Chemical Monitoring and Management

 Gather, process and present information from secondary sources about

the work of practising scientists, identifying:
– the variety of chemical occupations
– a specific chemical occupation for a more detailed study
Case Study:
Branch of chemistry:
analytical science – determining what substances and how much are present in materials
- Gas chromatography; vaporisation of a gaseous or liquid mixture through a stream of
helium flowing over a stationary phase that is solid coated with liquid.

Chemists in the production of ethylene from ethane to polyethylene. These materials are then
sold to other companies for further processing to create polymers (plastics) and starting
materials. They are required to:
 Monitor the quality of ethylene produced to ensure standards are met for next stages
especially presence of impurities
 Monitor waste water to ensure environmental regulations are met
 Monitor gas emissions
 Adjusting operating conditions to ensure maximum yield and speed

He also works on checking reliability of data gathered, analysis, solving problems that occur
and developing new procedures in the requirement of changing conditions.
Different branches of chemistry:
- Analytical chemistry; determining what substances are present in samples and how
much, qualitative
- Physical chemistry; physical aspects of reactions (rate of reaction, energy, structure of
compounds)
- Organic chemistry; study of carbon compounds associated w living matter (A.A.
hydrocarbons, carbs)
- Inorganic chemistry; study of inorganics where carbon is not predominant (metals,
extraction, reactions)

Other branches:
- Environmental chemistry - Forensic chemistry
- Polymer chemistry
- Industrial chemistry
- Food chemistry
- Pharmaceutical chemistry
- Nuclear chemistry
  outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise, identifying
the branch of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining a chemical principle
that the chemist uses
Chemists undertake monitoring and management in industry:
- Speed and yield are efficiently produced through reactions
- Products are pure and free from toxins
- Specifications are met for raw materials obtained (e.g. impurities)
- Safe and healthy workplace
- Pollutant regulations are monitored for industrial practices

Robert Evans:
- Industry: environmental chemistry
- Branch: analytical chemistry
- Chemical principle: the concentration of particular compounds in samples of wastes to determine
whether there are any contaminants and if it complies with environmental requirements and
guidelines.

Need for collaboration: applies particularly to industry where the production of a particular product can
require detailed knowledge of physical chemistry (equilibrium and rate considerations), organic chemistry
(how the reaction occurs and how to optimise the yield), analytical chemistry (to monitor quality of raw
materials and the product), industrial chemistry or chemical engineering (to be able to ‘scale up’ a
laboratory experiment to industrial production quantities with inherent problems of energy inputs or outputs,
mass flow problem and the selection of suitable construction materials) and environmental chemistry (to
appreciate the significance of possible wastes and how to manage them in a responsive way).

Need of monitoring: to ensure that:

- That the maximum amount of desired product is formed while the production of unwanted by-
products is minimised by changing the conditions in order to stop their formation
- That no pollutants are being produced, either from the reaction itself or from impurities in the
starting material
- That the reaction is going to completion and not coming to an unfavourable equilibrium
- That, if the reaction is being used to generate energy, the maximum amount of energy is being
produced
- Example: combustion reactions – increasing the proportion of oxygen (air) in the reaction mixture to
maximise yield  reaction (combustion) of ethylene with oxygen:
▪ Complete: C2H4(g) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Industry: automobile/car
Type of Chemist: Chemical Engineer
Role in Industry:
− looks after chemical processes and reactions
− e.g. determines best fuel : oxygen ratio and engine pressure to ensure complete combustion
− engineers engines to ensure complete combustion
Branch of Chemistry:
− physical chemistry: reaction rates/dynamics. energy production
− e.g. the speed of combustion reactions, thermodynamics
Chemical Principle:
− mole ratio: used to calculate amount of product released and reactants used i.e. monitoring CO2 emissions
− exothermic combustion reactions: rate of reaction is increased by heat, heat released by reaction
  identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and analyse data

- Communication and collaboration between scientists is essential in the laboratory

- For example, a Laboratory Toxicologist would need to:
 Compare analysis results from other tests to confirm the validity of a client’s screening
 Discuss results and conclusions with other professionals
 Collaborate on the usage of equipment, the scheduling of tests, conforming to deadlines
Keep up to date with new developments: communication, attending seminars and conferences

Chemistry problems in today’s world require the knowledge of more than one branch of chemistry. Good
collaboration requires good communication between chemists. Collaboration between other scientists is also
important from different branches of science such as physics, biology, environmental science etc. for
knowledge and jargon.

- allows each scientist to specialise in one area ∴ increasing efficiency as they do not have to be
experts in multiple fields
- provides multiple points of view and backgrounds to give a variety of opinions to compare e.g. if one
person thinks a reading is low, they can ask others if they have seen low reading before and where,
determining why it is low
- provides a reliable network of chemists in similar fields to rely on and share information with ∴
sharing efforts in investigations ∴ faster outcomes
- requires interactions with different types of chemists to share information e.g. biological chemist
gaining engineering information from chemical engineer

 Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where reactants form

different products under different conditions and thus would need monitoring

Aspects such as reactants, pollutants, pressure, state of catalyst, temperature must be monitored to
ensure:
- Efficient production to produce maximum yield of product and energy
- Unwanted products are minimised
- No pollutants from impurities
- No unfavourable equilibrium to ensure complete reaction
- Safety, economy and conservation of non-renewable fuels

Complete and incomplete combustion

Complete combustion
 Carbon dioxide greenhouse gas produced which is harmless to us
 Maximum energy produced

Incomplete combustion
 Minimal energy
 C and CO produced which is a toxic and harmful gas to humans

Many chemical processes are sensitive to any change in the conditions of the reaction involved
For example, the effect of oxygen availability on a combustion reaction:
If there is a good supply of oxygen, the reactants mix well to from carbon dioxide and water vapour:
2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)

If there is a shortage of oxygen, the products can instead become carbon monoxide or carbon (soot). This is
called ‘Incomplete Combustion’:
2C8H18(l) + 17O2(g) 16CO(g) + 18H2O(g)
2C8H18(l) + 13O2(g) 8CO(g) + 8C(s) + 18H2O(g)

At high temperatures, the oxygen can react with nitrogen in the air to form nitrogen oxides:
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)

Catalytic converters made from alloys of platinum reduce Co, Co and NOX and speed up reactions. At high
speeds, they convert CO=>CO2. At low speeds, they convert NO=>N

 A chemical engineer would need to monitor the combustion by regularly measuring:

The mixing of fuel and oxygen
The temperature within the combustion area
The composition of the exhaust gases (carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide)
  Identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia

Industrial uses of ammonia:

 Fertiliser
 Plastics and fibres (rayon, nylon)
 Explosives (WWI)
 Household cleaners
 Detergents

Ammonia, NH3, is caustic and hazardous

It is used in industry for the manufacture of:
 Fertilizers:
o Certain ammonium salts are used as a nitrogen nutrient for plants
o E.g. (NH4)SO2 (ammonium sulfate): 2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
 Nitric acid:
o Explosives
o Dyes and pigments
o Fibres and plastics – e.g. nylon
 Household cleaners and detergents
 Air conditioning
 Mining and metallurgy – e.g. steel-making

Fertilisers: starting product for fertilisers, adds nutrients to soil, high demand worldwide for agriculture,
aesthetics etc.
Explosives: nitrogen in nitroglycerin (active ingredient in TNT) is derived from ammonia, used in mining to
extract ores from earth's crust
Cleaning products: caustic in nature ∴ cuts through grime easily

NB: second-most produced compound in industry world-wide

 Identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases, nitrogen and
hydrogen

-Haber Process Synthesis Reaction: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

-Nitrogen is obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air
-Hydrogen is produced by the catalytic reaction between natural gas and steam

Nitrogen is in abundance in the atmosphere whereas hydrogen is difficult to obtain. Hydrogen is obtained by
reacting methane, natural gas with steam using a nickel catalyst to produce hydrogen gas.

CH4 + H2O = CO + 3H2 as an endothermic reaction

The Haber process is difficult whereby oxygen cannot be contained as it will react violently in the process.
A 3:1 ratio of hydrogen to nitrogen is used to maintain a balance in the process.

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) ∆H = -92 kJ/mol

  Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the conditions
under which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia and evaluate its
significance at that time in world history

FRITZ HABER AND THE HABER PROCESS

In 1908 he developed the first method of synthesising ammonia from its elements and in 1914 Carl Bosch
successfully converted this into an industrial process.

This process contributed to the industrial production of fertiliser for agricultural practices globally and for
World War 1 where Germany used explosives from ammonia.
 It is an exothermic process
 It is an equilibrium reaction whereby ammonia begins to breakdown into its reactants

The Haber process is a delicate process whereby a balance between temperature, pressure, and ammonia
yield, ratio of N2 and H2 and purity of reagents and lack oxygen needs to be considered. Catalysts used in
the process include finely ground Iron (Fe), cadmium or osmium to lower activation energy.
Advantages Disadvantages
Synthetic production of nitrates ending the Unethical use in World War I whereby
depletion of Chile’s natural reserves, non- Germany produced many high explosives,
renewable resource costing lives
Cost effective production of synthetic Overuse of synthetic fertiliser
ammonia, large scale production
Useful products could be easily Can be a dangerous process if not monitored
manufactured properly
Alternative to finite natural reserves

In 1908, Haber developed a catalytic method of synthesising ammonia from its elements. In 1914, Carl
Bosch assisted him in converting this method into an industrial process

Leading up to the First World War, there was a high demand for nitrates due to both growing populations
and militancy. These natural resources were traditionally imported from South America, but the World War
prevented the trade of nitrates to Germany

The Haber process helped to sustain Germany’s war effort and to prolong the war, as it offered an
alternative that would allow the continued production of ammonia:
 For fertilisers – used for food production
 Essential for nitric acid – used in explosives and ammunition

Despite this contribution, the synthesis of ammonia also had a detrimental effect. Because such a large
amount of ammonia was taken for use in weaponry, little was left for its use in fertilisers. This resulted in
failed crops, and many Germans died of starvation

The efficiency of the Haber process today has meant that the world’s increasing demand for food and
nitrogen-based fertilisers can be met
  Describe that the synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that will reach
equilibrium
The Haber process is a reversible reaction and thus never reaches completion though reaches a point of
equilibrium which naturally lies to the left (N2 and H2)

The reaction:
 Exothermic
 At room temperatures, very slow
 Equilibrium lies to the left
By altering temperature and pressure, the equilibrium can be shifted to favour the RHS. That is, the
synthesis of ammonia is a reversible reaction that will reach equilibrium:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) + heat ΔH = –92.4 kJ.mol–1

Note that all components are GASEOUS (relevant to changes in pressure)

Equilibrium:
− chemical system where the rate of FR = the rate of RR
− Le Chatelier's Principle allows us to predict the affect of disturbing the system
− reactants and products are always present
− upon reaching equilibrium, the concentrations of the reactants and products will not change and the
system is dynamic but has no noticeable changes

Ideal Factors to Increase Yield:

− increasing pressure
− decreasing temperature
− removing product NH3
− adding reactants N2 and H2

Describing:
− use scaffold Le Chatelier sentence x3-4 to demonstrate changes to system to prove it is equilibrium
− write out equation with equilibrium arrows

 identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen as exothermic

The Haber process is an exothermic reaction whereby energy is released with the products. The process
usually released -92kJ/mol of energy in the reaction between hydrogen and nitrogen.
  explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures

As temperature increases:
 All reactions are usually increased due to the greater kinetic energy produced by faster moving
particles. This enables greater collisions and thus reactions and therefore a greater rate of reaction.
 The activation energy is reached faster with higher temperatures
 The reversible reactions, both ways forward and reverse are increased and thus an equilibrium is
reached faster

− higher temperatures = more kinetic energy

− ∴ particles will vibrate more and move faster ∴ they will collide with other particles more

− according to Collision Theory, chemical reactions occur due to particles successfully colliding and
reacting
− ∴ more successful collisions ∴ increased rate of reaction

 Explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at higher
temperatures using Le Chatelier’s principle

At higher temperatures, the yield of ammonia is reduced (Le Chatelier)

Since the reaction is exothermic, heat is added to RHS. If temperature is increased, more heat is added to
RHS, meaning the equilibrium will favour the LHS
Le Chatelier’s principle states that an increase in temperature will cause an exothermic reaction to
shift more to the left, compensating for the excess heat, thus in the Haber process the equilibrium is
shifted left towards reactants rather than products and thus an increase in temperature will produce
less yield.
  Explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving reaction
energy, reaction rate and equilibrium

For maximum rate of reaction, yield, and therefore efficiency, a compromise temperature is needed (since
lower temperatures decrease rate of reaction and higher temperatures decrease yield of ammonia) = 400–
450C

The Haber is a delicate process whereby multiple factors must be considered and compensated for:
 Yield of products
 Rate of reaction
 Cost of production

And thus these must be controlled and compromised by:

 Temperature – the higher the faster but smaller yield, the lower the slower but greater yield
 Pressure – the higher the greater and faster yield however expensive and dangerous

 explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required and
identify the catalyst(s) used in the Haber process

A catalyst a substance used in a reaction to lower the activation energy but remains unchanged/unused in
the reaction. The catalyst used in the Haber process is iron oxide or magnetite can be used Fe3O4. This
allows for a lower temperature to reach the activation energy yet not compromising the yield produced.

In the Haber process, Magnetite (Fe3O4) is used as a catalyst. The decrease in reaction rate by lower
temperatures can be balanced by this catalyst, and therefore lower temperatures can be used to increase
ammonia’s yield

 Analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber process

The mole ratio of gases is 4:2. Therefore, as the reaction progresses, the pressure of the system decreases

Increasing pressure would cause equilibrium to favour RHS, as it is opposing the reduced pressure according
to Le Chatelier. This increases the yield of ammonia

In industry, pressures of around 200 atm (atmospheres) are used

Using Le Chatelier’s principle, increasing the pressure of the reaction will favour the side that releases the
pressure and thus the right side. In the Haber process, if the pressure is increased, more product will be
formed as the equilibrium shifts right. The moles of gas is greater on the left than the right (4:2).

 N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) ∆H = -92 kJ/mol

Thus, equilibrium shifts to the right.

The increased pressure will also increase the reaction rate as the molecules are closer together and thus
collide more frequently, reacting faster.
  Explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is crucial and
discuss the monitoring required
Using Le Chatelier’s principle, increasing the pressure of the reaction will favour the side that releases the
pressure and thus the right side. In the Haber process, if the pressure is increased, more product will be
formed as the equilibrium shifts right. The moles of gas is greater on the left than the right (4:2).
 N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) ∆H = -92 kJ/mol
Thus, equilibrium shifts to the right.
The increased pressure will also increase the reaction rate as the molecules are closer together and thus
collide more frequently, reacting faster.

MONITORING MANAGEMENT IMPORTANCE

Ratio of reactant Hydrogen and nitrogen are mixed in a ratio of 1:3 Maximises
gases efficiency

Temperature 400–450oC Maximises yield

Pressure High pressure (about 200 atm) Maximises yield

Level of CO, CO2 and sulfur are constantly removed, as they can Ensure safety and
contaminating gases ‘poison’ the catalyst efficiency, as well
as purity of the
Oxygen is extracted, as build-up can cause an explosion catalyst

Note: constantly removing ammonia from mixture favours RHS and increases yield. This is done by
condensing the ammonia. Once in the liquid form, it is no longer relevant to equilibrium reaction (irrelevant
to gas/pressure)

Temperature: this must be monitored at a level of approx. 500 degrees as to optimise yield and rate of
production

Pressure: this must be monitored at a level of approx.. 35 MPa so that it is safe to work with and that the
yield is maximised with rate.

The ratio of N2 an H2 must be maintained at 1:3 as any imbalance may cause a high risk of explosion
Contaminants must also be monitored to prevent the contamination of oxygen which requires complete
removal as it can explosively react with H2. CO, CO2 and sulphur must be kept low as they will damage
the catalyst, iron oxide.

Monitoring the product, ammonia, to ensure its quality and lack of impurities
To monitor leaks of H2 gas from pipes and machinery to minimise the danger of pipe bursts and gassing
  deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests

 Describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting concentrations

of metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific understanding of the
effects of trace elements

Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) is a common technique used to identify the metal elements and
concentration of metal ions in water samples. Atomic absorption is so sensitive that it can measure down to
parts per billion of a gram (µg dm-3) in a sample. When testing water quality, the concentration of the
following cations are usually determined: sodium, magnesium, calcium and potassium. Each atom has its
own unique configuration of electrons in its outer shell, thus, each atom will have its own distinct pattern of
wavelengths at which it will absorb energy. Therefore, a pure sample can be analysed quantitatively.

In all atomic absorption methods, the amount of energy in the form of photons (and thus the change
in the wavelength) absorbed by the sample is measured. More specifically, a detector measures the
wavelengths of light transmitted by the sample, these are called the ‘after’ wavelengths. These recordings
are then compared to the wavelengths which were originally passed through the water sample, these are
called the ‘before’ wavelengths. A processer then graphs the changes in wavelengths. The changes appear as
peaks of energy absorption at distinct wavelengths.

A calibration curve, using known quantities, is produced to establish a basis for comparison. This is
necessary in order to tell how much of a known element is present in a sample. In this process, a known
wavelength is selected and the detector will measure the energy emitted at that wavelength. As the
concentration of the targeted atom in the sample increases, the absorption will also increase proportionally.
A straight line, the calibration curve, is generated. The unknown concentration of the substance being tested
for can then be found using this line by looking at the absorbance amount. Individual components of a
multi-element mixture can be determined by using special light sources and specific wavelength selection.

The atomic absorption spectrometer consists of a cathode lamp, a flame or furnace, a filter or
monochromator, a detector and a processor.

In summary, when the sample solution is dispersed into the flame or furnace, the electrons in the metal
atoms absorb some of the energy from the cathode lamp. The light which wasn’t absorbed passed through
the detector to be measured. The concentration of the metal ion in the sample is determined from the amount
of light that was absorbed.

 perform first-hand investigations to carry out a range of tests, including flame tests, to
identify the following ions:
– phosphate
– sulfate
– carbonate
– chloride
– barium
– calcium
– lead
– copper
– iron

Experiment: Flame Test

Flame tests can be used to detect the presence of certain metal ions, as some metal ions emit light of a
distinctive colour when heated in a Bunsen flame. Flame tests are quick and simple, but not very accurate
Method: Results:
1. Create solutions of the metal ions to be tested ION COLOUR
Ba2+ Yellow-green
2. Dip a platinum wire loop in to the solution and place it into the blue Ca2+ Brick red
part of the Bunsen flame. Observe the colour emitted Cu+ Blue
Cu2+ Green
3. Clean the loop with hydrochloric acid. Repeat step 2, using different
metal ions and cleaning in between each test
Problems:
-Although quick and simple, flame tests are not very accurate, as they are purely qualitative and the range of
detected ions is small:
 Difficulty in detecting small concentrations of ions
 Interference from brighter colours can occur
 Ambiguity in metals of similar colours
  gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for the need
to monitor levels of one of the above ions in substances used in society
PHOSPHORUS AND EUTROPHICATION
Eutrophication is often a result of human activity. This activity includes, but not limited to; the use of fertilizers, animal

feeding programs, sewage discharge and industrial waste into water bodies, aquiculture, and natural events such as

flooding or heavy rain.

There is a high dependence on nitrate and phosphate fertilizers in agricultural practises. The use of these types

of fertilisers is the predominate cause of eutrophication. Fertilisers are used on lawns, golf courses and other fields, all

which contribute to the phosphate and nitrate nutrient accumulation in water bodies. This is because these nutrients are

washed by surface runoff into lakes, rivers, oceans and other bodies. Plankton and algae feed on this excess nutrients,

leading to their increased photosynthesis activity and, eventually, the growth of dense algal blooms and other plant life,

such as the water hyacinths.

Another major contributor to the overabundance of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients is concentrated animal

feeding operations (CAFOs). The discharge of these nutrients from these operations and activities find its way into

rivers, streams, lakes and oceans where they accumulate. These high concentrations of nutrients then lead to the

production of cyanobacterial and algal blooms.

Especially in developing countries, and some other parts of the world, nearby rivers, lakes and oceans are used

to discharge sewage water, treated and untreated. This action directly introduces high amounts of chemical nutrients,

encouraging the development of algal blooms and other aquatic plants which threaten aquatic life. Similarly, the

discharge of industrial waste into water bodies will have the same effect.

Aquiculture, a highly accepted activity in recent times, involves the growth of shellfish, fish and aquatic plants,

in water which contains a high concentration of dissolved nutrients. Aquiculture is a practise which highly contributes

to eutrophication in water bodies. When aquiculture is not properly managed, the unconsumed food particles and the

fish excretion can significantly increase the nitrogen and phosphorous levels in the water, thereby resulting in dense

growth of microscopic floating plants and the production of algae.

Natural events, like floods and heavy rain, as well as the natural flow of rivers and streams, can cause excess

nutrients in rocks, soils and in the land, to be washed into water systems causing excessive growth of algal blooms. As

well as this, the aging of lakes can naturally accumulate sediments as well as phosphorus and nitrogen nutrients. These

both contribute to the eventual explosive growth of phytoplankton and cyanobacterial blooms.
Effects

Long term and serious effects can arise from eutrophication. Problems which can arise include; the threat to

aquatic life, deterioration of water quality, poisoning and impact on human health, degradation of recreational

opportunities, and fishing endangerment.

The most obvious effect of eutrophication is the algal bloom which form. When these blooms form, the body

of water will become covered with algae. This thick layer on top of the water blocks light from reaching underwater

plants, preventing them from photosynthesizing and limiting the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water, depriving the

plants and animals of oxygen. When the dissolved oxygen levels become hypoxic, the plant and animal life under the

water suffocate to death. In some cases, but rarely, the now anaerobic nature of the water encourages the growth of toxin

producing bacteria, which are deadly to marine life and birds which eat fish, plants and other organisms from the water.

A consequence of this is the death of aquatic life, aquatic dead zones and a loss of biodiversity.

𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠

𝐶𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂2 (𝑔)

As discussed before, the algal blooms encourage the development of toxic bacteria and cause the water to reach

aerobic conditions. Apart from the death of aquatic life and loss of biodiversity, a consequence is the extensive

deterioration of the water quality and a decline in the availability of clean drinking water. These toxic algal blooms have

caused the shutdown of numerous water supply systems in several countries. For example, in 2007, more than 2 million

residents of Wuxi, China could not access piped drinking water for more than a week due to severe attack by algal

blooms on Lake Taihu. High nitrogen concentration in drinking water is also associated with the effect of inhibiting

blood circulation in infants, a condition known as blue baby syndrome.

The cyanobacteria in the water bodies release deadly toxins with high poison levels, even when they are in low

concentrations. The anaerobic conditions of this water prompts the increase, almost doubling, the number of toxic

compounds. When this occurs in drinking water and it is ingested, it can cause the death of humans and animals,

particularly livestock, even at the lowest of concentration. Through the food chain, toxic compounds can make their

way from animals to humans. These toxic compounds can contribute to various negative health impacts, like cancers.

Bio-toxins are linked to increased occurrences of neurotoxic, paralytic and diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning in humans,
which can lead to death. Shellfish, which have ingested the toxins, accumulate the poisons in their muscles, which then

poisons humans once they are consumed.

Eutrophication results in an extensive area of the water surface being covered in algal blooms and other aquatic

plant life, which reduces the transparency and ability to navigate through the water. This lessens the recreational

opportunities, for example, boating and swimming, for the lakes and other water bodies. The activity of fishing is also

endangered by eutrophication. It becomes increasingly difficult to set fishing nets in water and the plants on the water

limits the mobility of boats and other vessels used for fishing.

 Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform first-hand investigations to measure
the sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry involved
Experiment: Sulfate in Lawn Fertiliser
Method:
1. Use an excess of fertiliser (about 2g) so that the weight of the precipitate collected is greater (reduces
error)
2. Ensure precise electronic balance (4dp). Dry and pre-weigh filter paper
3. Dissolve the sample of fertiliser in about 100mL dilute HCl
4. Filter to remove insoluble material
5. Slowly add an excess of Ba2+ and stir
6. Filter to collect solid precipitate (barium sulfate). Rinse out residue with distilled water
7. Dry the residue in an oven and weigh (until no change in weight occurs – gravimetric analysis)

Example Calculation:
Mass of fertiliser sample = 2.34g
Mass of dried precipitate (BaSO4) collected = 2.67g

Moles of BaSO4: n = EM/MM = 2.67/233.4 = 0.01144 moles

Ba2+(aq) + SO4–2(aq) BaSO4(s)
∴ Stoichiometric ratio of SO42– : BaSO4 = 1:1
∴ Moles of sulfate = 0.01144 moles
Mass of sulfate = n x MM = 0.01144 x 96.1 = 1.10g
Percentage sulfate in sample = 1.10/2.34 x 100 = 47.0%

 Analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above investigation
and to propose solutions to problems encountered in the procedure
Reliability is determined by how consistent the results are when the experiment is repeated. To ensure
reliability:
 Repeat the experiment at least 5 times and check that the standard deviation of results is small
 Ensure to use a very accurate electronic balance (4 decimal places)
 Rinse out filter paper residue with distilled water to ensure that all precipitate is collected
 BaSO4 precipitate is difficult to collect by ordinary filtration because its very fine-grains can fall
through the paper. More accurate results can be obtained using a sintered glass crucible (porous, so
allows water through but traps fine solids) and vacuum filter
  describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting
concentrations of metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific
understanding of the effects of trace elements
AAS was first developed in the 1950s by the CSIRO of Australia to as a more accurate technique to measure
very small amounts (ppm) of ions in solution such as trace metals.

1. Source of radiation (lamp) w a filament releasing light at a particular wavelength

2. Drops of atomised solution are then fed through the flame, silt burner
3. The light source passes through, it excites the electrons, allowing them to jump to a higher energy
level. They absorb a certain amount of energy, at a wavelength.
4. It is directed through a slit and a monochromators which separates specific wavelengths of light
5. A photodetector device and photomultiplier to amplify the sample is used that is connected to an
output device such as computer which translates the information to a visual, digital display in values.
6. The value shown will tell about the level of absorbance of the sample
A calibration curve using known concentration of the ion sample is required which allow a reference point.
Known concentrations of the ions will be measured for absorbance which is then plot on a graph
(absorbance vs concentration). The trend line will enable interpolation of the unknown sample.

IMPACT

 Allowed us to detect trace elements in soils, water, air which absence or presence can be critical
 Ions such as zinc, copper and cobalt in humans are essential for enzyme functioning which are
present in less than 100ppm
 Ions such as manganese, copper and zinc are essential for plant growth
 In pollution control, trace elements are monitored in the environment whereby they can be bio
accumulated and biomagnified causing detrimental effects on environment and health
 There are some drawbacks such as requiring a calibration curve for each ion identification as well as
recalibrating when the lamp is changed

 gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from AAS
measurements and evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control
- Successful and effective
- AAS is a valuable technique and method
- Low concentrations of many different pollutants
- Disadvantage of testing one ion at a time
- Expensive equipment
- Assess quickly, accurately and cheaply
- Authorities gain results quickly so that action can be taken to control pollution and eradicate it
  describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere
COMPOSITION

The atmosphere is composed of:

 78% nitrogen
 21% oxygen
 0.9% argon
 Other gases in very small concentrations such as carbon dioxide, neon, helium, methane, krypton and
hydrogen

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

From the earth upward:

1. Troposphere (0 - 15km)
2. Stratosphere (15 – 50km)
3. Mesosphere (50 – 90km)
4. Thermosphere (90 – 140km)

Troposphere

 Contains 75% mass of atmosphere

 The greater the altitude, the lower the temperature
 Mixed gases
 Region where “weather” is experienced due to rising and sinking of hot and cold air
Stratosphere

 Contains 24% mass of atmosphere

 Has no “weather”
 Ozone layer
 As altitude increases, temperature increases due to exothermic reaction of ozone formation
  Slow transfer of pollutants from troposphere
Mesosphere

 Part of the ionosphere

 As altitude increases, temperature decreases
Thermosphere

 Uppermost layer of atmosphere

 Altitude increases, temperature increases

 identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources
Pollutant Source
Carbon monoxide Motor vehicles, bush, forest fires, agricultural
fires, slow combustion stoves, industrial
waste
Nitrogen oxides Combustion in vehicles, power stations
Sulfur dioxide Combustion of impurities containing sulfur
and metal extractions, volcanoes
Hydrocarbons Vehicles and factories

 In the troposphere, hot air rises and thus pollutants released at the surface are dispersed throughout
the troposphere
 In the stratosphere the movement and mixing of gases is reduced thus pollutants can only enter the
stratosphere by slow diffusion of gases

 describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere UV radiation

shield and a lower atmosphere pollutant
Ozone – an allotrope of oxygen that contains 3 oxygen molecules and is formed in the upper atmosphere to
protect the earth from harmful UV rays. It is a toxic gas to humans in the troposphere thus a pollutant.
 Naturally present in stratosphere
 Poisonous to life forms
 Aggravates respiratory issues and creates headaches and illnesses
 Acts as a radiation shield in the stratosphere
 Humans produce ozone at ground level via photochemical smog and the act of sunlight upon it

-Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen (different form of same element)

-In the lower atmosphere:
 Concentrations of 0.02 ppm in clean air
 Interactions between sunlight, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides can lead to the formation of ozone
in higher concentrations
 Toxic pollutant – can cause lung damage and respiratory issues; life-threatening for asthma patients
-In the upper atmosphere:
 Concentrations of 8 ppm – higher since 90% of oxygen occurs here
 Shield against dangerous UV radiation from the sun – 90% of UV is absorbed by ozone molecules
-In the high stratosphere, high energy radiation from the sun is present. UV can hit the oxygen molecule and
separate it into two separate oxygen atoms – ‘oxygen free-radicals’ (endothermic). These react with oxygen
molecules in the atmosphere to form ozone:
-Note that the second reaction is exothermic, which accounts for the increasing temperature in the
stratosphere
-Ozone acts as a radiation shield by absorbing UV radiation. The products are eventually converted back to
the diatomic oxygen molecule – stable and safe

 Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond

-A coordinate covalent bond forms when both the shared electrons come from the
same non-metal atom
-The second atom completes its octet by joining to the unshared electron pair of the
other stable atom. In the diagram, the oxygen free-radical joins onto an atom of the
oxygen molecule
-Once formed, coordinate covalent bonds are indistinguishable from normal covalent
bonds
-e.g. hydronium ion, ozone

Coordinate covalent bond – a covalent bond whereby the electrons shared came from the one
atom. They act the same as ordinary covalent bonds

Ozone contains a normal covalent bond as the O2 gas molecule however the third oxygen
molecule is bonded by a coordinate covalent bond. Other compounds with coordinate
covalent bonds include:
- Carbon monoxide
- Ammonium ions
  Demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron dot
structures

-Ozone:

-Ammonium ion:

 Compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O2 and O3 and account for them on
the basis of molecular structure and bonding
PROPERTY DIATOMIC OZONE (O3) EXPLANATION
O2
Boiling –183 –111 -Ozone is larger and heavier = higher dispersion
point (oC) forces = higher m.p. and b.p.
Density Same as air 1.5 times more than -Ozone is larger
air
Solubility Soluble More soluble -Ozone is slightly polar; oxygen is non-polar
Stability Stable Highly unstable -The O=O double bond in oxygen is strong,
(easily decomposed) requiring 500kJ/mol of energy to break. It only
Reactivity / Strong / Very strong / highly takes 100kJ/mol to break the coordinate covalent
oxidising reactive reactive bond in ozone. That is, the bonds are more readily
strength (e.g. broken, so the activation energy is low and ozone
combustion) readily enters oxidation reactions
  Compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free-radical

Oxygen free-radicals have six electrons in their outer shell, and join with oxygen molecules or other radicals
to complete their octet. Due to their unpaired electron, they are more chemically reactive and more unstable
than ozone (and therefore oxygen)

 identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the atmosphere

CFCs – chlorofluorocarbon, a chemical used as a refrigerant in replacement of ammonia. AKA “freons”.

They were odourless, non-flammable, non-toxic and very inert and thus making it an ideal substitute to use.
They were also used in aerosol can sprays, foaming agents in use for plastics and cleaning purposes as well.

Halons – compounds of carbon, bromine and other halogens which are dense, non-flammable liquids used
for fire extinguishers. CBrClF2 is the most common halon – bromochlorodifluoromethane.

-Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are haloalkanes in which all the hydrogens have been replaced by chlorine and
fluorine atoms
-Developed in the 1930s to replace ammonia as refrigerants
-Uses:
 Propellant gas in aerosol cans
 Gas used to blow up foam plastics
 Small fire extinguishers
 Cleaning sprays and solvents
-The use of CFCs peaked in the 1970s
-The methods of usage (gaseous CFC) resulted in them being released into the atmosphere
-Over a period of about 20 years, they have diffused into the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), because they
are:
 Stable – long-lived
 Not destroyed by sunlight and oxygen in the troposphere
 Insoluble in water (not ‘washed out’ by the atmosphere)
-Here, they can cause reactions which destroy the ozone

 identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and optical) of

haloalkanes up to eight carbon atoms
Isomer – same molecular formula though different structural formula
1. meth
2. eth
3. prop
4. but
5. pent
6. hex
7. hept
8. oct
TIPS:
-The first carbon is named according to the number of halogens it contains
-If more than one halogen is present, they are named alphabetically
-Prefixes for the number of halogen atoms: di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa

 discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the effectiveness of
steps taken to alleviate these problems
UV light – part of the electromagnetic spectrum and comes in two forms: UVa (beneficial for
photosynthesis, Vit D in humans) and UVb (skin cancer, eye cataracts, sunburn, plant damage, poor immune
response)

Free radical – Splitting a molecule into 2 neutral fragments with unpaired electrons, distinguishable by a dot
next to the atom

Issues associated with CFCs

- CFCs are highly inert and thus do not break down in the troposphere and thus are able to last a
very long time and diffuse into the stratosphere where it reacts with ozone
- This leads to ozone depletion and subsequent UV rays reaching the Earth
o UV can damage living things causing cancers, mutations and damage to living cells

HOW CFCS EFFECT OZONE

1. UV radiation breaks apart CFC molecule and separates a chlorine atom

CCl2F2 (g) + UV radiation ·Cl (g) + ·CClF2 (g)
2. The chlorine free radical then reacts with ozone forming O2 gas and chlorine monoxide radical ClO

·Cl (g) + O3 (g) ·ClO (g) + O2 (g)

3. The chlorine monoxide radical then reacts with oxygen radicals and creates a chlorine radical and O2
gas
·ClO (g) + ·O (g) ·Cl (g) + O2 (g)

4. Thus, the chlorine free radical has not been used up whereas ozone is broken down to oxygen gas
and thus the chlorine free radical is able to repeat this process thousands of time like a chain reaction
until it is reacted with a different molecule.

STEP TAKEN TO ALLEVIATE THE PROBLEM

In 1987, the world came to realise that the ozone over Antarctica was rapidly decreasing due to the impact of
CFCs. In response the Montreal Protocol was created and joined by various nations and many major users of
CFCs and other ODS. They agreed to phase out the release of CFCs into the atmosphere by stopping the use,
dependency, export and import, sales and manufacturing of ODS. They provided leniency towards
developing nations as the process of replacing and eradicating CFCs was quite expensive.
Alternative compounds were soon being developed to replace CFCs. These include HCFCs (break down
before stratosphere though still significant detriments) and HFCs (a better alternative and most widely used
today, no C-Cl bonds thus no ozone destroying capacity).

The Montreal Protocol due to collaboration amongst many nations globally and the steps to alleviate the use
of CFCs has been highly successful with scientists predicting that in 50 years the ozone should reach levels
of full recovery. Scientists monitoring the ozone depletion over Antarctica have already seen significant
improvements.
  analyse the information available that indicates changes in atmospheric ozone
concentrations, describe the changes observed and explain how this information was
obtained
UV SPECTROPHOTOMETERS
- Measure the intensity of light received from the sky
- Measure wavelengths at which ozone absorbs and then wavelengths either side of this at which ozone doesn’t absorb
- Gives a measure of total ozone in the atmosphere per area unit of Earth
- One of the first ways to measure
- Used in many places around the world and provide valuable data by geographic location

TOMS – TOTAL OZONE MAPPING SPECTROPHOTOMETERS

- Devices carried by satellites and work similarly to ground-based spectrophotometers
- They are able to orbit the Earth and measure ozone conc. In different locations and altitudes
- They can produce contour maps of total ozone over the Earth

OMI OZONE MONITORING INSTRUMENT

- A recent development of NASA launched in 2006
- Takes measurements of ozone everyday over whole area of earth
- Accurately maps ozone at all altitudes

CHANGES IN OZONE LEVELS

Global levels of ozone depletion had gone from about however the Antarctic ‘hole’ had depleted from 50% in 1980s to 90% in
1990s.

INSTRUMENT DETECTION RESULT

High altitude -Contain automatic chemical analysis units -Information about ozone
balloons concentrations was detected using
-Direct chemical measurements of ozone concentration can be this method in 1920
collected at any altitude

Ultraviolet -Measures the intensity of radiation in UV wavelengths -Ozone depletion was first detected
Spectrophotometer using this method in the 1970s

Dobson -Ground-based instrument which measures the amount of -A decline of 10% in stratospheric
Spectrophotometer different frequencies of UV light reaching the surface ozone levels has been recorded

Satellites -Carry instruments that measure the UV scattered from
different layers of the atmosphere
-Can measure the ‘profile’ of ozone concentrations at different
altitudes. For example, TOMS have been used to produce
maps of ozone concentration based on altitude and
geographical position
-It has been found that every spring,
a ‘hole’ develops over Antarctica,
and a vast area of the stratosphere
temporarily loses up to 90% of its
ozone

Incorporating a variety of these methods of detection, an Australian study in 2002 showed that the ozone hole would begin to
close in five years, with the process being complete by 2050 (CFC concentration will have fallen enough to allow normal ozone
production to restore balance)
  present information from secondary sources to identify alternative chemicals used to
replace CFCs and evaluate the effectiveness of their use as a replacement for CFCs
Hcfcs

- Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (CFCs that have hydrogen)

- The hydrogen bonds are vulnerable to break down in the troposphere and thus decompose before
reaching the stratospheric ozone
- Only a small proportion reaches the ozone layer
- They were used to replace; refrigerants, propellants, foaming agents and solvents
- They are still ozone depleting as they some, even a little, reaches the stratosphere
- Only a temporary solution
- Contribute massively to greenhouse effect thus they proposed a complete ban of HCFCs by 2030

Hfcs

- Hydrofluorocarbons (don’t have the chlorine molecule or bromine)

- Contain reactive carbon-hydrogen bonds thus decompose in troposphere
- Cannot form free radicals of chlorine
- Ozone depleting potential is zero
- Widely used in refrigerants and air conditioning applications
- Not as effective as CFCs and more expensive
- Also strong greenhouse gases though further research is required

 Identify that water quality can be determined by considering:

- Concentration of common ions
- Total dissolved solids
- Hardness
- Turbidity
- Acidity
- Dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand

COMMON ION CONCENTRATIONS

- Common anions; Cl, SO4, HCO3
- Common cations; Na, Mg, Ca
- Common heavy metals; Hg (mercury), Pb, Cd

Where it comes from

- Farm run off
- Caves
- Water percolation and leaching of soils

Why we monitor
- Dissolved ions can detract from taste and appearance
- Heavy metals are toxic to human health
- Mg and Ca cause hard water
- Degrades marine ecosystems
How to monitor
- AAS
- Flame tests
- Precipitation tests

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Total dissolved solids TDS refers to the mass of all solids dissolved in a specific volume of water. This
includes inorganic salts and minerals. Greater TDS means unclean water.
What is it?
- Sewage and industrial wastewater
- Industrial, agricultural and natural run off
- Percolation of water in soil
- It is commonly related to salinity (salinity refers to only salts)

How to monitor
- Filtration leaving suspended solids or evaporated and weighed
- Electrical conductivity (nearly all solids are dissolved as ions thus conductivity is a good identifier of
TDS)

TURBIDITY
Turbidity is the measure of suspended solids or cloudiness of water. The higher turbidity, the lower the
quality of water.
What is it?
- Suspended solids can clog gills or damage aquatic organisms
- High turbidity hinders the penetration of light and thus ability of photosynthesis for plants
- Drinking water has NTU of 1-5 and organisms can survive in NTU < 25

Where is it from?
- Run off
- Flooding
- Soil erosion

How to monitor
- Electric turbidmeter (light shone through a sample and measured how much is scattered by solids)
- Turbidity tube (tube filled with water until cross at bottom cannot be seen, then converted to NTU
measurement)

ACIDITY/PH
The measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution
Why monitor?
- High or extremely low levels of pH can damage aquatic plants and animals

Where is it from?
- Acid rain
 - Exposure to sulphide ores (industrial waste from mining and ore refinery)
- Fertiliser run off

How to monitor?
- pH universal indicator or other indicators
- pH data logger or pH meter

HARDNESS
Hard water contains significant amounts of magnesium or calcium ions
Why monitor?
- Hard water cannot lather well with soap instead forming a scum, thus limiting effectiveness of soap
- Less than 150mg/L is considered soft
- It has an unpleasant taste but not harmful

Where is from?
- Calcium carbonate caves
- Industrial waste or agricultural run off

How to monitor
- Comparing lathering ability
- Gravimetric analysis of precipitation or AAS
- Titrate with EDTA (reacts with Mg and Ca) using indicator Eriochrome black T

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

The measure of the concentration of dissolved oxygen which is needed for anaerobic bacteria to break down
organic matter in water
What is it?
- BOD increases with greater abundance of organisms in the ecosystem
- Unpolluted BOD is usually less than 5ppm
- Raw sewage has BOD of 150-300ppm
- Stormwater run-off has a BOD of 500ppm

How to measure
- BOD 5 (measuring the dissolved oxygen, keeping it in the dark to prevent photosynthesis, and then
re-testing 5 days later to calculate how much oxygen was used up)

DISSOLVED OXYGEN
The measure of concentration of dissolved oxygen in water
What is it?
- Comes from photosynthesis and dissolution from air
- Removed by aerobic respiration by bacteria and animals
- It is dependent on temperature, pressure and salt concentration
- Caused by decomposition of organic matter, eutrophication and thermal pollution

Why monitor?
 - If the dissolved oxygen levels fall below 5 ppm then many aquatic organisms die and the water
becomes odorous and unpleasant. Fish asphyxiate and death occurs below 3ppm. There will be a
growth of anaerobic bacteria, producing toxic by-products and beginning eutrophication.

How to monitor?
- Electrode sensor for oxygen percentage
- Winkler titration
- Methylene blue indicator can be used, yellow will indicate low DO

 gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the tests used
to:
– identify heavy metal pollution of water
– monitor possible eutrophication of waterways
HEAVY METAL POLLUTION IN WATER
Heavy metals such as mercury, lead and cadmium are highly toxic to living organisms and can inhibit proper
physiological functioning. They can induce kidney diseases, cause mutations, brain damage, birth defects,
miscarriages, neurological disorders and eventual death.
AAS can be used to identify low concentrations of heavy metals. Alternatively sulphide tests can detect
heavy metals as well.
1. The water is acidified
2. Sodium sulphate is added (Na2S)
3. If a precipitate forms, then either lead, silver, mercury, arsenic or copper is present
4. If not precipitate forms, the solution is turned alkaline
5. If this precipitates then either zinc, nickel, iron or cobalt is present

The chemistry of it:

When sodium sulphate is added to the solution, the sulphide ion is almost completely converted to H2S
however a small amount of S2- remains in the solution which is enough to precipitate a very insoluble
sulphides such as lead and copper.
S2- + 2H3O+ ↔ H2S + 2H2O
Then with lead it forms a precipitate
Pb2+ + S2- ↔ PbS
MONITOR POSSIBLE EUTROPHICATION OF WATERWAYS

Eutrophication – whereby a waterway experiences an excessive enrichment of nutrients (nitrates and

phosphates)

1. Nutrients enter waterways from run off

2. Algae thrives, algal blooms cover water surfaces
3. Lack of photosynthesis reduces O2
4. Plants die, fish die
5. Dead matter is decomposed by aerobic bacteria, further reducing dissolved oxygen
6. Anaerobic bacteria then dominate and thrive, producing toxic waste products and causing organisms
to further die from toxicity
Tests for nitrates and phosphates

- Brown ring test (iron sulphate and concentrated sulfuric acid and solution containing nitrogen will
produce a brown ring)
- Kjeldahl digestion (sample heated with concentrated sulfuric acid to form ammonium then ammonia
and then this ammonia is titrated against HCl and calculated)
- Colorimetry (Nessler’s reagent)

 gather, process and present information on the features of the local town water supply
in terms of:
– catchment area
– possible sources of contamination in this catchment
– chemical tests available to determine levels and types of contaminants
– physical and chemical processes used to purify water
– chemical additives in the water and the reasons for the presence of these additives
WARRAGAMBA DAM
- Area of 9000km2
- Sources of contamination; logging and land clearing, agriculture, mining and mining waste,
industrial waste and urban pollution
- Chemical tests; AAS for metal ions and cations, precipitation tests and flame tests, colorimetric
analysis
- To purify water; large scale industrial treatment of water as mentioned in other dot point, membrane
filters

 Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in natural
bodies of water such as rivers and oceans
-Pathway of rain into water body:

 Can pick up sodium and chloride ions when passing through bush and forest
 If it passes through underground aquifers, it may dissolve more material (higher TDS), including
calcium and iron ions. Ground water is often very hard (can cause blockages in pipes)
 Run-off of minerals
 Rain with higher acidity can increase the concentration of ions such as calcium, magnesium and ion
-Rate of evaporation of water: less water = higher concentration of ions
-Extent of human activities:
 Agricultural practices, e.g. fertilisers, which can cause eutrophication
 Stirring of soil by livestock
 Livestock effluent
 Discharge of waste from industry; leaking of waste bins

-Smaller water bodies are more susceptible to changes in ion concentrations

-Ion concentrations in coastal ocean water are affected mainly:
 Discharge of sewerage (increases TDS)
 Run-off from landfills and farms
  describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise mass
water supplies

Process Description
Screening Large screens filter out large suspended solids like sewage, leaf litter
Aeration Water is sprayed in the air to increase surface area for dissolving oxygen.
This allows substances like H2S or iron to be oxidised into precipitates
Flocculation Clumping of particles together which then floats or sinks and is removed.
Aluminium sulphates (alum) is added to water as a coagulant allowing
attraction and clumping of particles
Sedimentation Flocs settle to the bottom and forms a sludge which can be dried and used
for agriculture.
Filtration Passed through granular filters containing sand, gravel and activated
charcoal to remove any remaining particulate matter for low turbidity
Chlorination Disease causing bacteria (coliforms E. coli) is killed by chlorine. Chlorine
gas and various hypochlorites (OCl-)
Fluoridation Fluoride compounds are added to help prevent tooth decay which interacts
with tooth enamel to produce a denser lattice making stronger and more
resistant teeth

Advantages Disadvantages
Flocculation can remove 99.9% of bacteria Chlorine has limited effectiveness against protozoans that
and 99% of viruses but not all soil and form cysts in water
vegetation matter which causes
discolouration and bad taste
Filtration removes high proportion of Very very small particulates are not removed (needs
particulate matter in large volumes of microfiltration)
water
Chlorine is effective and relatively low cost In 1998 Giardia and Cryptosporidium contaminated
Sydney’s water which showed that filtration and
chlorination was not sufficient
Membrane filtration and ozone disinfection is more
effective though expensive

 Describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters and explain
how they purify contaminated water

Microscopic membrane filters are essentially a thin film of synthetic polymer which have tiny pores (0.2
micrometres or 200 nanometers) of fixed unvarying size.
They can remove:
- Solutes
- Colloidal particles
- Microorganisms
How it works:
High pressure water flows over the surface parallel to the filter tube and the water filters through the
membrane pores and through the other side to the inside tube, filtering out small particles.
Commonly used polymers:
- PVC
- Polypropylene

Types of membrane filters

- Microfiltration membranes (MF); removes microscopic particles and viruses 200 – 500nm
- Ultrafiltration (UF) membranes; paint particles and large organic particles removed 2-100nm
- Nano-filtration (NF) membranes; removes particles with sizes less than 1nm. Removes ions and very
small molecules