEC industry. The intention of the IFC’s
is to define how real things, such as doors, walls, etc. and abstract concepts, such as
spaces, processes, etc. should be represented electronically. Although these
standards are very promising in facilitating the construction process, this can only be
expected in the long run. More effort must be placed on them before they acquire
practical applicability.

Company Product Lease Buy URL

AutoDesk Buzzsaw 3 http://www.buzzsaw.com
Bentley ProjectWise 3 http://www.bentley.com
Briscnet BuildingCenter 3 3 http://bricsnet.com
Building Information http://www.biwtech.com
Information
Warehouse (BIW)
Channel 3
CFM Teamflow 3 http://www.teamflow.com
Citadon Citadon 3 http://www.citadon.com
Constructware
3 http://www.constructware.
com
Documentum eRoom 3 http://www.eroom.com
e-Builder e-Builder
Enterprise 3 http://e-builder.net
IronSpire 3 http://www.ironspire.com
Meridian Project ProjectTalk
Systems 3 http://www.mps.com
Primavera PrimeContract 3 http://www.primavera.
com

Table 1: Indicative commercial web-based systems for the construction industry [31]

Country-specific efforts for organizing information standards, including standard

categorization and classification, as well as rules and procedures of managing a
standardization project and revising existing standards, serve as a blueprint for
existing and future standardization efforts. Among them, Zhu and Wang [32]
provide an introduction to the organizing system and share major issues related to
the development and implementation of the system, so that readers may have better
understanding of the standardization efforts in the Chinese construction industry, as
well as the social, technical and political implications associated with the efforts.

8 E-work and e-business in construction

The development of e-commerce technologies in relation to construction
management have been significantly improved in recent years and are perceived as a
mainstream to improve productivity and information flow as well as
communications. However, until now, not much evident research has been
conducted to pursue successful applications of e-commerce technologies to the
construction supply chain [33]. With the increasing use of the internet, E-
Procurement, E-Tendering, and E-Contracting can offer viable alternatives to
traditional paper-based processes.
Carter et al. [34] presented a view on the issues of ICT application in
construction and a range of legal issues which threaten to reduce the benefits
available from ICT technologies, in particular, the lack of a solid contractual basis to
govern the electronic exchange of information.
Issa et al. [35] aimed to determine the level of adoption of e-Business (such as e-
Procurement, e-Marketplace, trade exchange, and business strategies such as project
collaboration, project management, customer relationship management, and
knowledge/data management) within project management systems by general
contractors.
Lima et al. [36] presented an ontology-based portal for knowledge management
in the construction domain. The main features of the platform are an ontology (to
encapsulate human knowledge) and a set of web services to support the management
of ontology (creation, updates), user management (profiling) and handling
knowledge management requirements (indexing, documentation, retrieval and
dissemination).
Ren et al. [37] presented an e-engineering contracting system developed for small
and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The project developed a transparent, online
collaborative project preparation and contracting workspace to enforce process and
knowledge modelling, sharing and configuration, online contracting, and trust
building.
Rankin et al. [38] presented a variety of issues that must be considered so that the
Architectural, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry achieves significant
improvements in efficiency through the adoption of e-business methods and
solutions. Further, this work examines e-procurement as a subset of e-business in an
effort to identify the issues surrounding the development of a critical mass of
participants required to overcome the organizational and technology challenges.
Betts et al. [39] identified key security and legal issues to be addressed in the
design of e-tendering systems, which may be included in e-procurement software,
and proposes a new e-tendering architecture, using distributed trusted third parties
which may be suitable for secure large scale operations such as the construction
industry.
Costantino and Pietroforte [40] reviewed possible reasons behind the varying
approaches of construction firms to adopting a set of e-commerce technologies and
concluded that the adoption rate of e-commerce applications varies according to the
nature and phases of the transaction process, type of production inputs as well as
size and type of construction firm.
In a similar direction, Zou and Seo [33] found that the major barriers in
implementing e-commerce technologies in the construction supply chain lie with the
reluctance or inability of the subcontractors/suppliers to adopt the technologies and
lack of in-house technical expertise as well as lack of integrated information
management systems. The results also showed that increased awareness of
company’s objectives and more user-friendly, cost-reduced, standardised and
integrated e-commerce systems, together with a positive organisational culture on
top management supporting continuous IT training and learning and knowledge-
sharing are needed in order to promote better use of e-commerce technologies.
Aranda-Mena et al. [41] noticed that the adoption of e-business by small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in construction lags behind other service and
product businesses within the building sector and found that current models for e-
business adoption are not effective for the small businesses as they tend to target
large enterprises, or from other sectors such as retail and tourism. This work
proposes adoption guidelines sensitive to the nature of the industry – particularly for
e-business uptake in building SMEs.
Eadie et al. [42] examined the drivers and barriers for E-procurement in
construction within Northern Ireland and concluded that the two highest ranked
drivers by the contractors were improving communication and reduced
administration costs, while the two most important barriers were security of
transactions and the uncertainty surrounding the legal issues of e-procurement.

9 Virtual reality in construction

Virtual Reality (VR) can be defined to be a computer generated environment that
can utilise visual, auditory and haptic (touch and force) channels for communication
between a user and a computer (Kalawsky, [43]). Applications of VR have clearly
been an area of increasing research and development activities in architecture and
construction and it can provide a means for a good understanding of building objects
by all different stakeholders in architecture and construction on their own terms, at
any time, and without trouble [44].
Visual 4D planning and scheduling techniques, that integrate 3D CAD models
with the timing of construction activities, have proved to be more beneficial than
traditional tools and are increasingly being employed on complex projects [45]. In
4D models, project participants can effectively visualise and analyse problems
regarding sequential, spatial, process conflicts and temporal aspects of construction
schedules, prior to actual construction operations on site.
 An nD model is an extension of 3D CAD building information model that
incorporates multi-aspects of design information required at each stage of the
lifecycle of a building facility including, among others, scheduling, costing,
accessibility, sustainability, and maintainability aspects [46]. It is an integrated tool
that can enable construction stakeholders – across time zones – to cohesively and
comprehensively work within their own specialised discipline on one model. The
information in the model is linked, so that when design information is changed, for
example, the cost of the project will also change to reflect the new design. It is
believed that nD modelling is a realistic potential for an improved construction
industry.
Whyte [47] reports on a study of industrial applications of virtual reality in USA
and UK construction. The business drivers for implementing and using virtual
reality include demonstrating technical competence, design review, simulating
dynamic operation, co-ordinating detail design, scheduling construction and
marketing. In previous work, virtual reality is seen as a universal interface to all
construction applications. However the findings of this study suggest a more
complex story, with a range of strategies and business drivers potentially leading to
competing design families.
Lipman and Reed [48] have developed a visual interface to provide a means for
users to visualize the steel structure represented by a CIMsteel Integration Standards
Release 2 (CIS/2) file. A CIS/2 file provides for the electronic exchange of data
directly between various steel CAD software applications. Using a web-accessible
translator, objects in a user’s CIS/2 file are mapped to application-specific VRML
(Virtual Reality Modeling Language) nodes in a VRML file that can be interactively
navigated in 3D using freely available VRML browsers.
Kamat and Martinez [49] present the design of a specific description that
facilitates rapid, automated communication between external authoring processes
and 3D computer graphics facilities. This description, formalized as the
VITASCOPE language, defines a necessary layer of abstraction that effectively
separates 3D virtual construction worlds from the processes that generate them. This
is critical in enabling rapid, automated interaction (often simultaneous) between
multiple software and hardware processes and 3D virtual worlds.
Savioja et al. [50] present some basics of virtual reality technology, and the
required software and hardware components from the viewpoint of a construction
project. The main emphasis of the article is in the description of the construction
project of a new lecture hall at the Helsinki University of Technology, and how a
virtual environment was utilized in that project.
Woksepp and Olofsson [51] have investigated the effectiveness of using VR in
the process of building a new pelletizing plant (MK3) in Sweden and concluded that
the complexity of the project, the number of actors involved and the desire to
involve the client and the end-users, such as industrial workers responsible for the
future plant operations, in the design work makes Virtual Reality (VR) an excellent
enriched source of communications.
Messner et al. [52] demonstrate, based on a case study, the value of visualizing
design and construction information in virtual prototypes to improve decisions
relevant to achieving sustainable design goals. Advanced visualization applications
and display systems allow professionals to gain a better understanding of a facility
including the 3D product model, the construction process, and the facility
performance.
Rezgui [53] investigates the effectiveness of virtual teams, and any other suitable
form of virtual collaboration, in the construction sector and explores the factors that
influence their successful adoption. The research identifies important socio-
organisational challenges inherent to the project-based nature of construction,
including issues related to technology adoption, team identification, trust, and
motivation.
With respect to VR academic applications, Sampaio et al. [54] have developed a
didactic prototype that keeps track of physical changes in geometry of a building
component (e.g., an external wall). The virtual model allows students to interact
with it visualising the sequence of the construction process, accessing to quantitative
and qualitative information of each construction stage, observing the configuration
details of the building components and how they connect together.
In a similar direction, Horne and Hamza [55] describes an approach to integrate
VR technologies into the academic curriculum of built environment students. This
work concludes that fairly sophisticated VR models can be created by non-VR
specialists using commercially available software and advocates that the
implementation of VR will increase alongside industry’s adoption of these tools and
the emergence of a new generation of students with VR skills. The study further
shows that current VR technologies, if integrated appropriately within built
environment academic programmes, demonstrate a clear promise to provide a
foundation for more widespread collaborative working environments.
Kam et al. [56] present a Product Model and Fourth Dimension (PM4D)
approach for improving the design and construction process. Project examples
demonstrate that with the PM4D approach owners could choose among
comprehensive life-cycle alternatives, end-users could provide input to the facility
design in a timely manner, and project team members could differentiate themselves
from their competitors with higher efficiency, quality, and more effective
application of their expertise.
Sriprasert and Dawood [57] developed an integrated decision support system that
incorporates web-based and mobile information management system, 4D-
visualisation system, and evolutionary optimisation system in order to remedy the
typical problem of separation of project execution from planning in complex and
concurrent construction projects and to enable generation of reliable plans and
constraint-free execution assignments.
Dawood et al. [45] introduced and evaluated innovative visual planning tools that
were developed as part of the VIRCON project which developed seven integrated IT
tools with the objective of assisting construction planners to make accurate and
informed planning decisions with particular emphasis on the allocation of activity’s
execution space.
Kang et al. [58] proposed a prototype web-based system including the integration
between business breakdown structure (BBS) and work breakdown structure (WBS)
codes and an approach to use BBS and WBS in a 4D CAD system for facilitating the
retrieval and management of information in the construction management process.
 Riendeau [59] described a prototype that assists in the reading of various versions
of a 3D model within an architectural design context by using a software tool which
follows the various versions of a project, creating a new set of files that are
interconnected and producing a 4D interface to navigate through these files. The
interface juxtaposes and superimposes the various steps of a project in the same
space-time providing an overall picture of the design process or highlighting the
modifications between different versions.
With respect to nD modelling applications, Bouchlaghem et al.[60] reports on a
project that aims to show that a general description of the building can be used to
generate sufficient data to drive a valid analysis using a detailed thermal model at
the early sketch stage of the design process. Jongeling et al. [61] provide an example
of a potential nth dimension of product model development for cast in place concrete
structures. Hamilton et al. [62] describe the concept and challenges of an nD urban
information model to accommodate data sets relevant to different aspects of city
planning. Finally, Tse et al. [63] notice that conventional entity-based CAD software
remain the de-facto drafting tools while use of more powerful object-based CAD
software, commonly known as Building Information Modelling (BIM), is still quite
low. Further, 3D to nD modelling is employed to explore other design dimensions
using BIM. The core barriers include the split between architecture design and
drafting, inadequate object customisation capability, a complicated and time-
consuming modelling process, a lack of training and technical support, a lack of
requirements from clients, extra file acquisition costs, and the unavailability of free
trial software.

10 Mobile computing and wireless communication

Effective data communication between the project sites and decision making offices
can be critical for the success of a construction project. It allows convenient access
to centrally stored information and centrally located decision makers to remotely
monitor the site and collect data in real-time. Over the past decades, construction
firms have been using several off-the-shelf telecommunication tools and techniques
to provide the communication means necessary to their mobile personnel on the
jobsite. Today’s rapid expansion and advancements in the telecommunications field
are changing the way people communicate. A number of portable devices can be
used to assist information management and wireless communication in construction
(e.g., personal digital assistants, wearable computers, mobile phones).
A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), sometimes known as a Palmtop, is a mobile
computer that allows to store, access, and organize information [64]. More
sophisticated PDAs can run word processing, spreadsheet and industry specific
applications and also provide e-mail and Internet access.
Some models now offer the functionality of a mobile phone and a PDA in a
single unit. These units use either a Palm or Microsoft Windows Pocket PC
operating system.
Many of these devices use an electronic pen (called a stylus) rather than a
keyboard for input. This is associated with special operating systems that support
handwriting recognition so that users can write on the screen or on a tablet instead of
typing on a keyboard.
Wearable computers are computers that are worn on the body supported by vests
or belts in a way that allows the user different degrees of hands-free operation
(Figure 3 [65]). Display and data input may be through rugged flat screens with
touch pads, or through head-mounted displays with integrated microphones and
earphones for speech recognition. Head-mounted displays can be worn comfortably
with hard hats and other protective gear. Wearable computers are especially useful
for applications that require computational support while the user's hands, voice,
eyes or attention are actively engaged with the physical environment. One of the
main features of a wearable computer is consistency. There is a constant interaction
between the computer and user, i.e., there is no need to turn the device on or off.
Wearable computers are generally used by surveyors or field service repair
personnel, whose efficiency can be increased dramatically by hands-free operation
and the ability to have immediate access to up-to-date technical information.
Potential benefits of wearable computer use include:
• Greater efficiency, productivity, teamwork and job satisfaction.
• Hands-free operation giving greater safety on site.
• Instant access to enterprise systems and task critical information.
• Eliminating repetitive data entry, resulting in reduced errors.

Figure 3. A wearable computer

(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Zypad.jpg)

Pakanen et al. [66] presented a Web-based information system, called WebDia,

which is designed to assist customers in diagnosing problems in a heating system.
WebDia incorporates a Web server accessible from a browser of a PC, a Personal
Digital Assistant (PDA) or a Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) mobile phone.
Menzel et al. [67] describe an integrated, holistic framework for context-
sensitive, mobile applications based on the concept of Virtual Organisations, the
pattern-based software development paradigm, and multi-dimensional data
management.
Aziz et al. [68] presented a multi-tier architecture, which brings together the
necessary technology threads, including the Semantic Web (to provide a framework
for shared definitions of terms, resources and relationships), Web Services (to
provide dynamic discovery and integration) and multi-agent technologies (to help
the mobile worker accomplish a particular task) to support intelligent mobile
collaboration.
Ward et al. [69] discuss the implementation of a mobile wireless local area
network (WLAN) that allows for real-time data collection and storage into a site-
based server from two construction sites. The use of a WLAN allows for easy access
and manipulation of timely construction data to assist in the management of the
project, enhancing information flow throughout the site, reducing remedial costs and
improving contract performance.
Beyh and Kagioglou [70] provide a summary of telecommunications means and
technologies used in construction with an overview of the advantages and
drawbacks of each technology and also describe a new communication paradigm,
the IP Telephony, and its potential use at the jobsite.
Kondratova [71] examines wireless communications through a mobile device and
discusses the advantages of using VoiceXML technology for voice-enabled
construction field applications.
Johanson and Törlind [72] investigate the emerging technologies for wireless
network access and mobile computing, and how mobility support can be built into
the software tools used today for distributed collaborative teamwork. The main
focus is on synchronous, real-time communication tools, like multimodal
teleconferencing, and the perspective is both technical and methodological. A key
finding is that, besides using text as a primary medium for mobile collaboration,
user mobility support for video can substantially enhance the possibilities for
informal, spontaneous communication between team members.
Brilakis [73] presents a case study on long-distance, site – office wireless data
communications. The purpose was to investigate the capability of wireless
technology in exchanging construction data in a fast and efficient manner and in
allowing site personnel to interact and share knowledge and data with the office
staff.
Kuladinithi et al. [74] notice that wearable computing along with advanced
mobile communication has the potential to revolutionise the working environment
and working processes of the mobile worker of the AEC industry. Their work
focuses on the applicability of mobile ad-hoc networking in the AEC industry and
provide an overview of the existing mobile ad-hoc networks, addressing also some
issues of implementation and deployment of the networking protocol called Ad-hoc
On-demand Distance Vector routing (AODV).
 Elvin [75] aimed to determine the value of wearable computers in integrating
design and construction by measuring specific performance characteristics. The
results reveal that wearable computers can improve communication quality and
reduce rework, but may have an initially negative impact on productivity. Wearable
computers can help bridge the gap between design and construction. Using a
wearable computer, design and construction personnel can exchange design
information quickly and continuously between the point of work on the construction
site and the remote design office.
Anumba et al. [76] reviewed emerging technologies of supporting mobile project
team members, such as 3G wireless devices and the Semantic Web, and describe the
potential for the future application of these technologies within the construction
sector, particularly in the creation of a web of construction knowledge and services.

11 Reviews, discussions and case studies

Andersen et al. [77] presented a number of Danish case studies, with the aim of
investigating three different aspects of the usage of a project web, namely: project
management, functionalities, and cost/benefit. One of the major findings is that the
planning of why and how the project web should be used is often rushed and this
results in over hasty usage where the problems begin to exceed the expected
efficiency gains. In general the project web service used in the case studies
contained the required functionalities, but often it was evident that they were
implemented too quickly, resulting in users losing patience and thereafter
completing their task using traditional means.
Nitithamyong and Skibniewski [78] presented and discussed results from a
survey of 82 different construction projects managed with the use of 14 different
commercial web-based project management systems (WPMS). The results reveal
that certain characteristics of the project, the project team, the service provider, and
the system have significant correlations with one or more WPMS performance
perspectives (strategic, time, cost, quality, risk, and communication), while a
number of variables prove to be critical to the success of WPMS implementation.
Rivard et al. [79] presented a series of eleven case studies from across Canada
and an initial compendium of Best Practice in the use of information technology (IT)
in Canada. The case studies cover architecture, engineering, construction
management, and specialized contractors. The following technologies were
demonstrated: 3D CAD; custom Web sites; commercial Web portals; and in-house
software development. The following issues were identified: the electronic
distribution of documents is more efficient and cheaper; the short time-line and the
tight budgets make it difficult to introduce new technologies on projects; the
industry is locked in to one CAD system and it is difficult to introduce new ones; it
is costly to maintain trained CAD and IT personnel; and companies that lag behind
reduce the potential benefits of IT. Still, the industry could achieve substantial
benefits from the adoption of IT if it were more widespread.
El-Mashaleh [80] reports the findings of conducting a modified version of the IT
barometer survey in the construction industry in Jordan. The perceived benefits for
IT adoption according to the respondents are better quality of work, work done more
quickly, better financial control, better communications, faster and simpler access to
common data, greater flexibility to satisfy customers, possibility of sharing common
information, easier to use lots of data, and the possibility of telecommunicating. The
main obstacles for IT use are high investment costs and greater know-how required
from staff.
Duyshart et al. [81] developed a business model for information and
communication technologies (ICT) adoption on construction projects and found that
effective use of information and communication technologies (ICT) is necessary for
delivering efficiency and improved project delivery in the construction industry.
They further concluded that ICT application in the construction industry is relatively
low compared to automotive and aerospace industries.
Naaranoja [82] reviewed the success and failure issues in ICT utilization,
particularly in the construction industry. The results demonstrate that the
performance of software depends not just on its functionality and quality but also on
its usability and the way it fits with existing business processes. The work concludes
by proposing four guiding principles in ICT deployment, namely: (i) fix only
important broken processes; (ii) promise only what you can deliver; (iii) improve
training, and (iv) make people accountable.
With regard to the critical issue of how best to adopt and diffuse information and
communication technology (ICT) into organisations, results indicate that a number
of factors influence ICT diffusion (Peansupap and Walker [83]). These influencing
factors may be grouped into four interrelated categories: management, individual,
technology, and work environment. Another work by the same team seeks to explain
how innovation implementation drivers and barriers facilitate diffusion at the
organisational, group, and individual levels (Peansupap and Walker [84]).
Constraints at the personal level include limited budget for ICT investment,
commitment from other project participants, issues of ICT standardisation, and
security problems. At the organisational level, constraints include basic levels
computer experience, time available to learn, and the identification of clear benefits
of ICT use. Constraints at the group level include time available to share
information, quality of personal contact and geographical distance. Further findings
suggest that strategic ICT implementation planning needs to consider issues of
critical management support, technical support, supportive workplace environment
and ICT users' individual characteristics so that the framework processes offered can
be effectively applied (Peansupap and Walker [85]).
In another research regarding the application of information and communication
technology (ICT) in the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry,
analysis shows that there are distinct characteristics and features of projects that
determine their success or failure, starting from even the conceptualisation and
initiation stages, and that the projects have different points of failure (Ugwu and
Kumaraswamy [86]). This work further identifies critical success factors that could
be useful for IT applications in emerging economies.
Love et al. [87] concluded that the inability of managers to determine the true
costs of deploying ICT are considered attributable to a lack of knowledge and
understanding of ICT-related costs. In developing a broader picture of such cost
dimensions and their respective taxonomies, the work presented a structured method
to gain an understanding of how a construction firm can embrace the information
technology (IT) evaluation process.
In order to better understand the factors affecting the integration of a new ICT
within the industry, Anumba et al. [88] explore the interplay of structural, social and
technical factors which, when combined, can complicate the implementation of ICT
systems. The findings of this work underscore the importance of developing flexible
implementation approaches which are able to cope with an organisation's external
environment and changing requirements and provide a set of recommendations for
enabling construction organisations to better prepare themselves for ICT
implementation in the future through proactive planning and end-user engagement.
Wikforss and Löfgren [89] notice that in many of the industrialized lean
construction efforts in the construction industry today, collaborative communication
and its supporting ICT have been reduced to a secondary issue in favour of
rationalizing the physical design and production processes. This work introduces the
subject field of project communication, which considers the improvement of
organization, group processes, work procedures, as well as the knowledge sharing
and transfer between different professional domains in projects and corporations.
The authors argue that to solve the practical problems that the industry is
encountering, as described in the studies, the perspective must be widened in order
to include information and communication technology from an organizational and
management viewpoint.
Finally, Rezgui and Zarli [90] provide a synthesis of the construction industry’s
needs and requirements in relation to the adoption and use of information and
communication technologies. Five priority areas have been identified with the
potential to solve the ICT related problems of the construction industry, namely:
knowledge management, legal and contractual aspect management, quality and
performance management, total lifecycle management, and human aspect
management.

12 Conclusions
Over recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) for improving the efficiency of the construction
process. This is due to the fact that ICT, when appropriately used, can significantly
contribute to the timely, economical, and successful deployment of construction
projects. ICT research and industrial advancements have pointed toward several
development directions such as Electronic Document Management Systems
(EDMs), Web-based Project Management Systems (WPMS), Application Service
Providers (ASP), E-work and E-business, Virtual Reality (VR) applications, mobile
computing, and wireless communication.
Electronic document management systems (EDMs) have been developed to track
and store electronic documents, providing storage, versioning, metadata, security, as
well as indexing and retrieval capabilities. Web-based project management systems
(WPMS) combine databases with web technologies for remote information
management and sharing. Many contractors have also Enterprise Web Sites or use
Project Specific Web Sites (PSWS) to share information with other partners,
customers and suppliers. Application Service Providers (ASPs) are professional
information technology companies that provide computer-based services to
Architectural, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) customers through the internet.
E-hubs are business-to-business web portals that provide a meeting ground (e-
commerce, e-procurement, e-tendering, and e-contracting) for buyers and sellers in
the construction sector. Virtual Reality (VR), 4D and nD modelling represent
computer generated environments that combine 3D CAD visualization with multi-
aspects of construction information such as scheduling, costing, etc. Mobile devices
such as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), wearable computers (computers that are
worn on the body to allow hands-free operation), or mobile phones are used to
remotely monitor the site and collect data in real-time as well as to communicate
information between the project sites and the decision making office.
Teleconferencing/videoconferencing is another tool used in construction to facilitate
collaboration on complex or large projects.
ICT solutions and tools have been proved to be advantageous for the
construction industry. However, the review indicates a number of limitations and
barriers to their wide acceptance and implementation. Among them, one can
highlight the following:
• Construction is known for its conservative attitude towards adopting new
technologies. The main obstacles for ICT use are the reluctance or difficulty of
the construction industry to modify its current ways of operation, the high
investment costs, and the need for computer-skilled staff.
• The effectiveness and usefulness of web-based project management applications
in construction projects are still not as high as initially expected, mainly because
many important factors that can greatly impact on system performance are
unknown or misunderstood by most practitioners.
• The lack of information standardisation has been a major obstacle for computer-
integrated construction management.
• E-commerce technologies, although significantly improved in recent years and
perceived as a mainstream to improve productivity, information flow, and
communications, have not been adopted widely in the construction supply chain.
• While existing communication technologies (wired, mobile, and wireless) offer a
wide range of information transmittal alternatives to the construction industry,
technological and financial constraints limit their availability to particular
classes of users and circumstances.
• Although many companies are increasing their expenditure on information and
communication technologies to obtain or sustain a competitive advantage in their
respective marketplaces, they have often been left in the quandary of how to
evaluate these investments.
Indicative priority areas for further research advancements with the potential to work
out ICT related problems of the construction industry include knowledge
management, legal and contractual aspect management, quality and performance
management, total life cycle management, and human aspect management.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Research Committee of the University of Patras,
Greece under the program “K. Karatheodoris”.

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