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STRUCTURES
A Thesis Presented
by
Sahab Babaee
to
Master of Science
in
Mechanical Engineering
in the field of
Northeastern University
Boston, Massachusetts
August 2011
ABSTRACT
Three-dimensional cellular materials are ubiquitous in nature and are also used
density cores for structural protection, sound and thermal insulation, and heat transfer
materials play a key role in regulating the overall function of the system.
faced-centered cubic structures called rhombic dodecahedrons. The cell edge material
the cellular structure were related to the cell edge material properties and the relative
density of the cellular structure. Detailed finite element models were carried out to
establish the validity of the analytical models. In the elastic regime, the monodisperse
its response is governed by bending deformation of the cell edges. However, the yield
strength of the cellular structure in all loading directions is qual. In the next part of the
work, we studied the role of irregularity in the organization of the cellular structure on
its mechanical properties. The irregularity in the cellular structure organization was
directions by a random value within a predefined range called the ‘Irregularity index’.
At a constant overall relative density, increasing the level of irregularity increases the
effective elastic modulus, and significantly decreases the effective yield strength of
the cellular structure. We also studied the mechanical properties of the open and
I
closed cellular structures tied to rigid plates, in view of the application of cellular
structure as the core construction of sandwich panels. In this case, the cellular
structure is significantly stiffer and its mechanical response is dominated by cell wall
stretching.
II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Ashkan Vaziri, my thesis advisor, for his guidance, inspiration and unlimited
and support from the preliminary to the concluding level enabled me to develop an
understanding of the subject and made him a backbone of this research and so to this
thesis. During these two years, he gives me an extraordinary experiences throught out
His truly scientist intuition has made him as a constant oasis of ideas and passions in
and a scientist want to be. I also gratefully acknowledge professor Hamid Nayeb-
Hashemi for his advice, crucial contribution, and constructive comments on this
thesis.
Performance Materials and Structures Lab - Amin Ajdari, Babak Haghpanah Jahromi
and Hamid Ebrahimi - for sharing their enthusiasm and comments on my work. They
helped me out a lot in my research and shared useful knowledge with me. Without
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.6. Cellular structure tied to rigid plates (sandwich panel configuration) ............34
IV
References................................................................................................62
V
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2: Some of the key biological cellular materials. Cork, toucan beak and elk
dodecahedron unit cell has 12 identical rhombuses with edge length, , and
the 2- axis. The front and back surfaces (denoted by ABCD and KLMN) are
views. Due to symmetry in 2- and 3- directions, the top and front views of
the unit cell are identical. (c) A tessellated rhombic dodecahedron cellular
structure with 66 unit cells. The dimensions of the model relative to the cell
edge length of one unit cell are shown in the picture. ................................. 10
the nodes located on the top surface of the unit cell. 21 is the
VI
displacement of the nodes located in the mid-plane of the unit cell in 1-
diagram of linkage ABC. (c) Free body diagram of cell edge AB. .............. 14
directions. (c) Poisson’s ratios of the cellular structure against its relative
density. (d) Normalized yield strength of the tessellated structure versus the
relative density. The finite element results are presented for loading in both
direction....................................................................................................... 27
and (b) Normalized elastic modulus of irregular cellular structure versus the
VII
and 2- direction, respectively. The dashed lines show the average results for
each relative density. (c) and (d) Normalized yield strength of the irregular
respectively. The dashed lines show the average results for each relative
density. ........................................................................................................ 33
Figure 11: Free body diagram of two segments of a rhombic dodecahedron tessellated
structure tied to rigid plates under uniaxial loading in 2-direction. (a) and
(b) Free body diagrams of segments S1 and S2, respectively. The reaction
structure tied to rigid plates versus its relative density. The analytical
estimates for structures with a single cell height and an infinite height are
shown by solid lines. The finite element results for one, two, four, and
twelve cells height are shown with square, rhombus, circle and triangle
markers, respectively................................................................................... 36
compression in 1- direction. The undeformed and the deformed unit cell are
node F due to the applied load. 12 is the displacement of the nodes
located on the top surface of the unit cell in 2- direction due to the uniaxial
compression in 1- direction. (b) Free body diagram of the unit cell. All the
reaction forces and moment due to loading 1 are shown. Also the local
VIII
elastic modulus and yield strength of the rhombic dodecahedron unit cell
rhombic dodecahedron unit cell has 12 identical rhombuses plate with edge
109.47
. In this figure, the top and bottom surfaces (denoted by AJKE and
CHMG) are perpendicular to the 2- axis. The front and back surfaces
(denoted by ABCD and KLMN) are perpendicular to the 3- axis. The line
directions, the top and front views of the unit cell are identical. (c) A
The dimensions of the model as a function of the cell edge length of a unit
Figure 15: Schematic of a rhombic dodecahedron unit cell under uniaxial compression
the deformed shapes are shown by solid and dashed lines, respectively. (b)
and (c) The deformed configuration of the traingular and rhombus plates. 50
Figure 16: Normalized elastic modulus and yield strength of the closed rhombic
2- direction. The error between simulation and analytical results stems from
that the analytical soluton is calculated based on the model with infinite
IX
height while the finite element results are concerned with the model shown
Figure 17: Effect of random missing cell walls on elastic modulus of the closed
rhombic dodecaheron cellular structure. The results are shown for the
For each value of , we ran the simulation for three different models. Since
the results are very close, we just showed the results by one point. ........... 57
Figure 18: Effect of standard deviations, , on elastic modulus of the closed rhombic
different standard variations. For 0 all the cell walls are removed from
and the cell walls are removed according to that function. For ∞ the
cell walls are removed uniformly (the same numbers of cell walls are
removed randomly from each row). (b) Normalaized elastic modulus of the
walls, . The relative density and mean value are kept fixed, 10% and 0,
Figure 19: Normalaized elastic modulus of the closed rhombic dodecaheron cellular
structure VS. standard deviasion for different mean values, (each mean
value is shown with the specific color). The relative density and percentage
X
of missing cell walls are kept fixed, 10%. The normal distribution functions
for 1 and different mean values are plotted inside the figure. ............ 61
XI
1. Introduction to Cellular
Structures
1
1.1. Literature review and overview
Three-dimensional cellular materials are ubiquitous in nature and are also used
density cores for structural protection [1-6], sound and thermal insulation [7-8], and
heat transfer [9-15] to scaffolds for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine [16-
18]. In many of these applications, the mechanical properties and structural behavior
of the cellular materials play a key role in regulating the overall function of the
robust experiments [19-25]. These studies include investigating the role of structural
organization and hierarchy [19, 26-27], and heterogeneity and defects (e.g. missing
inherently more challenging. A limited class of 3D base cells (the triangular, rhombic
and hexagonal prisms, the rhombic dodecahedron, and the tetrakaidecahedron) can be
packed together to generate a monodisperse cellular structure [19, 36-39]. The most
centered cubic lattice (the rhombic dodecahedron cellular structures) are two common
3D cellular structures that the latter was studied in this work. These two structures are
shown in Fig. 1. The available literature on the mechanics and material properties of
cellular structures, which have a unit cell with six square and eight hexagonal faces
2
and incompressible, with the effective elastic modulus ~ 0.63*density2 and the
ultimate strength ~ 0.22*density 1.5 in all basic directions of loading [40, 42-47].
Figure 1: Schematic of two common three dimensional packable open cellular structures. (a)
A rhombic dodecahedron unit cell. (b) A tetrakaidecahedral unit cell. (c) A tessellated
rhombic dodecahedron cellular structure. (d) A tessellated tetrakaidecahedral cellular
structure.
3
stone) form a rhombic dodecahedral crystal habit. The rhombic dodecahedron also
appears in the unit cells of diamond and diamondoids [48]. Recently, the formation of
The cellular structurs found in biological systems generally have strongly non-
cellular structure (generally closed-cell foams) is governed by cell wall stretching and
the elastic modulus and yield strength are scaled linearly as a function of relative
density. But several types of irregularities can produce bending deformations which
in the cell walls, fractured cell walls and irregularities in the cell shapes induce
bending but random cell geometry and non-uniform cell wall thickness do not
4
Figure 2: Some of the key biological cellular materials. Cork, toucan beak and elk antler have
random heterogeneity, while the bamboo has a functionally graded cellular organization.
properties of open and closed cell foams has been investigated by several authors
using finite element and experimental approaches [30, 51-54]. The analytical
equations and formulas are mainly based on fitting curves on the emperical or the
numerical datas [53, 55]. The experimental studied were carried out on available
thre are no liturature about analytical calculations for irregular cellular structure.
5
Most of these studies have considered tetrakaidecahedron cellular structure as
the initial configuration. These studies inclyding exploring the influence of non-
uniform cell shape , non-uniform cell wall thickness [56] and wavy distortion of cell
cellular structures have more than one source of irregulaity (e.g. combination of non-
uniform cell shape and wall thickness). These irregularities could interactively control
the overall structural behavior of the cellular structure. For example for low density
open cell tetrakaidecahedron cellular structures with non-uniform cell shape and wall
thickness, the combined effect of cell shape and thickness irregularity on the elastic
modulus of open cell tetrakaidecahedron cellular structures have been studied by [28].
They have shown that for the low density cellular structure, increasing the
irregularities increases the elastic moduli but for the high density cellular structures,
decreases.
6
2. Open-cell Rhombic
7
2.1. Overview
centered cubic structures called rhombic dodecahedrons. The cell edge material was
cellular structure were related to the cell edge material properties and the relative
density of the cellular structure. Detailed finite element models were carried out to
establish the validity of the analytical models. In the elastic regime, the monodisperse
its response is governed by bending deformation of the cell edges. However, the yield
strength of the cellular structure in all loading directions is qual. In the next part of the
work, we studied the role of irregularity in the organization of the cellular structure on
its mechanical properties. The irregularity in the cellular structure organization was
directions by a random value within a predefined range called the ‘Irregularity Index’.
At a constant overall relative density, increasing the level of irregularity increases the
effective elastic modulus, and significantly decreases the effective yield strength of
the cellular structure. We also studied the mechanical properties of the cellular
structure tied to rigid plates, in view of the application of cellular structure as the core
incompressible with its material properties being dominated by the bending of the cell
8
edges and its effective elastic modulus ~ density2 in three loading directions. The unit
dodecahedron (also called a rhomboidal dodecahedron). The unit cell of the structure
is shown in Fig. 3(a) and has 12 identical rhombic faces with 24 edges and 14
2 √2 70.53
and 2 2 √2 109.47 . The volume of a unit cell is
! 16# /3√3, where is the edge length . For a square cell edge cross sectional
area, % & %, the relative density (volume fraction) of the rhombic dodecahedron unit
cellular structure of infinite size, each cell edge is shared by three adjacent unit cells,
denoted by ', is ' '( /3 3 √3 % ) /2) . Fig. 3(c) shows an example of a rhombic
cells and has 864 identical cell edges. This monodisperse structure is the Voronoi
tessellation of the face-centered cubic lattice (i.e. the Voronoi tessellation of a face-
coordinate system shown in Fig. 3, 2- and 3- axes are perpendicular and normal to the
top and front surfaces of rhombic dodecahedron in the outward direction. Cellular
structures with a similar structural organization are observed in nature. Honeybees use
cells each of which is a hexagonal prism capped with half a rhombic dodecahedron.
crystal habit. The rhombic dodecahedron also appears in the unit cells of diamond and
9
dodecahedron unit cell has 12 identical rhombuses with edge length, , and constant angles,
Figure 3: Schematic of a regular rhombic dodecahedron structure. (a) A rhombic
2 70.53
and 2 109.47 . In this figure, the top and bottom surfaces (denoted by
AJKE and CHMG) are perpendicular to the 2- axis. The front and back surfaces (denoted by
ABCD and KLMN) are perpendicular to the 3- axis. The line connecting points I and F is in
the direction of 1- axis. (b) A rhombic dodecahedron unit cell in different views. Due to
symmetry in 2- and 3- directions, the top and front views of the unit cell are identical. (c) A
tessellated rhombic dodecahedron cellular structure with 66 unit cells. The dimensions of the
model relative to the cell edge length of one unit cell are shown in the picture.
plastic properties of a rhombic dodecahedron unit cell and periodic tessellated cellular
structure. The cell edge material behavior was taken as elastic-perfectly plastic with
elastic modulus, * , yield strength, +, and Poisson’s ratio, -. Our analytical models
10
give estimates of the effective elastic moduli, Poisson’s ratios, yield strengths and
buckling strengths for loading along three orthogonal axes as shown in Fig. 3. In
section 2.3., we constructed finite element models of the cellular structures. The
comparison between the finite element results and the analytical predictions are
structures. The irregularity was induced in the cell edge organization of the structure
by randomly moving the vertices of the regular structure in three directions to create
cellular structures with different cell sizes (polydisperse foams). Finally, in section
2.6., we analyzed the mechanical properties of the cellular structures attached to two
rigid plates. This part of the work was carried out in view of recent interests in
density core constructions [58-59]. We will show that a cellular structure attached to
rigid plates is significantly stiffer compared to the counterpart structure with periodic
boundary condition and its effective elastic modulus ~ density. Conclusions were
11
2.2. Analytical predictions for fundamental mechanical properties
of materials (assuming small deformations). . and +/ denote the effective elastic
modulus and effective yield strength of the cellular structure in three orthogonal
directions (i = 1, 2, 3). In each loading direction, we also obtained the Poisson’s ratios
in the two directions normal to loading. The Poisson’s ratio is denoted by 0.1 , where i
is the loading direction and j is the direction normal to loading. (e.g. for loading in i =
1, we calculated 0) , 0# ). It should be noted that the cellular structure under study
has three orthogonal planes of symmetry and is orthotropic. Due to symmetry, the
mechanical properties in the 2 and 3 directions are identical (i.e. ) # , +2 +3 ,
cell with twenty four cell edges (beams) subjected to uniaxial compression, 5) in 2-
direction. To obtain the effective elastic modulus of the unit cell, we calculated the
relative displacement of the top and bottom rhombic faces, as the unit cell is subjected
to uniaxial compression imposed by two rigid plates at the top and bottom of the unit
cell. Eight cell edges that construct the top and bottom rhombic faces are considered
to be in contact with the rigid plates, and thus, do not contribute to the mechanical
response of the unit cell. Moreover, the four cell edges located in the mid-plane cell of
the unit cell are neither bent nor stretched during compression and only undergo
12
translational rigid body motion in the 1- direction (and thus do not contribute in
stiffness). Six linkages, denoted by ABC, EFG, KLM, KNM, JIH and ADC in Fig.
4(a), have equal contribution in the mechanical response of the unit cell in 2- direction
and thus, it is adequate to just analyze the response of one linkage (e.g. ABC shown in
Fig. 4(b)). This pair of cell edges is subjected to force, 6 5) /6 in 2- direction and
moment M, which tends to bend the cell edges. The moment can be calculated using
Castiglione's theorem, 7 6 cos /2. The deflection of the unit cell in 2- direction,
can be obtained using Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. Neglecting the shear strain
energy, gives )) 6# ; ) /12* < = 6;>) /* ?, where < and ? denote the
second moment of inertia and area of the beam cross section, respectively, and
54.735° . The strain in 2- direction is A)) )) /;> and the applied stress in
the same direction is ) =5) /4) sin 2, where the effective area is assumed at the
mid-height of the unit cell. The effective elastic modulus of the unit cell parallel to 2-
)( 27√3 3
E ') F ') /√3 F 0.58')
* 24)
3√3 = '
< = ?
(1)
The cell edges mainly deform in bending, and the contribution of the
shared amongst three unit cells and the effective elastic modulus decreases by
increasing the number of unit cells. The lower limit for the elastic modulus of a
13
Figure 4: (a) Schematic of a rhombic dodecahedron unit cell under uniaxial compression in 2-
respectively. )) is the displacement of the nodes located on the top surface of the unit cell.
direction. The undeformed and the deformed shapes are shown by dashed and solid lines,
) is the displacement of the nodes located in the mid-plane of the unit cell in 1- direction
due to the uniaxial compression in 2- direction. (b) Free body diagram of linkage ABC. (c)
Free body diagram of cell edge AB.
tessellated cellular structure, ) , is 2/3 of the elastic modulus of the unit cell, which is
) 2
F ') F 0.38 ')
* 3√3
(2)
14
To calculate 0) , we applied the Castiglione's theorem to find the
subjected to compression in 2- direction. This gives, ) 6# sin 2 /48* < H
6 sin 2 /4* ?. The strain in the 1- direction due to uniaxial loading in 2- direction
is A) ) /; and the Poisson’s ratio, 0) HA) /A)) . By neglecting the axial
deformation terms for )) and ) (i.e. the second terms in the above equations),
0) 1. Similar calculation for the Poisson’s ratio in 3- direction under loading in 2-
presented in Appendix A. This geometrical unit cell cannot be used to obtain the
analytical solution will be different from the geometrical unit cell and is remarkably
straightforward. The tessellated structure shown in Fig. 5(a) can be divided into
segments shown in Fig. 5(b) with identical deformation. Thus, the analysis of the
applied stress in 1- direction. The four cell edges shown in Fig. 5(b) have equal values
of strain energy and thus, the total strain energy of the segment is, J 4 K
7L ) /
M
and 0 Q O* Q is the distance from one end of the cell edge as shown in Fig. 5(b).
15
Analogous to the calculation presented in Appendix A for the rhombic dodecahedron
unit cell, minimizing the total strain energy in respect to 7, gives 7 √2IO* /2√3
and application of the Castiglione's theorem gives I# /9* <. Thus, the
1
') F 0.19 ')
* 3√3
(3)
which is half of its effective elastic modulus in the 2- and 3- direction (i.e. ) /
2). is 29.14 % smaller than the effective elastic modulus of the unit cell in the
same direction, which is obtained in Appendix A. The Poisson's ratio, 0) and 0# for
a tessellated rhombic dodecahedron cellular structure can be obtained using the basic
relationship for an orthotropic material, (0) / 0) /) , 0# /# 0# / R, which
gives 0# 0) 0.5. It should be noted that 0) and 0# can be also calculated
using Castiglione's theorem, which gives the same result. The volume change per unit
16
volume of the cellular structure in this loading condition is equal to the summation of
the strains in three directions, which is equal to S1/ = 0) /) = 0# /# R 0.
This shows that the cellular structure is incompressible under this loading condition.
The proportional limit (elastic limit) stress of a unit cell, denoted here by TU. -
where i is the direction of loading -, is the maximum stress where the relationship
between the stress and strain (or equivalently force and displacement) is linear. The
nonlinear response initiates when the stress in one point of the cellular structure
reaches the yield stress of the cell edge material, +, . For a unit cell shown in Fig.
4(b), the maximum axial stress in the cell edges can be estimated as V) 7%/2< =
6;>/?, where 7 6 cos /2. The second term (contribution of P) is negligible
compared to the first term for a low density cellular structure. Neglecting the axial
term and equating V) = +, , gives TU) /+* 3√6 % # /8# √3/6 '2 . The yield
3
W
strength of the unit cell in 2- direction, +2 ( , is approximately reached when the
bending moment reaches the fully plastic moment of the cell edge cross-section. In
our study, the cell edges have a square cross-section and the yield strength is 1.5 times
the proportional limit stress (by neglecting the axial term). Thus,
denoted by +2 and is 2/3 of the yield strength of the unit cell,
17
+2 3√6 % # √3 #
W
') F 0.22'.X
+* 8 # 6
(5)
maximum axial stress happens in the two ends of each cell edge (beam), V
7%/2< = I;/? . By neglecting the effect of the axial term, equating V +,
gives TU /+* √6 % # /4# √3/9 '2 . Thus, the yield strength of the tessellated
3
W
+ 3√6 % # √3 #
W
') F 0.22'.X
+* 8 # 6 (6)
Interestingly, while the cellular is orthotropic in the elastic regime, it has equal
yield strength in all loading directions and it is almost equal the yield strength of the
The critical buckling load of the unit cell shown in Fig. 4(a) in 2- direction can
be obtained by using classical Euler’s buckling theory and applying the appropriate
boundary conditions for the pair of cell edges shown in Fig. 4(b). In the analysis, the
transverse force 6; and the moment 6 cos ⁄2 cause a pre-buckling transverse
deformation of the cell edge and the axial load of the cell edge is 6;> – See Fig.
4(c). The non-trivial solution for the general equation of the cell edge transverse
displacement gives the critical buckling load of the cell edge, 5YZ2 66YZ
) [ ) * % E /2) ;> and YZ2 /* ) [ ) % E /16E ; ;>) . For 54.735° and
18
1 (i.e. first buckling mode), the critical elastic buckling stress of the unit cell,
YZ2 ( 3√3[ ) % E [)
') F 0.24')
* 32 E 24√3
(7)
denoted by YZ2 , is 2/3 of the critical buckling stress of the unit cell (similar to the
elastic modulus):
YZ2 √3[ ) % E [)
') F 0.16')
* 16 E 36√3
(8)
shown in Fig. 5(b) is 5YZ\ π) * % E /3) ; and the critical buckling stress, denoted
YZ\ √6π) % E [)
') F 0.22')
* 16 E 18√6
(9)
19
2.3. Finite element modeling of three-dimensional cellular structure
In this section, we developed finite element models of both unit cell and
tessellated cellular structures and used them to establish the validity of the analytical
models presented in section 2.2.. The simulations were carried out using the finite
element package Abaqus (SIMULIA, Providence, RI). The boundary condition for the
unit cell model is straight forward and identical to the boundary condition assumed in
the analytical investigations. For loading in each direction, two rigid plates were
attached to the two opposite ends of the cellular structure and were displaced towards
each other in the simulations. For a tessellated cellular structure, periodic boundary
conditions were applied in both directions normal to the loading direction to avoid the
influences of the model boundaries on the simulation results. To generate the periodic
planes of the model must maintain the same shape during the deformation, as shown
schematically in Fig. 6. For our model (Fig. 3(c)), the periodic boundary condition
was applied in both 2- and 3- directions, when investigating the properties of the
structure in the 1- direction. Similarly, for analyzing the mechanical properties in the
specified in the finite element models for each pair of nodes located on the opposite
boundary planes:
^ _ ^ _
` a
(10)
20
where ef and e are the opposite boundary planes of the cellular structure (e.g.
plane 1f and 1 , shown in Fig. 6). ^ _ and ^ _ are the rotation angles and b^ _
` a `
Sb^ RZcd _ and Sb^ RZcd _ are the displacement of a pair of arbitrary reference points
` a
on the opposite boundary planes (e.g. g and gh in 1 and 1' planes, shown in Fig. 6).
The second equation implies that the difference of displacements in all three
directions must be equal for all pair nodes located on the opposite boundary planes
[41]. Similar to the simulations for the unit cell, two rigid plates were attached to the
two opposite ends of the cellular structure in the loading direction and were displaced
towards each other in the simulations. The cell edges were allowed to move relative to
the flat plates with no friction and can freely expand in the lateral directions.
The elastic properties and yield strength of the cellular structure were
calculated from the force-displacement response of the structure in each basic loading
direction. The effective elastic modulus is the initial slope of the response: the
Poisson’s ratios were calculated by dividing the negative value of lateral strain by the
21
Figure 6: Schematic of the periodic boundary conditions.
axial strain. The yield strength was obtained by plotting the stress-strain curve of the
structure and finding a point at which there is an increase in strain with no increase in
stress (the beginning of the plateau region of the curve). The subspace eigensolver
method was employed to estimate the critical elastic buckling loads of the unit cell in
each loading direction. In all calculations, we assumed the cell edge material to be
+, 130 76 and Poisson’s ratio, - 0.3. It should be noted that all the results are
expressed in the non-dimensional form and are independent of the values of the
material properties used in the calculations. The cell edges were meshed using a
standard Timoshenko beam element (element type B31 in Abaqus) that uses linear
interpolation (2-node linear beam) and allows for transverse shear deformation. A
mesh sensitivity analysis was performed to insure that the result is not sensitive to the
22
mesh size. The static general solver with general (standard) contact condition
23
2.4. Mechanical properties of open-cell rhombic dodecahedron cellular
structures
Fig. 7(a) shows the finite element model of a cellular structure subjected to
loading in 1- direction. Fig. 7(b) shows the effective elastic moduli of the tessellated
tessellated cellular structure, '. In the finite element calculations, the relative density
of the cellular structure was varied by changing the size of the square cross-section of
the cell edges, %. In the same figures, we have also plotted the theoretical estimates of
the effective elastic moduli in two directions from Eqs. (2) and (3). These analytical
estimates are based on considering only the bending deformation of cell edges. For
cellular structures with a low relative density, the finite element and theoretical results
deformation of cell edges in its overall stiffness becomes more significant which
results in the difference between the finite element and numerical solution.. Similar
comparison is made in Fig. 7(c) for the three different Poisson's ratios 0# , 0)# , and
0) of the tessellated cellular structure, which show good agreement between the
analytical predictions and finite element results. The results suggest that the cellular
we compared the finite element results and analytical predictions for the yield strength
of the tessellated cellular structure in 1- and 2- directions. The results show good
agreement between the finite element and analytical results. The yield strength
obtained from the finite element analysis is slightly higher than the analytical
predictions.
24
To examine whether Euler buckling occurs prior to yield, we compared the
critical buckling stress and the yield strength of the structure under loading in each
direction. For loading in the 2- direction, using the buckling and yield stresses
equations (Eqs. (8) and (5), respectively) , gives the following relationship between
the cell edge material yield strength and elastic modulus for the condition where Euler
buckling and plastic collapsing occur simultaneously: +, /* 0.72 '
.X . At each
relative density, yield is the dominant mode for lower values of +, /* and buckling
is dominant for higher values of +, /* . The same approach for loading in 1-direction,
the predicted collapse mechanism in each region of the plot for each loading direction.
25
26
Figure 7: Mechanical properties of the rhombic dodecahedron tessellated cellular structure.
(a) Schematic of the finite element model of a tessellated structure under uniaxial
compression in 1- direction. (b) Normalized elastic modulus of the tessellated cellular
structure versus its relative density in 1- and 2- directions. (c) Poisson’s ratios of the cellular
structure against its relative density. (d) Normalized yield strength of the tessellated structure
versus the relative density. The finite element results are presented for loading in both
directions. The analytical prediction is identical for loading in each direction.
27
Figure 8: Predicted collapse behavior of tessellated cellular structure for uniaxial loading in 2-
and 1- direction.
28
2.5. Role of irregularity in the structural organization
open-cell structures with regular, irregular and random structural arrangements have
been carried out by [28-30]. [55] used a finite element method to predict the Young’s
modulus and Poisson's ratio of four realistic random models of isotropic open cellular
solids. They proposed different relationships for low density and high density open-
cell cellular structures and compared their results with experimental data. In other
study, the tensile elastic properties of a regular dodecahedron with pentagonal faces
was studied to gain insight into the mechanical behavior of lungs [60-61]. In this part
dodecahedron structure which leads to models with various cell sizes (polydisperse
foam), Fig. 3(c). In developing the models, the vertices of the cellular structure
located on the boundaries were fixed and the periodic boundary conditions were
generating each model of the irregular structure, each vertices of a regular structure
where j1 and jk1 are coordinates of the vertices in the initial regular and final irregular
29
structure such as the number of edges, vertices, and cells remain the same in regular
and irregular structures, but the rhombuses of the structure become irregular
generate models of irregular cellular structure with different Irregularity indexes. The
models were imported into Abaqus and similar to section 3 and mechanical properties
of the models were studied under loading in different directions. Fig. 9 shows three
structure was made at constant overall relative density. The total length of the cell
edges varies from one model to the other and the thickness was calculated for each
model to keep the overall (average) relative density the same as the regular cellular
structure. For irregular cellular structures with 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, three different models
of the cellular structures were constructed and analyzed. For 0.4 and 0.5, we
analyzed five models since the scatter in the calculated mechanical properties is
relatively large. The estimated effective elastic modulus and yield strength of the
irregular structures were normalized in respect to the effective elastic modulus and
yield strength of their regular cellular structure counterpart (i.e. with the same relative
density). The normalized effective elastic moduli in the 1- and 2- directions are
denoted by k and k) , respectively and the normalized yield strengths were denoted
by kr\ and kr2 , respectively. For a regular cellular structure, all these parameters are
equal to 1.
30
Figure 9: Irregular cellular structures with different Irregularity indexes .
The results are summarized in Fig. 10, where the dashed lines show the
average results of the finite element calculations for cellular structures at each relative
density. The results show a significant decrease in yield strength and an increase in
the effective elastic modulus of the structure by increasing the Irregularity index, . In
general, the role of irregularity on the mechanical properties of the cellular structure is
more pronounced for cellular structure with a low relative density. Moreover, the
31
32
elastic modulus of irregular cellular structure versus the Irregularity index for three
Figure 10: Mechanical properties of an irregular cellular structure. (a) and (b) Normalized
different relative densities in loading in 1- and 2- direction, respectively. The dashed lines
show the average results for each relative density. (c) and (d) Normalized yield strength of the
irregular structure versus the irregularity index in loading in 1- and 2- direction, respectively.
The dashed lines show the average results for each relative density.
33
2.6. Cellular structure tied to rigid plates (sandwich panel configuration)
We carried out a similar set of analytical and numerical analysis for a rhombic
dodecahedron cellular structure attached to two rigid plates at its two ends (e.g. plates
are normal to the loading direction and the cell edges are tied to the rigid plates). We
assumed that the cellular structure is infinite in both in plane directions. In this case,
the mechanical properties of the structure are height dependent. We derived analytical
estimates of the elastic modulus of the cellular structure in two extreme cases: i) a
cellular structure with single cell height and ii) a cellular structure with an infinite
height. The analytical model, as well as the finite element calculations are discussed
Fig. 11 shows two segments of the structure (denoted by S1 and S2 and shown
in Figs. 11(a) and 11(b), respectively) that were analyzed to obtain the analytical
solution for the elastic modulus of a single cell height tessellated cellular structure.
All the nodes of segment S1 can only move in the loading direction (2- direction) due
to symmetry. for segment S2, nodes A, B, C, and D can move only in 2- direction and
node E can move in both 1- and 2- directions. The reaction forces and moments for
each segment can be calculated by minimizing the total strain energy. For both
segments, minimizing the total strain energy of the segment shows that the internal
bending moment at each cross section of all cell edges is zero. Thus, the cell edges
theory and neglecting the shear strain energy, the deflection of the structure in 2-
direction can be obtained for each. For S1, )) 3sh/2* ?, and for S2, ))
3s/* ?, where sh and s are the compression force applied to nodes C and D of S1
34
Figure 11: Free body diagram of two segments of a rhombic dodecahedron tessellated
structure tied to rigid plates under uniaxial loading in 2-direction. (a) and (b) Free body
diagrams of segments S1 and S2, respectively. The reaction forces and moments applied to
each node are shown.
The single cell height structure consists of two S1 and two S2 segments. Thus,
the total resisting force of the unit cell is equal to 2s = 2sh, and the effective elastic
) √3 % ) 1
F '
* 4 ) 6
(12)
For the tessellated cellular structure with infinite height, the response only
relates to the deformation of S2 and the total resisting force of the unit cell is equal to
) √3 % ) 1
F '
* 6 ) 9
(13)
35
Since the structure only deforms in stretching and the cell edges behave
effectively as truss elements and their bending moment and deformation is minimal.
The elastic modulus is scaled linearly as a function of relative density. Finite element
calculations were performed for one cell, two cells, four cells and twelve cells height
structures. Periodic boundary condition was applied in both directions normal to the
loading direction. Fig. 12 shows the theoretical and the finite element results for the
elastic modulus of the cellular structure in 2- direction. The solid lines represent the
analytical estimates for the elastic moduli of single cell and infinite height structure.
The results validate the descending trend of elastic modulus by increasing the height
of the structure. In general, the cellular structure with tied boundary conditions is
much stiffer and stronger compared to the cellular structure with the boundary
36
results for one, two, four, and twelve cells height are shown with square, rhombus, circle and
triangle markers, respectively.
37
2.7. Concluding remarks
We provided analytical estimates for the effective elastic moduli and yield
Detailed finite element calculations were carried out to establish the validity of the
analytical models. The cellular structure is two times stiffer in 2- and 3- directions,
compared to its stiffness in the 1- direction and is near incompressible in all loading
directions. The yield strength of the cellular structure was identical in all loading
directions, indicating that yielding in 1-direction occurs at a strain that is two times of
the yield strain in 2- and 3- directions. Comparison between the buckling load and
yielding of the cellular structure showed that for almost all open-cell tessellated
suggest that the cellular structure has similar energy absorption capacity in different
loading, the inertia effect and the contact between the cell edges could influence the
energy absorption capacity of the cellular structure in different directions ([6, 35, 58]).
We also extended our study to cellular structures with tied boundary condition
(attached to rigid plates) and showed that the deformation of the cellular structure is
dominated by cell wall stretching. In this case, the elastic modulus of the cellular
structure is a linear function of its relative density and is height dependent. In general,
this cellular structure tied to rigid plates is much stiffer compared to the counterpart
showed an increase in the effective elastic modulus and considerable decrease in the
38
yield strength of the cellular structure by increasing the level of irregularity in the
structural arrangement of the cell edges of the cellular structure. Our results are in
qualitative agreement with the results provided by [62] on the effects of cell
to slightly elevate the effective elastic modulus and decrease the compressive strength
[63]. [31] also show that two-dimensional low density Voronoi structures are stiffer
and have lower yield strength compared to a regular hexagonal honeycomb. Similar
39
2.8. Acknowledgement
reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions. This work was supported
in part by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (AA, AV) and in part by the
U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research under AFOSR YIP grant award, #FA
upon work supported by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security under Award
document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily
representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the U.S. Department
of Homeland Security.
40
2.9. Appendix A: Mechanical properties of the geometrical unit cell in the 1-
direction
each consisting of three cell edges connected at one point to each other - have
identical deformation and response under this loading: AEKF, KJAI, CGMF, CHMI,
ABCF, ADCI, KLMF, and KNMI. Thus, we analyzed the deformation of one of the
linkages, as shown in Fig. 13(b). The force exerted to this linkage is 5 /4. The
total strain energy stored in this part of the unit cell is J Jt = 2Ju , where Jt and
Ju are the strain energy stored in cell edge EF and cell edge AE (or EK), respectively.
and, 7 , 7) , 7# and 7E are the reaction moments applied at the boundary in Fig.
13(b). Using the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory and neglecting the shear strain energy,
M7 ) M
Pt )
Jt v NO = v NO
t3
2* < 2* ?
(14)
where Pt and 7t3 are the axial force and the internal moment around axis 3. From
equilibrium, Pt H /√3 H √2) /√3 and 7t3 7E H √2 O/√3 = ) O/√3 ,
where x is the distance measured from the end of the cell edge where the external
(1'2'3'), where axis 3' is in the direction of the cell edge – see Fig. 13(b). In this local
coordinate, the total strain energy of the cell edge can be estimated from:
41
M7 M7 M7
Pu )
) ) ) M
u\w u2w u3w
Ju v NO = v NO = v NO = v NO
2* < 2* < 2i* x 2* ?
(15)
applied to the cross section of the cell edge. From equilibrium, Pu H /2√3 =
7# /√3 = ) y/2, 7u w 7h /√3 = √27h# /√3, where y is measured from the left
3
end of the cell edge as shown in Fig. 13(b) ( 0 Q y Q ). The reaction forces and
moments are unknowns, which can be calculated by minimizing the total strain
energy in respect to each of them (e.g. zJ /z) 0). Solving the corresponding set
of equations gives:
) , #
√) √)
{ )
√3 7√6
7 , 7)
12 72
(16)
√6 5√6
7# , 7E
24 36
using the Castiglione's theorem. Neglecting the strain energy associated with shear
and axial deformations, 17 # /216* <. The strain in 1- direction is A
2 / and the applied stress in the same direction is = 5 /4) ;>) , where the
area is calculated at the middle of the cellular structure, which is a square with side
length 2 sin . The effective elastic modulus of the unit cell parallel to 1- direction,
42
( 22 )
' F 0.27 ')
* 81
(17)
For a unit cell subjected to uniaxial compression in 1- direction, Fig. 13(a), the
maximum stress due to bending occurs in points A, E, F and K and can be estimated
from V 5 /√6 % # . Equating V +, , gives TU /+* 3√6 % # /10#
2√3/15 '2 . Similar to the previous section, the yield strength of the unit cell in 1-
3
W
The comparison between the analytical solution and finite element results for
normalized elastic modulus and yield strength of the rhombic dodecahedron unit cell
43
Figure 13: (a) Schematic of a rhombic dodecahedron unit cell under uniaxial compression in
respectively. is the displacement of node F due to the applied load. ) is the
1- direction. The undeformed and the deformed unit cell are shown by dashed and solid lines,
displacement of the nodes located on the top surface of the unit cell in 2- direction due to the
forces and moment due to loading are shown. Also the local coordinate system (1'2'3')
uniaxial compression in 1- direction. (b) Free body diagram of the unit cell. All the reaction
used in the analysis is depicted. (c) Normalized elastic modulus and yield strength of the
rhombic dodecahedron unit cell versus its relative density in 1- direction.
44
3. Closed-cell Rhombic
Dodecahedron Cellular Structures
45
3.1. Overview
cellular structure with closed rhombic dodecahedron cell using analytial methods
based on the concepts of mechanical of materials and finite element analysis. This
dodecahedron). The unit cell of the structure is shown in Fig. 14(a) and has 12
identical rhombic faces with 24 edges and 14 vertices. Each face of a rhombic
2 √2 109.47 . The volume of a unit cell is ! 16# /3√3, where is the
edge length . Considering each face as a plate with thickness , the relative density
(volume fraction) of the rhombic dodecahedron unit cells, '( 3% ) /! 3 √6/2.
cell wall is shared by two adjacent unit cells, so the effective relative density of a
' '( /2 33 √6/4 F 1.84 / . Fig. 14(c) shows an example of a closed
dodecahedron unit cells. In the coordinate system shown in Fig. 14, 2- and 3- axes are
perpendicular and normal to the top and front surfaces of rhombic dodecahedron in
the outward direction. Our analytical models give estimates of the effective elastic
moduli and yield strength of the structure. We also constructed finite element models
of the closed rhombic dodecaheron cellular structure and made comparison between
the analytical predictions and the finite element results. The cell edge material
46
behavior was taken as elastic-perfectly plastic with elastic modulus, * , Poisson ratio,
modulus of the cellular structures. The irregularity was induced by removing the cell
faces with random and Gaussian distributions. To find the best statistically
distrubution of missing cell walls, the influences of two cotrolling parameters of the
Gaussian dietribution function, standard deviations () and mean value (), were also
47
dodecahedron unit cell has 12 identical rhombuses plate with edge length, , thickness, , and
Figure 14: Schematic of a closed rhombic dodecaheron cellular structure. (a) A rhombic
48
3.2. Mechanical properties of cellular structure with regular organization
In this section, we provide an analytical estimation for the elastic modulus and
direction. We assume that the height of the cellular structure is very long and neglect
the effect of boundaries. To calculate the effective properties of the cellular structure,
we estiamted the total potential energy of the cellular structure under prescribed
displacement field due to transverse loading and used the principle of minimum
potential energy. Fig. 15(a) shows a unit cell of the structure and its deformed
cellular structure comprising of a triangular plate and a rhombus plate shown in Fig.
displacement field in each of the two plates. The displacement fields in 1- and 2-
directions are denoted by b and | and were given by the following relations,
bSO, yR
= O = ) y and |SO, yR
L = L O = )L y, where O and y are the
can be obtained by applying the appropriate boundary conditions. For the triangular
plate shown in Fig. 15(b), }bSO, yR|,t 0, }|SO, yR|,u 0, }bSO, yR|u ) , and
}|SO, yR|t H and The displacement field can be presented as bSO, yR √3) O/
and |SO, yR H √3 y/√2 . The associated strain field of the triangular plate is
calculated as
49
zb )
zO
z| √3 1
r zy H
r √2
zb = z|
(19)
zy zO 0
Figure 15: Schematic of a rhombic dodecahedron unit cell under uniaxial compression in 2-
direction. (a) Front view of deformed configuration of the unit cell under uniaxial
compression force F in 2- direction. The undeformed and the deformed shapes are shown by
solid and dashed lines, respectively. (b) and (c) The deformed configuration of the traingular
and rhombus plates.
J ) K N! , where is the stiffness matrix for for an elament with
plane stress condition. The elastic strain energy of the triangular plate can be estimate
50
For the rhombus plate, since the nodes B and F moves in 1- direction and the
nodes A and E moves in 2- direction, we can consider the plate as the line element AB.
The strain along this line due to uniaxial loading in 2- direction is tu S H R/
S√2/√3 H R) = S/√3 = ) R). Neglecting the higher order terms, the strain of
√2 )
tu S H R
√3 √2
(20)
which gives the elastic strain energy of the rhombus plate as, JZ
* S ) = ) ) ) H √2 ) R/S1 H - ) R.
)√)
is the total elastic strain energy of the unit cell, J 4J = 4JZ and 5 and
also minimizing the total potential energy, z[/z 0 and z[/ z) 0, the
5
) F 0.778 F
2.54 *
(21)
The applied stress in the same direction is ) 5/4) sin 2, where the
effective area is assumed at the mid-height of the unit cell ( 54.735° ). The
effective elastic modulus of the unit cell parallel to 2- direction is ) = ) ⁄A) where
)
F 0.55 0.31 '
*
(22)
51
Cells in cellular structures can collapse by elastic buckling, plastic yielding or
brittle crushing, depending on the nature of cell wall material [65]. For a closed
the collapse happens by elastic buckling (very low density cellular structures with
relative density less than 0.02) and plastic yielding (cellular structures with relative
Figure 16: Normalized elastic modulus and yield strength of the closed rhombic dodecaheron
cellular structure as a linear function of its relative density in 2- direction. The error between
simulation and analytical results stems from that the analytical soluton is calculated based on
the model with infinite height while the finite element results are concerned with the model
shown in Fig. 14(c).
The yield strength of the structure, + , is calculated by equating the von Mises
stress to the yield strength of the cell wall material, +, . In the case of plane stress, the
von Mises stress is provide by the equation, ) = ) ) H ) , where and
) are the stress components in 1- and 2- directions, respectively and they are
52
calculated for the both plates _ shown in Fig. 15(b,c)_ using Eqs. (19), (20), and
. Upon substitution of these values into von Mises equation and using
Eq. (19) and the von Mises criterion, +, , the displacements of the structure
that causes yielding of the traingular plate, + and ) + , are + / 0.0011 and
) + / 0.00085. These values for the rhombus plate are bigger than the traingular
plate and the yielding is initiated from the traingular plate. Considering the Hook's
law for plane stress conditions, the equivalent critical forces of these plates in 2-
direction is found as 5Z 0.3 + * and 5Z Z 35Z /√2. So the effective yield
which gives,
+
F 0.83 F 0.46 '
+ *
(23)
dodecahedron tessellated cellular structures. The finite elmenet models were used to
validate the analytical estimates for the effective elastic modulus and yield strength of
the cellular structure obtained in section 3.2.1.. The simulations were conducted using
the Finite Element package Abaqus (SIMULIA, Providence, RI). The model
dimensions are shown in Fig. 14(c) in the terms of edge length L. The model has
composed of 7&10&10 unit cells in 1-, 2- and 3- directions that were packed together
to build a cubic model. The edge length was assumed √3 unit length. Two rigid
plates were tied to the two opposite ends of the cellular structure in the loading
direction (2- direction). The relative density (volume fraction) of our finite elment
53
models including 8220 faces with thickness t, is ' F 1.80 / which is almost equal
to the periodic model. All cell walls within a model have the same thickness. The cell
wall thickness was determined to obtain certain densities. The cell walls were meshed
using a standard shell element (element type S4R in Abaqus) which is a 4-node,
that the result is minimally sensitive to the mesh size. The static general solver with
general (standard) contact condition available in Abaqus software package was used
in the calculations. In all calculations, we assumed the cell wall material to be linear
130 76 and Poisson’s ratio, - 0.3. It should be noted that all the results are
expressed in the non-dimensional form and are independent of the values of the
The elastic properties and yield strength of the cellular structure were
direction. The effective elastic modulus is the initial slope of the response. The 0.2 %
offset method was used to determine the yield strength of the models. Fig. 16 shows
the elastic modulus and yield strength of the closed rhombic dodecahedron cellular
estimation described in section 3.2.1.. The error between simulation and analytical
results of elastic modulus stems from that the analytical soluton is calculated based on
the sandwich panel with infinite height while the finite element results are based on
the finite element model shown in Fig. 14(c). The yield strength of the theory and
finite element simulation are in very good agreement and indicates that the yield
54
examine the effect of height on the yield strength and elastic modulus of the structure.
It for the height of the structure more than five unit cells, the yield strength and elastic
modulus are both height independent. But when the height of the structure varies from
55
3.3. Role of irregularity
Trabecular bone, cork, cedar, wood, bamboo and sisal plant are some examples of
metallic foams have some defects in their structures [69]. In this section, we used
finite element method to investigate the effects of missing cell walls with random and
normal (Gaussian) distributions on the effective elastic modulus for closed rhombic
dodecahedron cellular structure. The simulations were carried out in abaqus and the
assupmtions for the cell walls material and elements type are similar to the section
3.2.2..
Each of our regular models shown in Fig. 14(c) consist of 8220 plates that are
packed together to fill the space and build the regular sandwich panel. To generate the
random missing cell walls models, we need to remove some of the plates randomly.
is a parameter defined as percentage of removed cell walls to the total cell walls. We
carried out the simulations for 0, 10, 20 and 30 percents in which 0 means
deleted cell walls increases and the stricture becomes more irregular. For each value
of , three different models of the cellular structures were constructed and analyzed.
The models were made on ANSYS (ANSYS Inc., Canonsburg, PA). MATLAB
(Mathwork, Inc., Natick, MA) sofware was used to generate the random numbers to
rermove the plates from the models and finally they were imported into Abaqus to
56
Fig. 17 shows the effect of randomly missing cell walls on elastic modulus of
the sandwich panles for three relative densities, ' 2, 4 and 10 percent. The effective
elastic moduli of the irregular structures were normalized in respect to the effective
elastic modulus of their regular cellular structure counterpart (i.e. with the same
relative density). For a regular structure, this parameter is equal to 1. In Fig. 17 the
dashed lines show the average results of the finite element calculations for cellular
structures at each relative density. As expected, increasing the removed cell walls (),
decreases the elastic modulus of the structure significantly. For example removing
20% of the cell walls, 0.2, results in a reduction of 50% in elastic modulus of the
Figure 17: Effect of random missing cell walls on elastic modulus of the closed rhombic
relative densities in the terms of . k) is the effective elastic modulus in the 2- direction that
dodecaheron cellular structure. The results are shown for the model with three different
counterpart . For each value of , we ran the simulation for three different models. Since the
is normalized in respect to the effective elastic modulus of its regular cellular structure
results are very close, we just showed the results by one point.
57
3.3.2. Orderly missing cell walls
In this section the effect of missing cell walls with normal distribution is
ANSYS (ANSYS Inc., Canonsburg, PA) software. The models were generated by
removing the cell walls according to the normal (Gaussian) distribution function [70],
1 S
¡R2
mSOR
)¢2
√2[ )
(24)
where is the standard deviation (height of the curve's peak) and is the mean value
(position of the center of the peak). The graphs of Gaussian function with different
and are plotted inside the figures 18(b) and 19, respectively. As it is shown in Fig.
14(c), the model has 10 rows unit cell along 1- direction. The number of cell walls
that should be removed from each row is determined by the normal distribution
function which has been plotted between -5 to 5. Fig. 18(a) shows three examples of
Fig. 18(b) shows the effect of missing cell walls on the elastic modulus of the
structure at different standard deviations () and percentage of missing cell walls (γ).
In these models the mean value, , is assumed to be zero (middle of the structure) and
the standard deviation, , varies from zero to infinity. 0 refers to the case that all
the missed cell walls are removed from the middle and ∞ means that the cell
walls are removed completely uniform (the same number of cell walls are removed
58
1. As expected, increasing the percentage of missing cell walls decreases the
standard deviation (relative density is kept fixed in all the models and equal to 10%).
when the standard deviation tends to zero which means that cell walls are removed
from the middle of the structure (see Fig. 18(a)). Then by increasing , the
distribution of missing cell walls get more uniform and we have a sharp increase in
3. For all the heterogeneous cellular structures, three different models were
made and analyzed. In the Fig. 18(b) when 0 Q Q 5 all the three models have very
close elastic modulus, so just one point is shown in the figure but when standard
deviation increases, the scatter in the calculated elastic modulus becomes relatively
large.
more rapidly to the final value. For instance, for γ 5%, where ¤ 1, the elastic
modulus becomes almost constant and is equal to the 0.85. For γ 10%, where
¤ 2, the elastic modulus is almost 0.75 and for γ 20%, where ¤ 5, the elastic
modulus is 0.55. Also the results indicated that if the distributiion of the missing cell
walls in the heterogeneous structure is uniform, the stiffness of the structure will be
maximum.
59
Figure 18: Effect of standard deviations, , on elastic modulus of the closed rhombic
variations. For 0 all the cell walls are removed from the middle of the structure. 1
dodecaheron cellular structure. (a) Three irregular cellular structures with different standard
function. For ∞ the cell walls are removed uniformly (the same numbers of cell walls
is called standard normal distribution and the cell walls are removed according to that
standard deviasion for different percentage of missing cell walls, . The relative density and
are removed randomly from each row). (b) Normalaized elastic modulus of the structure VS.
mean value are kept fixed, 10% and 0, respectively. Also normal distribution functions with
different standard deviasions are plotted.
60
- Variation of mean value ()
Effect of random missing cell walls on elastic modulus of the closed rhombic
dodecaheron cellular structure with different mean values () and standard deviasions
() is shown in Fig. 19. By increasing the standard deviasion the elastic modulus of
the structure increases. As standard deviasion tends to infinity, since the cell walls are
removed uniformly, the elastic modulus for the all mean values goes to the same
VS. standard deviasion for different mean values, (each mean value is shown with the
Figure 19: Normalaized elastic modulus of the closed rhombic dodecaheron cellular structure
The normal distribution functions for 1 and different mean values are plotted inside the
specific color). The relative density and percentage of missing cell walls are kept fixed, 10%.
figure.
61
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