Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 47

AGMA 920- A01

AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Materials for Plastic Gears


AGMA 920- 01

AGMA INFORMATION SHEET


(This Information Sheet is NOT an AGMA Standard)
American Materials for Plastic Gears
AGMA 920--A01
Gear
Manufacturers CAUTION NOTICE: AGMA technical publications are subject to constant improvement,
revision or withdrawal as dictated by experience. Any person who refers to any AGMA
Association
technical publication should be sure that the publication is the latest available from the As-
sociation on the subject matter.
[Tables or other self--supporting sections may be quoted or extracted. Credit lines should
read: Extracted from AGMA 920--A01, Materials for Plastic Gears, with the permission of
the publisher, the American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King Street, Suite 201,
Alexandria, Virginia 22314.]
Approved October 22, 2000
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this document is to aid the gear designer in understanding the unique physical, mechanical and
thermal behavior of plastic materials. The use of plastic materials for gear applications has grown considerably
due to cost and performance issues. Growing markets include the automotive, business machine, and con-
sumer--related industries. Topics covered include general plastic material behavior, gear operating conditions,
plastic gear manufacturing, tests for gear related material properties, and typical plastic gear materials. There
are no quantitative details on material properties nor any comparative evaluations of plastic types. Such specif-
ic information is left to be provided by material suppliers and gear manufacturers.
Published by

American Gear Manufacturers Association


1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia 22314
Copyright ã 2001 by American Gear Manufacturers Association
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic
retrieval system or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN: 1--55589--778--9

ii
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

Contents
Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 General nature of plastic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3 Gear operating conditions and related material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4 Gear manufacturing and related material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5 Tests for gear related material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6 General description of plastic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7 Plastic materials widely used for gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8 Material selection procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figures
1a Representative creep behavior of ductile plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1b Representative creep behavior of non--ductile plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Effect of strain rate and temperature on stress--strain curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Typical fatigue curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4 Effect of temperature on stress vs. strain for acetal (POM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5 Effect of moisture on stress vs. strain for nylon 6--6 (PA 6,6) at 23°C . . . . . . . 5
6 Polymer impact strength as a function of temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7 Simple gear with three gates (+) on web, small arrows indicate predicted
fiber orientation, grayscale indicates advancing flow from gate location . . . . 11
8 ASTM D638 Type 1 tensile specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9 Typical DMA curves normalized at 23°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
10 Tensile DMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
11 DMA, amorphous and crystalline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
12 Semi--crystalline polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
13 Flexural fatigue specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
14a Representations of creep -- strain vs. time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
14b Representations of creep -- creep modulus vs. time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
14c Representations of creep -- isochronous stress vs. strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
15 ASTM D--3702 thrust washer wear and friction test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
16 Two dimensional representation of crystalline and amorphous
thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
17 Modulus behavior vs. temperature of crystalline and amorphous resins, neat
and glass fiber reinforced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Tables
1 Additives in plastics for molded gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2 Plastic materials for molded gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 Plastic materials for machined gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

iii
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Foreword
[The foreword, footnotes and annexes, if any, in this document are provided for
informational purposes only and are not to be construed as a part of AGMA Information
Sheet 920--A01, Materials for Plastic Gears.]
Plastic materials differ considerably from metals in performance and processing. Many of
the important differences, especially those that are critical to gear applications, are not
widely recognized. This is partly because many plastic materials specialists are not familiar
with gear requirements. Similarly, many gear specialists are not familiar with plastic
material characteristics. Hence the need for reference material which will help bridge these
gaps.
The AGMA Plastics Gearing Committee has brought together technical representatives
from plastic material suppliers, gear manufacturers and designers. This document
represents their efforts to further this exchange of information. It will not supply answers to
many of the questions that arise in the application of plastic materials to gears, but it should
encourage inquiry and information exchange.
One issue that requires special attention is the availability of plastic material properties in
the form most suitable for plastic gear design. This includes properties that are counterparts
of those used in the design of metal gears, and those that are special to plastic materials in
these applications. To a very large extent, plastic gear designers have access only to
property data taken from ASTM tests as reported by material suppliers even though such
tests were created to meet other objectives. It was therefore judged essential to include
brief descriptions of these tests supplemented by comments on any limitations of such test
data when applied to gears. Various industry initiatives are now underway to develop gear
specific property data, which will in time supplement the information provided here.
The first draft of AGMA 920--A01 was made in 1993. It was approved by the AGMA
membership in October, 2000, and approved for publication by the Technical Division
Executive Committee on October 22, 2000.
Suggestions for improvement of this document will be welcome. They should be sent to the
American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria,
Virginia 22314.

iv
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

PERSONNEL of the AGMA Plastics Gearing Committee

Chairman: Clifford M. Denny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consultant


Vice Chairman: Edward H. Williams, III . . . . . . . . . . . . LNP Engineering Plastics, Inc.

ACTIVE MEMBERS

M.A. Bennick . . . RTP Company M. Schireson . . . DSM Engineering Plastics, Inc.


R.M. Casavant . . GW Plastics, Inc. D. Sheridan . . . . . Ticona
D.S. Ellis . . . . . . . ABA--PGT, Inc. L. Siders . . . . . . . Lexmark International, Inc.
T. Grula . . . . . . . . DuPont Company Z.P. Smith . . . . . . Ticona
J.W. Kelley . . . . . Shell Development Company P.A. Spaziani . . . Seitz Corporation
R.R. Kuhr . . . . . . Enplas, Inc. M. Thompson . . . ABA--PGT, Inc.
I. Laskin . . . . . . . . Consultant A.B. Ulrich . . . . . . UFE, Incorporated
D. Michael . . . . . . CEI J.H. Winzeler . . . Winzeler Gear
A. Milano . . . . . . . Seitz Corporation P. Wyluda . . . . . . Ticona
S.D. Pierson . . . . ABA--PGT, Inc.

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS

M.K. Anwar . . . . . Globe Motors G. Martello . . . . . BF Goodrich


M. Aube . . . . . . . . GW Plastics, Inc. H.S. Oh . . . . . . . . Siebe Environmental Controls
D.E. Bailey . . . . . Rochester Gear, Inc. M. Oliveto . . . . . . DSM Engineering Plastics, Inc.
J. Barger . . . . . . . D.I.G.I.T., Inc. A.J. Padden . . . . SPM Minneapolis
T. Barry . . . . . . . . Phillips--Moldex Company K. Price . . . . . . . . Eastman Kodak Company
D. Blakley . . . . . . Axxicon Components J. Rees . . . . . . . . ATS Precision Component Div.
M. Bogle . . . . . . . Poly Hi Solidur Co. C. Reese . . . . . . . SPM Minneapolis
B. Butsch . . . . . . . Lexmark International, Inc.
E. Reiter . . . . . . . ATS Precision Component Div.
D. Castor . . . . . . . Eastman Kodak Company
J.T. Rill . . . . . . . . . Black & Decker, Inc.
P. Davoli . . . . . . . Politecnico Di Milano
E. Dornan . . . . . . Winzeler Gear J. Seitz . . . . . . . . . Seitz Corporation
G.C. Hesser . . . . DuPont Company L.J. Smith . . . . . . Consultant
A.H. LaFord . . . . Static Control Components, Inc. R.E. Smith . . . . . . R.E. Smith & Co., Inc.
J. Lay . . . . . . . . . . NYE Lubricants, Inc. P.A Tuschak . . . . E.I. DuPont deNemours & Co.
R.B. Lewis . . . . . . Lewis Research, Inc. B. Ulissi . . . . . . . . DuPont Performance Lubricants
A. Luscher . . . . . . Ohio State University G.J. Verros . . . . . Consultant
T. Mardis . . . . . . . CEI M. Wilkinson . . . . GW Plastics, Inc.

v
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

American Gear Manufacturers 2 General nature of plastic materials


Association -- Although plastic materials are successfully used in
place of metals in load carrying applications such as
gears, there are important differences between the
Materials for Plastic two types of materials. These differences generally
appear in combination and can have a significant
Gears effect on plastic gear performance.
2.1 Elastic and viscoelastic behavior
Most structural metals behave as essentially elastic
materials. Plastics, on the other hand, behave as a
combination of elastic and viscous materials, with
the balance varying considerably with the type of
plastic, its molecular structure, and the type,
1 Scope quantity, and orientation of any additives. This
special nature of plastic materials does not interfere
with their use in a very wide range of applications
This information sheet provides descriptions of
which benefit from their many other special proper-
plastic materials commonly used in gearing. It
ties. It does, however, require a thorough
relates the general properties of these materials to
understanding of reported material properties data
typical operating conditions of gears. Properties that
and their relationship to the specific application.
relate to the manufacturing processes of machining
and molding are discussed, including the property of 2.2 Response to load
shrink rate in molding. It also describes the types of When load is applied to elastic materials such as
tests that are customarily used to obtain published steel, the resulting deformation is essentially imme-
values of these properties. diate, constant over time, independent of a wide
range of temperature, and fully recoverable when
It is intended that this information sheet serve only as
the load is removed. When the material has a
an introductory guide to the designer of plastic gears
viscous component combined with the elastic, the
when it comes to selecting candidate materials. The
initial deformation will increase with time under load
designer is advised to look to material suppliers and
(creep deformation) and will depend to a consider-
plastic gear manufacturers for their expert guidance
able degree on temperature. When the load is
on selecting materials for specific applications. It is
removed, there will be some delayed recovery and,
also important to recognize that thorough application
possibly some permanent deformation.
testing is often needed to confirm the suitability of a
material choice. The time dependent deformation of ductile polymers
under constant load is quantified in creep testing. A
Only a limited number of plastic materials are family of curves resulting from varying the constant
mentioned here as commonly used for gears. Gears load (stress) and recording the increasing creep
have been made from other plastics as well, but strain is shown in figure 1a. As the polymer is held
generally because some special material property or under constant stress (load) over time, the creep
commercial consideration was judged essential to a strain initially increases at a rapid rate (primary
particular application. It is also possible that the creep) and then plateaus to a significantly lower
suitability of other materials for gears has not yet creep strain rate (secondary creep). For nonductile
been recognized. Furthermore, new plastic materi- polymers the material will experience creep rupture
als are continually being developed and some, no while deforming under secondary creep (see figure
doubt, will prove themselves as important additions 1b). However, for ductile polymers, the material will
to those discussed in this information sheet. experience another increase in creep strain rate

1
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

(tertiary creep) and will creep rupture in tertiary deformation and creep rupture of polymers needs to
creep. For non--ductile polymers the locus of creep be considered.
rupture points forms the creep rupture envelope.
2.3 Effect of rate of load application
However, the creep rupture envelope for ductile
polymers is the locus of points resulting from the Because of the time dependant nature of viscoelas-
transition from secondary to tertiary creep. tic plastic materials, the strength properties and
elasticity modulus are typically greater when the load
is applied and removed more rapidly. See figure 2.
This characteristic is especially important in gear
SRupture applications.
Creep rupture envelope

Increasing strain rate

Increasing
Strain

temperature

Stress
Increasing stress

0
0
Time
Figure 1a -- Representative creep behavior of Strain
ductile plastic Figure 2 -- Effect of strain rate and temperature
on stress--strain curves

2.4 Effect of temperature


2.4.1 Strength and deformation
Because a higher temperature reduces the resis-
tance to movement of the polymer chains, the
SRupture material at high temperatures can be viewed as less
Creep rupture envelope viscous (decrease of the viscous component). This
decrease in the viscous component of polymers at
Strain

higher temperatures causes the strength and stiff-


ness properties to decrease with increasing temper-
atures (see figure 2). Temperature increases of the
polymer at critical locations in gears could result from
Increasing stress
friction, hysteresis, or both in combination. This
temperature rise of the gear material at critical
0 locations could, therefore, reduce the load resisting
0 Time capability of the gear. This condition is a significant
factor to consider in gear performance.
Figure 1b -- Representative creep behavior of
non--ductile plastic 2.4.2 Expansion
Plastics have higher thermal expansion rates than
Creep deformation appears not to be a factor in metals. These high rates can be partially offset by
gears under continuous operation because the load compounding the plastics with various fillers and
is applied to gear teeth only for a short time duration. reinforcements. Thermal expansion must be con-
However, for gears run into stalled conditions creep sidered in those applications in which the gears

2
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

operate over broad ranges of temperature and the takes place during a rolling action combined with
structure that controls gear center distance is made sliding. In certain types of gear sets (spur, helical
from a material of a significantly different expansion and bevel), the relative sliding during each tooth’s
rate. See 3.1.3.1. engagement cycle varies in magnitude and typically
reverses in direction. In other types (worm, crossed
2.4.3 Heat aging
helical and hypoid), the relative sliding is more nearly
If a plastic material is subjected to an elevated constant. Since many plastic gear applications do
temperature for an extended period of time, its not employ the type of lubrication that keeps the
properties at the end of the period may be degraded contacting tooth surfaces separated by a fluid film,
from those before the high temperature exposure. the sliding action often results in significant friction.
However, this friction between contacting plastic
2.5 Effect of moisture
surfaces is often less than that experienced with
A change in moisture content can act in a manner many metals similarly employed under non--
similar to a change in temperature in its effect on lubricated conditions.
strength, deformation and expansion. Materials
vary considerably in their moisture absorption,
making this influence more significant in some
materials than in others.

3 Gear operating conditions and related Increasing stress *


material properties

In order to evaluate a material for a specific gear


application, the operating conditions must be recog-
nized along with the related properties of the
material. Some of these properties are much more
significant in gears made from plastics than in gears 103 104 105 106 107
made from metals, and require special attention. No. of cycles
Figure 3 -- Typical fatigue curve
3.1 General operating conditions
(* NOTE: Linear scale used for stress axis.)
These conditions apply in nearly all gear
applications. 3.1.2.1 Failure due to pitting
3.1.1 Repeated load The repeated contact force on the gear tooth creates
repeated shear stresses just below the tooth sur-
Gear teeth experience repeated loading during
face. Under certain conditions, these stresses can
successive engagements. Under continuous rota-
cause failure of the gear through the formation of
tion, the load on an individual tooth is applied and
local subsurface cracks which progress into pitting.
released rapidly. There is also some delay between
Normally, when a plastic gear surface is subjected to
load cycles while the single tooth is rotating towards
high loads for a large number of cycles, failure takes
its next engagement.
place first in the form of excessive wear. See 3.1.2.3.
The property of the material that resists fatigue However, if the gear is well lubricated and wear is
failure breakage under this type of load is approxi- minimal, failure by pitting may appear.
mated by the flexural (bending) fatigue limit, see
3.1.2.2 Friction forces and power loss
figure 3. Standard tests that report this property, and
the limitations of those tests, are described in 5.1. The friction from the relative motion between the
contact surfaces has other effects on the operation
3.1.2 Rolling and sliding under load
of gears. The static coefficient of friction between the
Load is transmitted between the curved surfaces of two contacting materials will influence the starting
engaging teeth through contact over a relatively load in a gear train. The dynamic coefficient of
small area. This contact between the tooth surfaces friction will generally have several effects. It

3
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

determines the power loss at that part of the gear tendency is the percent of water absorption in the
train and the overall train efficiency. It can also type of test described in 5.4.1.
influence the rise in temperature of the gear teeth
3.1.3.3 Chemical conditions
and the corresponding loss in strength and stiffness
properties. The rise in temperature may also lead to An incompatible chemical acting on a plastic materi-
softening of the surface and change in friction al during product manufacture, storage or operation
properties. Standard tests for static and dynamic generally leads to an increase in size. An improperly
coefficients of friction are described in 5.2. selected lubricant might produce such a result.
3.1.2.3 Wear 3.1.4 Mechanical property changes under
operating conditions
The interaction between the loaded surfaces will
often lead to wear. If the wear progresses far enough 3.1.4.1 Thermal conditions
to modify the gear profiles, it may produce excessive
vibration and noise. Further wear may progress to As noted in 2.4, strength and modulus properties
the point that insufficient material remains to support decrease with increased temperature. Although
the load. The wear characteristics of the material these properties improve with a decreased tempera-
combination are often expressed by a rate of ture, these are typically accompanied by increased
material removal. Common tests for this brittleness or a reduction in impact strength. See
characteristic, and their limitations, are described in figure 4. These effects can vary considerably with
5.2. the plastic selected and its additives.

3.1.3 Dimensional changes under operating 3.1.4.2 Humidity conditions


conditions The property changes due to humidity are
Plastic gears commonly operate under conditions qualitatively similar to those of temperature. See
that will cause significant dimensional changes in figure 5. Here also, the degree of change can vary
some plastic materials. considerably with material selection.

3.1.3.1 Thermal conditions

If a gear is operated at a temperature much different


than the temperature at which its dimensions were
originally specified and measured, its size will be --40°C
different. Unless there is a compensating change in 23°C
center distance, the size change will alter the
operating backlash and root clearance. If the two
mating gears change in a disproportionate manner,
the two tooth profiles can become mismatched due 66°C
to differences in base pitch and axial pitch, resulting
Stress

in an increase in vibration, noise and dynamic loads.


The material property which directly relates to the 85°C
size change is the thermal coefficient of expansion.
100°C
The standard tests for these properties are
described in 5.3.

3.1.3.2 Humidity changes

Plastic materials change in size with the level of


moisture they contain, giving results similar to
thermal size changes. This moisture level is
determined by the relative humidity to which the 0 1 2 3
Strain, %
material has been exposed over an extended period
of time and to the tendency of the material to absorb Figure 4 -- Effect of temperature on stress vs.
moisture. The plastic property used to indicate this strain for acetal (POM)

4
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

Tensile stress Dry as molded

50% RH

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3


Strain, %
Figure 5 -- Effect of moisture on stress vs. strain for nylon 6--6 (PA 6,6) at 23°C

3.1.4.3 Chemical environment across a substantial backlash gap before the load
impacts the gear teeth.
Plastics, in contrast to most metals, are generally
resistant to a broad variety of chemicals. However, Impact loading tends to be smaller in a gear drive
individual plastics may be vulnerable to particular made with plastic gears than in a drive of similar size
chemicals. The effect of chemical action is generally made with metal gears. The difference can be
a reduction in fatigue and impact strength and attributed to the lower inertia and greater compliance
change in other mechanical properties. See 3.2.6.2. of most plastics over most metals. Nevertheless,
this type of loading can be severe enough to cause
3.2 Special operating conditions
failure in plastic gears. There are significant
These conditions are encountered less commonly in differences in how otherwise suitable plastic materi-
gear applications, but, when they do, they direct als respond. This response is indicated, at least to a
attention to other properties of the plastic material. comparative degree, by some standard tests
described in 5.1.4 and 5.1.5.
3.2.1 Impact loading
3.2.2 Short--term overloads
In some gear applications, the gears may be subject
to a suddenly applied load which requires the In addition to the normal repeated loads encoun-
material to absorb considerable energy associated tered in gear applications, there are sometimes
with the load. This energy tends to be absorbed higher loads that appear occasionally for brief
around design features that, because of their intervals, or with a much smaller frequency, on any
slender shape and reduced size, are most compliant individual tooth. Failure due to this type of load often
and develop the highest stresses. The contacting takes the form of excessive deformation of the gear
gear teeth are commonly most vulnerable. Such tooth or, in the case of brittle materials, fracture of the
loads may appear with sudden starts of the gear train tooth.
driver, a sudden change or reversal in the driven The material property that needs to be considered in
load, or with sudden braking. The energy to be evaluating the risk of failure by excessive deforma-
absorbed is even greater if there has been travel tion is the stress--strain curve. The standard test,

5
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

along with its limitations, that measures this set of 3.2.4.3 UL temperature index
properties is described in 5.1. This is a commercially used indicator of the effect of
heat aging described in 2.4.3. It suggests the
3.2.3 Long--term loads
highest temperature, above 50°C, at which the
Loads that remain applied to an individual tooth for plastic material is to be used. The temperature index
an extended period of time, whether greater or is the temperature at which the specific property will
smaller than the normal repeated load, can also decrease to one--half its original value after expo-
cause failure by permanent deformation. See sure for a long time at that temperature. There are
figures 1a and 1b. While this type of failure is not a separate ratings for mechanical properties with
factor in most structural metals except at very high impact and without impact. Index values can be
temperatures, it can appear in many plastics at found in the UL “Yellow Card”. The test is described
typical operating temperatures. in 5.3.4.
3.2.4.4 Coefficient of thermal conductivity
The deformation that continues to increase without
an increase in load is called creep. The relative Where high temperature results substantially from
degree of creep in a plastic material is reported in a heat generated by friction or hysteresis, the coeffi-
variety of data. Each shows how some characteristic cient of thermal conductivity becomes an important
changes over extended time. Plots of strain versus property. A higher coefficient indicates that such
time, for various stress levels, most closely indicate heat will be more rapidly conducted away and the
the relative effect of creep in gears. Description and teeth will see less of a temperature increase. See
evaluation of the test to collect this data is given in 5.3.2.
5.1.8. 3.2.4.5 Coefficient of thermal expansion
As described in 3.1.3.1, this property plays a role in
3.2.4 High temperature
the design of gears which are to operate over a wide
Gears are sometimes required to operate at temper- range of temperatures. Very often, the design
process can accommodate the expansion rate of a
atures well above 23°C, the temperature at which
material selected on the basis of its other essential
their properties are typically measured. The higher
properties. In special applications, this property can
temperature is generally the ambient temperature of
become a controlling factor in material selection.
the application, but may, in whole or in part, result
Large differences in expansion coefficients between
from heating due to friction, hysteresis or both. the housing and the gears can introduce excessive
variations in backlash and in depth of engagement.
3.2.4.1 Various strength properties
Large differences between the two gears can cause
Just about all of the material properties noted above excessive mismatch of gear pitch, enough to gener-
change with temperature. Often the best indicator of ate high dynamic loads, vibration and noise. See
gear material performance at an elevated tempera- 5.3.1.
ture is the stress--strain curves measured at or close 3.2.4.6 Electrical conductivity
to the operating temperature (see figure 4). The Plastic materials are generally considered to be
tests used to report material properties at the electrically insulating. However, when gears are
standard temperature can also be applied at the required to conduct static electricity to some electri-
higher temperature, as noted in clause 5. cal ground, it becomes necessary to use a plastic
which has been modified to supply the conductivity.
3.2.4.2 Deflection temperature under load The static electricity may be generated elsewhere in
(DTUL) the product or in the gears themselves. The body of
the gear, or some feature molded integrally with the
This property, previously known as heat distortion gear, may sometimes be used to conduct system
temperature (HDT), is a measure of the temperature electrical current. This will also require conductivity
at which the flexural modulus falls below a predeter- in the plastic. It is not recommended that high
mined value associated with a particular stress. It system electrical current be transmitted through the
serves mostly as a relative indicator of material contacting tooth surfaces because of the risk of
serviceability as a gear operating at elevated damage to these surfaces and risk of being a source
temperatures. The test is described in 5.3.3. of ignition.

6
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

3.2.5 Low temperature 3.2.6.2 Chemical conditions

Operation at temperatures much below the usual Although most plastics are more resistant than most
material testing temperature also has an effect on metals to many kinds of chemical environments,
gear material performance. As the temperature there are important exceptions in combinations of
decreases, strength properties usually improve, material and chemically active substances. Expo-
especially those related to stress--strain testing and sure of the gears to these chemicals may come from
creep testing. This is true also for impact resistance the outside environment, from process material in
as seen in figure 6. However, as the temperature the gear driven equipment, and, in some cases, even
decreases, a region is encountered where impact from the lubricant applied to the gears. Description
resistance severely decreases, called the ductile-- of tests for chemical resistance is beyond the scope
brittle transition temperature (DBTT). Therefore, of this document.
when choosing a polymer for gears required to 3.3 Vibration and noise
perform under sudden changes in load at low
temperatures, the DBTT of each considered When the application is specially concerned with
polymer should be evaluated and compared. limiting vibration and noise, and design factors such
as adequate backlash have been provided, material
3.2.6 Other environmental conditions selection may be influenced by an additional set of
properties.
There are environmental conditions other than
temperature extremes which can also affect material 3.3.1 Modulus of elasticity
performance.
One approach to reducing vibration and noise is to
3.2.6.1 High humidity introduce greater compliance into the gears without
introducing resonance or excessive loss of load
The water absorbed by extended exposure to a high capacity or wear properties. Gear teeth that deflect
humidity environment not only affects dimensions, more readily can reduce the dynamic excitation that
as noted in 3.1.3.2, but also affects strength originates in imperfect tooth geometry. One of the
properties. Testing for these properties under high properties that indicate the relative compliance of the
humidity is the same except that material test material is the modulus of elasticity. This property is
specimens are first conditioned to the desired generally determined as part of yield strength
moisture content. testing, as described in 5.1.1, 5.1.2 and 5.1.3.
Falling weight impact strength

ductile--brittle
transition
temperature
(DBTT)

Decreasing temperature
Figure 6 -- Polymer impact strength as a function of temperature

7
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

3.3.2 Hardness durometer 4.1.1 Stock material


When selection of material for increased compliance The machining of gears starts with the stock material
leads to materials of a rubbery character, the and its fabricated form. Not every material, especial-
hardness durometer becomes the preferred indica- ly a material with desired additives, is commercially
tor. Testing for this property is described in 5.5.1 and available in a form which suits the machining
5.5.2. process or which results in a gear with the desired
performance.
3.3.3 Internal damping
Sometimes a molded blank is used in place of stock
Another approach to limiting vibration and noise in a material. Machining gear teeth into a molded blank
gear train is to increase the degree of internal will give satisfactory results only if the material and
damping in the gear materials. This serves as a its processing have been carefully selected to avoid
means of absorbing dynamic energy. See 5.1.3. the difficulties described below.
4.1.1.1 Skin--core effects
Some of the properties of the material in stock form
4 Gear manufacturing and related material
can vary considerably between the outer surface
properties
material, or skin, which has formed through more
rapid cooling, than the inner material, or core.
When materials are selected for a gear application, Machining invariably leaves the gear teeth made
the concern for performance must be coordinated from the core material, which generally has different
with manufacturing considerations. These strength, wear resistance, and chemical resistance.
manufacturing considerations may rule out In addition, machining may expose voids in the
materials not suited, economically or otherwise, to stock.
the planned manufacturing process. Certain
4.1.1.2 Reinforcements in extruded stock
manufacturing related characteristics or measurable
properties of the material may determine its Non--reinforced extruded stock is widely used for
suitability. machining gears. However, reinforced stock is not
as widely used for machined gears. If the application
CAUTION: Safety is an important consideration in the
manufacture of gears from plastic materials. Informa- requires the greater strength that comes from the
tion on safe handling and processing is available in the addition of reinforcements, such stock may not be
Material Safety Data Sheet provided by the material suitable.
supplier. Also, see 4.1.2.6 and 4.2.4.3.
While it may be possible to extrude the plastic with
4.1 Manufacture by machining reinforcements included, the resulting direction of
Machining may be selected over molding as the the reinforcement fibers will generally be random
plastic gear manufacturing process for several and not in the radial direction required for the
reasons: reinforcement to contribute to the bending strength
of the gear tooth. Further disadvantages of machin-
-- the quantities may be too small to justify the ing most reinforced stock relate to the potential
tooling cost for molding; accelerated tool wear due to the abrasive qualities of
-- the required accuracy or some special design some reinforcements and to the hazards associated
feature (such as very thick section) may be too with the fine reinforcement particles produced.
difficult for molding; 4.1.1.3 Reinforcement in laminated stock
-- the desired plastic material may not be suited
Gears are also machined from blanks cut from
to precision molding.
laminated sheets or plates. The reinforcing layers in
Machining may also be selected as a means for the laminated material are often in the form of a
obtaining sample gears for testing before the design woven fabric. If the weave of this fabric is too coarse
is approved for mold tooling. Such samples will be in comparison with the size of the machined gear
useful as long as consideration is given to the tooth, the full beneficial effect on gear tooth strength
potential differences between a machined and will be lost. The fabric may serve the additional
molded gear. purpose of retaining lubricant used in the application.

8
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

If the fabric is made from an abrasive or hazardous chined and cooled, or it may not appear to its full
material, the disadvantages noted in 4.1.1.2 will extent until many hours later. Annealing the
apply. material, either before or after machining, depending
on the cause, often reduces the distortion without
4.1.2 Machinability
adding much to the processing cost.
Machining of plastic gears is performed by most of
Another source of distortion is excessive chucking or
the same processes used in the machining of metal
clamping pressure. The plastic material may deflect
gears. The economics of the machining process and
in the area to be machined with resulting distortion
the level of accuracy attainable may depend on a
after the pressure is released.
variety of material properties.
Similarly, the surface being machined may deflect
4.1.2.1 Cutting rate under the cutting forces being applied by the tool. It
The cutting rate is often limited by thermal consider- may be necessary to allow for the surface spring-
ations. This is especially true for a combination of back after passage of the tool in order to achieve the
large energy release in machining, poor thermal desired dimension.
conductivity, and low resistance to heat before 4.1.2.4 Burrs
melting or otherwise deteriorating. The factor of a
Plastic materials vary in the extent to which burrs are
high coefficient of thermal expansion may also limit
formed during the gear machining process. Materi-
the cutting rate. Greater expansion due to heating
als which result in particularly tenacious burrs, even
tends to reduce the accuracy of the machined gear.
when the tool is properly maintained, should be
If a cutting lubricant is to be used, it must be carefully avoided unless there is provision in the machining
selected to avoid averse effects on the plastic. Such set--up to minimize or prevent burrs.
effects may not be readily apparent and the best way The possibility of burrs arises where the cutting tool
to avoid them is by consultation with the material is removing unsupported material. This might be at
supplier. the end of its cut across the gear blank or, for a
4.1.2.2 Tool wear non--topping cutter, at the tooth tips. In each case, a
thin layer of unsupported material may either break
The rate of tool wear and the frequency of resharp-
free without producing a burr or, for some plastics,
ening can also affect the economics of the machining
simply bend away into the open space and remain
process and the accuracy when a large quantity of
firmly attached to the gear tooth in the form of a burr.
gears is involved. Some additives to the material
Such burrs cannot always be removed by conven-
may increase the rate of tool wear while others may
tional deburring operations such as filing or wire--
reduce it.
brushing.
Maintaining tool sharpness is essential in the Test machining of sample material may be the best
machining of plastics. A relatively low modulus way to determine whether burr formation will be a
material will deflect under a dull tool. This may make serious problem. Annealing before machining may
light, finishing cuts difficult if not impossible. Such help and should be included in the testing where it is
deflection also interferes with machining accuracy. practical to add that process. A change in cutting
Furthermore, dull tools generate added heat with its rate may also reduce burr formation, but if it takes a
accompanying problems. major drop in the production rate to solve the burr
4.1.2.3 Distortion problem, the material may be disqualified for
economic reasons.
The selection of materials and how they have been
processed into their stock form may influence the 4.1.2.5 Finish
distortion in a machined gear. Such distortion results The finish of machined tooth surfaces may vary with
from the release of internal stresses. These stresses the nature of the plastic material. The presence of
may have been in the material before machining, to some additives, acting as internal lubricants, may
be released when part of the material was removed, help the machined finish, unless they are improperly
or they may have been introduced by the heat and dispersed. Fibrous materials, such as glass or
forces of the machining. The distortion may be carbon fiber, or hard granular materials, when used
evident immediately after the gear has been ma- as additives in molded gear blanks, generally

9
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

interfere with a good finish. As an example, some 4.2.1 Moldability


kinds of filler particles may be removed from the
This characteristic of a material relates to how well it
surface during machining to leave openings or
will fill the mold cavity without, at the same time,
surface roughness.
flashing into the very fine gaps at the edges of the
4.1.2.6 Sharp corners and machining grooves cavity. It is primarily determined by the viscosity of
the molten plastic during mold filling. The viscosity
Sharp corners are to be avoided as potential sources
can be altered by changes in the molding process,
of stress concentration and cracking. Where corner
for example mold and melt temperatures, but
shape is transferred directly from the tool shape, the
sometimes only at the expense of the quality of the
tool tip radius should be as generous as possible.
molded part. Quality defects from improper process
Similarly, sharp grooves from a pointed tool should
changes may take the form of voids, sinks, warpage,
be avoided, especially on surfaces like gear tooth
and internal stresses. Plastic materials can be
fillets that will be highly stressed in operation. See
especially sensitive to overheating. Outgassing can
ANSI/AGMA 1006--A97, Tooth Proportions for
develop from the chemistry of additives such as
Plastic Gears.
toughening agents, flame retardants, and some
4.1.2.7 Safety concerns in machining internal lubricants.
Machining may introduce safety concerns in addition 4.2.2 Shrink rate (shrinkage)
to those that generally apply to the selected material.
The degree and uniformity of shrinkage of the plastic
Excessive rates of material removal may overheat
material is also a factor in its suitability for a molded
the plastic, releasing unsafe chemical products.
gear application. The shrinkage is determined first
Flammability may also be an issue. A machining
by the molecular structure of the plastic and other
process which creates fine particles or other unsafe
additives. In the molding process, it will also be
products must be confined to prevent inhalation by
influenced by cross sectional area, cooling rate, fiber
operators. An otherwise preferred material may
orientation, molding temperatures and pressures,
require safety precautions not readily available. In
and other processing variables. The predictability
that case, it will have to give way to another choice
and consistency of the shrinkage is generally more
which will not require such precautions.
significant in producing accurate gears than the
4.2 Injection molding process magnitude of the shrinkage (or shrink rate).
To successfully injection mold a thermoplastic gear, Shrinkage in gears is not always uniform, as in
one needs to ensure that all components of the photographic size reduction. Molding process and
injection molding process are understood. These part design, along with material shrinkage proper-
components are: ties, may contribute to this non--uniformity. When
mold gear cavity design inappropriately assumes
-- gear design;
that the shrinkage will be purely uniform, the quality
-- mold design, including gate and runner of the molded gear will suffer. The directional
location and size, cooling line layout; non--uniformity of the shrink rate is also an important
-- the molding process is one of heat factor as discussed below.
removal;
4.2.2.1 Dimensional non--uniformity in gear
-- cooling is critical to successfully process to diameter
correct dimensions;
Directional non--uniformity in shrinkage can be a
-- material selection and processing thereof; major factor contributing to eccentric and out--of--
-- injection molding machine and condition, round gears, especially in plastics with high aspect
including auxiliary equipment such as dryers and ratio fiber reinforcement. In such materials, differ-
fixtures; ences in both the relative amount and direction of
-- gear inspection capabilities. fiber orientation will lead to different amounts of
shrinkage in the plastics, both radially and axially.
CAUTION: For informed guidance on how the molding
and related part design factors influence material selec-
The shrinkage will be reduced in the direction of fiber
tion, consultation with a molder experienced in gear orientation. The effect of such directional properties
molding is advised. can sometimes be offset by techniques of mold

10
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

design such as location, size and number of gates. in all directions.


For example, when using multiple gates the radial
However, for some materials, these directional
dimension of the gear will be greatest in the area
effects can be so great that the materials must be
between the gates due to the formation of weld (knit) ruled out if a high accuracy gear is required.
lines, which orient the fibers radially, thus reducing
the amount of radial shrinkage. This will result in a 4.2.3 Other directional properties
high spot on the gear. At the area near the gate, the Flow induced orientation can also affect the mechan-
fibers are more randomly oriented, and shrinkage ical, electrical, tribological and thermal properties of
will actually be greater. See figure 7. In a simple gear a molded gear. This non--uniformity is generally tied
using a central diaphragm gate, the fibers are all to flow direction in the filling of the mold cavity and is
oriented radially, and the shrinkage will be the same most marked in materials with fiber reinforcement.

Key: shrinkage and the gear will have a high spot in these
1 Weld lines. areas.
2 Fibers near gate are randomly oriented and 4 Gate, (+) on web.
shrinkage is anisotropic (non--directional). 5 Small arrows indicate predicted fiber orientation,
3 Fibers at weld lines, where flow fronts meet, are grayscale indicates advancing flow from gate loca-
oriented radially (isotropically). The fibers resist tion.
Figure 7 -- Simple gear with three gates

11
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

5 Tests for gear related material yield point (tensile strength at yield) or, if the material
properties does not yield, tensile strength at break. The percent
elongation should be reported the same way.
Material data sheets do not always indicate which
The various material properties that may affect type of strength is being reported. Tensile modulus is
plastic gear performance, as described in clause 3, the modulus of elasticity calculated taking the slope
are measured in standard commercial tests. These of the line formed by extending the initial linear
tests are very briefly described below. Further portion of the load--extension curve.
details may be found in the referenced ASTM
standards or other industry standards. 5.1.1.1 Significance of test

There are several cautions to be considered in It is important to note that tensile strength is reported
relating these tests and the data they produce to how as a specific value generated from a specific test.
the material will perform in a gear application. The Depending on the material and the particulars of the
tests are performed on specimens of standard size test, this may be a best case value. In any evaluation
and shape, selected to suit the test equipment and of materials, it will be important to look at the tensile
generally not representative of the loaded features strength stress vs. strain curves (if available) at
of a gear. Although the specimen may be manufac- different temperatures to understand completely the
tured by molding, the standard molding conditions material’s behavior.
used for specimens are not necessarily representa- 5.1.1.2 Limitations for gear applications
tive of the conditions used for molded gears.
The differences between test conditions and typical
Correlation of test results from any of the described gear operating conditions should be considered
tests with the actual performance of plastics is before applying the reported test data in gear design.
dependent upon the similarity between the testing Two of these differences are load related:
and the actual use conditions.
-- The purely tensile load used in the test
5.1 Strength properties produces essentially uniform stress across the
critical section of the specimen. In a gear,
5.1.1 Standard test method for tensile properties however, the load is a bending load which
of plastics -- ASTM D638 produces a non--uniform stress across the critical
This test method covers the determination of the section at the tooth fillet area, with the maximum
stress at the fillet surface. If the surface material
tensile properties of unreinforced and reinforced
in a molded plastic gear has different properties
plastic materials in the form of a standard dumbbell--
than the core material, its relative contribution to
shaped test specimen (see figure 8) when tested
tooth bending strength may differ from than that
under defined conditions of pretreatment (sample
suggested by the reported test data.
preparation), temperature, humidity, and testing
machine speed. -- The test load is applied at a relatively low rate,
while in a gear the load is generally applied at a
Materials suppliers generally list the data on material much higher rate. Since the properties of plastic
data sheets using the terms tensile strength, tensile materials vary significantly with the load rate, the
modulus and tensile elongation. Tensile strength is reported test data may not properly represent the
the ultimate strength of the material, either at the material strength in the gear.

Wc 19
13 mm mm

50 mm
76 mm 57 mm 7 mm
115 mm or less
Figure 8 -- ASTM D638 Type 1 tensile specimen

12
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

Other differences between test specimen and gear 5.1.3.1 Significance of test
may be in the material itself, resulting from differ-
DMA tests have been extensively used by polymer
ences in relative size at the critical sections and
physicists to understand the internal structure of
especially from differences in processing.
plastics. The elastic and loss modulii and the tan(δ)
5.1.2 Standard test methods for flexural as a function of temperature, frequency, and time (if
properties of plastics -- ASTM D790 desired) may be determined. Transition tempera-
tures for the material can be determined. The
These test methods cover the determination of
method can also be used to evaluate the effect of
flexural properties of unreinforced and reinforced
processing, conditioning and chemical exposure on
plastics. They are generally applicable to rigid and
materials. It can be used to show the effect of phase
semi--rigid materials. Flexural strength for those
separation of multicomponent systems and effect of
materials which do not break or do not fail in the outer
type, amount, dispersion, and orientation of fillers.
fibers is reported at 5% strain.
(For some materials, the thermal behavior is clearer
Specimens are in the form of rectangular bars which if the curves are plotted both semilog and linear.)
are to be loaded as simply supported beams. 5.1.3.2 Limitations for gear applications
5.1.2.1 Significance of test Just as the value of modulus from tensile test can
In this test the stress--state varies across the vary considerably depending on test specimen and
cross--section from tension to compression. This test conditions used, the values obtained by DMA
varying stress--state may give different strength test methods differ depending on which test method
properties than those from a uniform stress tensile and apparatus is used. However, the storage
test. In fact, flexural strength properties are often modulus gives a clear indication of the behavior of
reported as higher than tensile strength properties the elastic modulus with temperature and frequency.
and with greater variation. Because of the higher This can be very useful in analyzing a gear set for
and more variable flexural strength values, a more mesh stiffness and tooth deflection. Therefore, the
conservative tooth design would result from using storage modulus data can be particularly useful for
the tensile strength, even though gear teeth gearing. However, it is often more convenient to
experience flexural deformation. normalize the storage modulus data by dividing all of
the values on the curve by the value at ambient
5.1.2.2 Limitations for gear applications temperature, 23°C. Thus, a dimensionless shift
The proportions of the slender flexural test speci- factor is created which can be used in any equation
mens are quite different from those of gear teeth, as containing a modulus to provide a temperature
is also the simple beam support different from the adjustment to the calculation, see figure 9.
cantilevered support in gear teeth. Other differences In addition to the temperature effect on elastic
between test conditions and gear operation are modulus, the DMA data provides considerable
noted in 5.1.1.2 for tensile test data. useful information about the thermal behavior of
plastics. In particular, it is a much better indicator of
5.1.3 Dynamic mechanical properties of plastics
thermal behavior than the HDT test, see 5.3.3. The
-- ASTM D4065
maximum useful temperature of any thermoplastic
There are seven ASTM standards for Dynamic would be near the last point of constant slope of the
Mechanical Analysis, DMA, of materials in the solid storage modulus curve before its final downturn.
state. They are: D4092 on terminology, D5023 on (This is sometimes clearer in a semilog plot.)
the three point bending method, D5418 on the dual However, exposure time and load must be greatly
cantilever beam method, D5024 on the compression reduced as the temperature approaches that point.
method, D5026 on the tension method, and D5279 Beyond this point, the material softens to an
on the torsion method. ASTM D4065 on determining unusable state. Semi--crystalline plastics are often
and reporting dynamic mechanical properties cov- used in gears operating in the plateau region past the
ers all of these methods. These tests are used to glass transition temperature. However, if a semi--
determine the elastic and viscous response of crystalline plastic gear is operated in the region of the
plastics to a small harmonic excitation over a wide glass transition temperature, performance variability
temperature range. See bibliography for complete should be expected as properties change rapidly
references. with temperature and frequency.

13
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Normalized modulus

Temperature
Figure 9 -- Typical DMA curves normalized at 23°°C

5.1.3.3 Details of test The measured load is a combination of two loads: an


elastic load which is in phase with the displacement;
In a DMA test, the test specimen receives a
and a viscous load which is 90 degrees out of phase
harmonic excitation at a known frequency and very
with the displacement. The load amplitude divided
small amplitude. In most test equipment, the
by the displacement amplitude is directly proportion-
harmonic excitation is the displacement and the
al to the absolute value of the complex modulus, |E*|,
resulting force is the measured response. In other
of the material. The proportionality constant de-
equipment, the reverse is used. The sample is
pends on the test geometry. The test geometry also
mounted in a closed chamber with accurate temper-
determines which modulus is obtained, i.e., tensile,
ature control. The test chamber temperature is
flexural, shear or compression. The equation for the
increased at a constant rate during the test. Thus,
complex modulus is:
data are obtained over a wide range of tempera-
tures, typically from --50°C to near the melting point E* = E¢ + iE¢¢ (1)
of the material. Figure 10 illustrates a tensile DMA where
geometry with fixed displacement amplitude.
E¢ is the storage modulus (elastic modulus of
Data obtained from the test are the load amplitude, material);
displacement amplitude, and frequency at a consid- = |E*| cos δ (2)
erable number of temperatures. The frequency is E¢¢ is loss modulus (related to viscosity of
often fixed but a number of frequencies may also be material);
used. Since all materials, and especially plastics, = |E*| sin δ (3)
are viscoelastic, there is a phase shift between the
displacement and the measured load. The phase δ is the phase shift;
shift, δ, is also recorded either directly but more often i is proportionality constant depending on test
as tan (δ). geometry.

14
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

Displacement
Apply
harmonic
displacement

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
time
Phase
shift

Test Load
specimen

1 2 3 4 5 7
time

Measured load

Figure 10 -- Tensile DMA

Temperature, E¢, E¢¢ and tan (δ) data are generally when the notch faces the hammer and faces away
reported in tabular form for a particular frequency. from the hammer. There are special considerations
However, a graphical presentation of E¢, E¢¢ and tan for low energy breaks. Also, a method requiring two
(δ) versus temperature is usually included. Some- different notch radii provides a calculation procedure
times, the graphical presentation will include for notch sensitivity.
frequency as a parameter. As each specimen is broken, the type of break
according to the following categories must be
The glass transition temperature, Tg, will appear as a recorded:
peak in the loss modulus curve. This peak will be just
after the start of a large decrease in storage C = complete break -- two or more pieces;
modulus. For amorphous plastics, the Tg is near the H = hinge break -- an incomplete break in which
processing temperature and the storage modulus the attached half cannot support itself when the
will continue to decrease as the material softens, see other is held;
figure 11. For semi--crystalline materials, after a P = partial break -- an incomplete break in which
large drop at the Tg, the storage modulus will be more than 9.1 mm (90%) of the 10.16 mm sample
relatively constant until the onset of crystallite width has fractured but does not qualify as a hinge
melting which will be evident as the storage modulus break;
curve bends down near the melting point and the tan NB = non--break -- an incomplete break less than
(δ) increases rapidly, see figure 12. 90% of the original width and all other conditions.
The energy required to break each specimen divided
5.1.4 Izod impact test -- ASTM D256
by its individual thickness is recorded in J/m, except
The Izod test determines the breakage resistance of for NB where no energy is recorded. In every case,
a notched, cantilever test specimen subjected to the data to be reported, in addition to full equipment
flexural impact. The impact is delivered by a and specimen identification, shall include the
pendulum--type hammer. There are methods for number of failures in each category along with a

15
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

statistical summary for each category except NB. calculated by dividing the difference in the average
When two notch radii are used and if all breaks are of energy per unit width for each radius by the
the same category, the notch sensitivity may be difference in the radii.

Tg

E¢ = |E*| cos (δ)


Log storage modulus, E¢

tan (δ)

Loss modulus, E¢¢


E¢¢ = |E*| sin (δ)
Log tan (δ)

Temperature
Figure 11 -- DMA, amorphous and crystalline polymers

Tg E¢ = |E*| cos (δ)


tan (δ)
E¢¢ = |E*| sin (δ)
Log storage modulus, E¢

Loss modulus, E¢¢


Log tan (δ)

Temperature
Figure 12 -- DMA, semi--crystalline polymer

16
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

5.1.4.1 Significance of test 5.1.5 Charpy impact test -- ASTM D256


This test method determines the breakage resist-
Izod is widely used in the United States for plastics.
ance of a notched, three--point bending test
Charpy (see 5.1.5) is used for metals in the U.S. and
specimen subjected to impact. The impact is deliv-
for plastics in Europe (although the method is
ered by a pendulum--type hammer. The sample is
different). With the adoption of ISO methods in the
supported on both ends and is struck in the center
U.S., Charpy is becoming more common. The most
while the notch faces away from the hammer.
widely reported data are for a notched specimen.
They are typically used as an indication of the Data is obtained and reported as in notched Izod,
relative notch sensitivity when comparing materials. except only complete breaks are reported.
However, this should only be done when comparing 5.1.5.1 Significance of test
materials that have the same break category.
Unfortunately, the break category is rarely reported Izod is widely used in the United States for plastics.
so such comparisons should be made with great Charpy is used for metal in the U.S. and for plastics in
care. Data are sometimes reported for reversed Europe (although the method is different). The data
notch or un--notched (not part of a standard) are typically used as an indication of the relative
samples. The reversed notch data may be notch sensitivity when comparing materials. Charpy
compared to the notched data as a further indication data are often interpreted as a measure of tough-
of relative notch sensitivity. Notch sensitivity by ness. A material with a higher Charpy value may or
multiple notch radii is rarely reported. may not have greater toughness. Charpy data
should only be used as an indication of notch
Although NB stands for non--break, the proper sensitivity.
interpretation is “no test” as NB is used for all 5.1.5.2 Limitations for gear applications
outcomes that do not fall under the other three
categories. Finally, Izod data are often mistakenly Limitations are essentially identical to the Izod test.
interpreted as a measure of toughness. A material See 5.1.4.2.
with a higher Izod value may or may not have greater 5.1.6 Shear strength of plastics by punch tool --
toughness. Izod should only be used as a relative ASTM D732
indication of notch sensitivity.
This test reports the extent to which the plastic
5.1.4.2 Limitations for gear applications material can resist shear stress. A portion of the
material is forced to separate from the rest by sliding
Plastic gears designed with a full fillet radius, in a direction parallel to the applied load.
properly molded, and handled without damage The data are expressed as a shear strength
generally do not require consideration of notch calculated from the peak punch load and the
sensitivity. However, many gears are designed using sheared area.
little or no fillet radius, have flow lines in the tooth
root, and are mishandled. Such gears could benefit 5.1.6.1 Significance of test
from a material with an increased notched lzod If applied to similar specimens of various materials,
value. the test indicates the relative strength of the
materials under conditions of a shear load.
Within a material family, increased Izod values are
usually obtained by adding an elastomer to the base 5.1.6.2 Limitations for gear applications
material. This will typically lower the modulus of the Loading on gear teeth typically subject them to
material and increase the hysteresis. The reduced failure by bending rather than by shear. One
modulus will increase tooth deflection, reduce con- exception is encountered when a worm is loaded
tact stress and could result in a poor contact against the teeth of a plastic gear, shearing portions
condition. Increased hysteresis can increase oper- of the engaged teeth. In such cases, the shear
ating temperature. Thus, for continuously operated strength test data can be used for design as long as
gears, the life may be reduced. However, if gears proper adjustments are made for differences be-
that operate intermittently with occasional shock tween test specimen and plastic gear in respect to
loads are failing prematurely, a material modified for material processing, cross--section size and rate of
increased Izod may give longer life. loading.

17
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

5.1.7 Standard test method for flexural fatigue deflection of the test sample. This type of fatigue
by constant--amplitude--of--force -- ASTM D671 failure is said to occur when the apparent modulus of
of the material decays to 70% of the original modulus
This test method covers the determination of the
of the specimen at the start of the test.
effect of repetitions of the same magnitude of flexural
stress on plastics by fixed--cantilever type testing 5.1.7.2 Limitations to gear applications
machines designed to provide a constant--
amplitude--of--force. The test results provide data on Differences between the flexural fatigue test and
the number of cycles of stress to produce specimen typical gear applications limit the suitability of using
failure by fracture, softening, or reduction in stiffness the test data as gear design data. In the flexural
by heating as a result of internal friction (damping). fatigue test, the loading at the critical section is a
The test is performed by repeatedly flexing a fixed bending load, which is also the case at the critical
cantilever specimen with a fully reversing section in gear teeth. While the load rate in the test
predetermined load, see figure 13. may be more closely matched to the generally high
load rate in gears, the test does not allow for the
5.1.7.1 Significance of test
delay between successive load applications typical
Thermoplastics can fail in two different ways. Like of gears. An even greater difference is in the type of
metal, they can fail in fatigue due to cumulative loading, which is full reversing in the test, but only
damage caused by a repeated stress. In this failure zero--to--maximum loading in most gear
mode, cracks grow continuously with each stress applications.
cycle until the effective load bearing area is too
highly stressed to support the resulting stress. When 5.1.7.3 Details of test
this occurs, the cracks will propagate
The testing is to be conducted at 50% RH and 23°C.
catastrophically and the component will fail.
The mechanical properties of many plastics change
Unlike metals, thermoplastics have a second failure rapidly with small changes in temperature. Since
mode which is due to their viscoelastic nature. A heat is generated as a result of the flexing action of
thermoplastic subjected to repeated load cycles at the test, the test is conducted without forced cooling
high frequency will generate heat due to internal to ensure uniformity of test conditions. The tempera-
friction (damping). Since thermoplastics are insula- ture of the sample during testing is to be measured
tive, heat generated can easily exceed the material’s and recorded, but it is seldom reported. For most
ability to dissipate it. The resulting increase in plastics, fatigue failures are frequency dependent.
temperature leads to material softening, diminishing Therefore, data should not be extrapolated to other
its ability to resist stress. This failure, often referred frequencies unless the frequency response is
to as thermal failure, is characterized by excessive known. ASTM suggests testing at 30 Hz  5%.
50.8 mm

57.2 mm
103.2 mm
Figure 13 -- Flexural fatigue specimen

18
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

The results of the test are plotted on a S--N (stress condition, creep deformation and creep--rupture of
vs. cycles) diagram with the alternating stress plastics may need to be considered. This is
amplitude as the ordinate against the common especially true for stalled gears where the ratio of
logarithm of the number of cycles required for failure stalled time to cycled time is large. Under these
as the abscissa. Fatigue strength is always conditions significant creep strain could accumulate,
associated with a number of cycles. If a S--N curve possibly to the point of creep--rupture (tooth break-
for a material becomes a horizontal line (constant-- age) and/or significant tooth creep--deformation
stress) at very high cycles (>10 million), it is said to (tooth spacing errors).
have an endurance limit. The endurance limit is the 5.1.8.3 Details of test
stress level below which the material can be The test specimens used in the constant tensile
subjected to the fatigue load indefinitely. Not all creep and creep--rupture testing are the dumbbell
plastic materials will have an endurance limit. shaped specimens described in ASTM D638 (see
5.1.8 Tensile, compressive and flexural creep 5.1.1.1), either Type I or Type II. In addition,
and creep--rupture of plastics – ASTM D2990 specimens described in ASTM D1822 can be used
for creep--rupture testing. The test specimens are
This test method determines the time--dependent conditioned at 23° C and 50% RH for not less than 40
deformational response (viscoelastic deformation) hours prior to testing. Additionally, the specimens
of plastics subjected to constant loading conditions are pre--conditioned for at least 48 hours in the test
under specified environmental conditions. Proce- environment (temperature, humidity and others)
dures are described for constant tensile, compres- immediately prior to being tested.
sive or flexural loadings. However, measurements
After conditioning and pre--conditioning in the
of creep--rupture require tensile loading, since
specified testing environment, a constant tensile
rupture does not occur in compression or flexure.
load is rapidly applied (loading time not to exceed 5
Therefore, tension is the preferred stress--state for
seconds) to each specimen. The time--dependent
these tests and only the tensile creep/creep--rupture
elongation of each specimen is periodically
test will be covered in this description.
measured. At the beginning of the test the
5.1.8.1 Significance of test measurements of elongation are made within min-
utes of each other. During the middle of the test the
The information obtained from these tests can be elongation measurements are made within hours of
used in the design process of parts subjected to each other. For tests lasting longer than 1000 hours
time--dependent loadings. This design process, the elongation measurements are made at least
know as the “quasi--elastic” design methodology, monthly.
uses results (formulas) from elastic stress analysis.
The material properties (e.g., Poisson’s ratio, The results of this test are a family of curves
presenting elongation (creep--strain) vs. time. There
Young’s modulus, strength, etc.) in those formulas
is one curve per specimen for each constant tensile
for elastic analysis are normally the instantaneous
load applied (tensile stress applied). However, the
(time equals zero) values. However, for the “quasi--
data can be presented in a number of fashions: 1)
elastic” design methodology, the values at the
creep--strain vs. time (see figure 14a); 2) creep
required design time (time greater than zero) are modulus (tensile--stress/creep--strain) vs. time (see
used in the elastic formulas. The “quasi--elastic” figure 14b); or 3) tensile stress vs. strain curves (see
design methodology has been shown to yield figure 14c), each for a specified time (isochronous
conservative results. curves).
5.1.8.2 Limitations for gear applications 5.2 Wear and frictional characteristics

Typically creep deformation is not normally a factor 5.2.1 Thrust washer wear test -- ASTM D3702
in gears under continuous operation because the The wear resistance and frictional characteristics of
load is applied to each gear tooth only for short time plastic materials in rubbing contact with another
duration during each gear revolution. Therefore, in surface are important properties to consider in
the limit, those loadings cannot be considered as designing plastic gears. Tribological values from a
time--dependent loadings. However, for gears run standardized thrust washer wear test are often used
continuously at low speeds and high loads, or for for relative comparisons of thermoplastic materials
gears run at high speeds into and/or held in a stalled to assess these characteristics.

19
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

5.2.1.1 Significance of test


Increasing stress This test method is used to determine the equilibrium
rate of wear and the coefficient of friction for
materials in sliding contact at a variety of pressure--
Strain

velocity conditions. These data are intended only as


initial guides in the material identification stage for a
given application.

5.2.1.2 Limitations for gear applications

Time (log scale) Wear and frictional characteristics of plastics are not
material properties, they are system properties. It
Figure 14a -- Representations of creep -- cannot be overemphasized that the operational
strain vs. time
conditions of individual applications dramatically
affect these properties. Parameters such as mating
surfaces, velocities, pressures, ambient tempera-
tures, duty cycles, and type of motion, also affect the
relative performance of one material compared to
another.

The majority of thrust washer wear testing data


Increasing reported by thermoplastic suppliers are generated
stress or strain using a modified version of ASTM D3702. Changes
Creep modulus

from the standard may include different size,


different counterface composition and/or different
operating conditions, and the units for wear factor (K)
may be expressed differently. When comparing data
provided by different suppliers, it is important to
understand the possible differences in the test
method used to generate the data, and how these
differences could affect the values generated.
Because of differences in test methods and
technique along with highly variable results, compar-
Time (log scale) ing data between different labs is not generally
Figure 14b -- Representations of creep -- appropriate. See figure 15.
creep modulus vs. time Further, the results of this constant contact,
unidirectional test cannot be used to predict the wear
life or frictional characteristics of an intermittent,
rolling--sliding, line contact found in many gearing
Time (hr) 1 10 100 1000 10 000 applications.

5.2.1.3 Details of test


Stress

Wear rate and wear (K) factors: Lower values


indicate better resistance to material loss due to
relative motion contact. A material exhibiting a wear
rate or wear (K) factor value that is half of another
material indicates the material loss is also half at this
specific pressure--velocity (PV) point. This does not
Strain mean that this relationship necessarily holds true at
Figure 14c -- Representations of creep -- higher or lower PV points or under any other different
isochronous stress vs. strain operational conditions.

20
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

Figure 15 -- ASTM D--3702 thrust washer wear and friction test

Coefficients of friction (Cf): Lower Cf values for plastic materials having coefficients of expansion
plastic materials indicate reduced resistance to greater than 1 ¢ 10 --6 mm/mm/°C. The thermal
sliding. Given identical testing conditions and expansion of a plastic is a reversible change in
normal forces, Cf values are linear in representing dimensions caused by heating and cooling. Super-
the force needed either to initiate (static) or maintain imposed upon this reversible process are other
sliding motion (dynamic). Coefficients of friction vary changes in length, which are essentially non--revers-
significantly relative to differences in pressures, ible, due to heat, changes in moisture content,
velocities, mating surface characteristics, ambient curing, loss of plasticizers or solvents, release of
temperatures, duty cycles, rotational direction and stresses, phase changes and other factors. This test
other operational conditions. method is intended to determine the CLTE under the
Further, Cf values may change significantly between exclusion of these factors as far as possible. In
mating surfaces during the break--in or run--in general, it will not be possible to exclude them
periods due to material transfer mechanisms and altogether. For these reasons, the test can only be
other polymer wear phenomena. Published coeffi- expected to give an approximation of the true
cients of friction numbers are typically numerical thermal expansion.
averages and may not reflect the magnitude of these
running changes in sliding resistance. 5.3.1.1 Significance of test
5.3 Thermal properties
5.3.1 Standard test method for coefficient of Coefficient of linear thermal expansion can be used
linear thermal expansion of plastics between to estimate the changes in mesh clearances re-
--30°C and 30°C -- ASTM D696 quired to prevent gears from binding or from coming
This test method covers the determination of the out of mesh due to relative expansion between the
coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CLTE) for gears and their housing.

21
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

5.3.1.2 Limitations for gear applications tivity of Gasket Materials, and is used during the
design phase of a project.
As described in 5.3.1, the change in dimensions of a
molded part may not completely agree with the 5.3.3 Heat distortion (deflection temperature)
change in length predicted by applying the CLTE to test -- ASTM D648
the part dimension and temperature change. Also, Among the various ways to characterize the thermal
the CLTE of a material can and will vary over different performance of a plastic material is ASTM D648.
temperature ranges and flow orientation. This test can be used to compare the thermal
performance among various plastics. It is performed
5.3.1.3 Details of test
by submerging a specimen in a temperature con-
The results of the testing are generally reported as trolled environment, raising the temperature incre-
the coefficient of linear thermal expansion over a mentally, and reporting the temperature at which the
range. For anisotropic materials, CLTE is refer- specimen deforms 0.25 mm, the result reported as
enced to a coordinate (X and Y) or direction (flow and the heat deflection temperature (HDT). Either of two
transverse). (or both) load conditions can be specified, 0.455
MPa or 1.82 MPa, the latter reported as “Heat
5.3.2 Thermal conductivity test deflection temperature under load” or HDTUL.
Thermal conductivity is the rate at which a material 5.3.3.1 Significance of test
conducts heat energy along its length or through its
The test shows the temperature at which a certain
thickness. This property is important in applications
amount of deflection takes place at known loads. It is
where the polymeric material is used as a thermal
not a direct guide to the temperature performance of
insulator, or where heat dissipation is of concern.
the material in application. It may be useful to
5.3.2.1 Significance of test compare various plastic materials under the same
conditions. At best it is only a rough guide to the
The thermal conductivity of a thermoplastic material upper limit of a material’s thermal behavior.
will effect how well the material dissipates heat. Low
5.3.3.2 Limitations for gear applications
thermal conductivity materials like thermoplastics
will not dissipate heat generated by friction (tooth There are three major shortcomings in the
contact, bearings) as well as a metal would, and can procedure.
result in a greater temperature rise in the application -- First, an initial deflection corresponding to the
than expected. Housings made from thermoplastics applied stress occurs before the bath is heated.
will also dissipate less heat than a similar metal The measurement of 0.25 mm is from this point.
housing. On the positive side, thermoplastics can be The measurement does not correlate with any
used to insulate other components from external pure physical or design property of the material.
heat sources. -- Second, the thickness of the sample is
5.3.2.2 Limitations for gear applications variable. The calculations that determine the load
required to produce the specified stress level
Thermal conductivity is generally measured at some theoretically take thickness into account, but in
reference temperature, and the actual value for practice, thicker samples perform better than thin
thermal conductivity can change as the environmen- ones.
tal and/or application temperature changes and use -- Third, the heating rate at which the test is run
of different measuring techniques. influences the HDT value. Because plastics have
low thermal conductivity, higher heating rates
5.3.2.3 Details of test produce higher measured deflection
Thermal conductivity can be measured for plastics temperatures.
as a solid or in the melt, and these values are Better methods for determining a material’s thermal
generally very different. The melt thermal conductiv- performance are available, namely, the Dynamic
ity is used for doing computer aided mold filling Mechanical Analysis test, where the operator of the
analysis. The thermal conductivity of the solid test can continuously monitor the flexural modulus of
thermoplastic is covered by ASTM Standard F433, a material as a function of temperature. It is better to
Standard Practice for Evaluating Thermal Conduc- determine the required yield strengths and modulii

22
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

for the gear design, and then find the temperature at RTI’s assigned a single material, namely: electric,
which these values are exceeded, and use that mechanical with impact and mechanical without
temperature as the upper limit for the material. impact. In this method, pertinent properties are
measured as a function of time and temperature, and
5.3.4 U.L. temperature index test (relative
using appropriate mathematical techniques (regres-
thermal index or RTI) -- UL 746B
sion analysis), determine the time to end of useful
This procedure is used to determine the relative service at each temperature. End of useful life is
thermal index for a particular material. The relative defined as the time at which the property being
thermal index (RTI) is the maximum temperature a measured has degraded to 50% of its original value.
selected material will retain 50% of its original The long term material performance is determined
mechanical and electrical properties after heat aging relative to that of a reference or control material, thus
for 100,000 hours. the term relative temperature index. The RTI is then
published in the UL Components Index, listed along
5.3.4.1 Significance with the various other properties measured for
RTI data is typically used when selecting materials electrical applications.
for electrical components that require UL listing. The 5.3.5 Brittleness temperature of plastics and
electrical application may require the material to elastomers by impact -- ASTM D746
have an RTI rating at or above the expected
operational temperature of the device. This test method determines, under specified impact
conditions, the temperature at which plastics exhibit
5.3.4.2 Limitations for gear applications significant brittle behavior. The temperature that is
RTI testing is a static test that does not take into determined is termed the “brittleness temperature”.
account the mechanical properties of the material at The brittleness temperature is the temperature at
temperature. Actual strength and stiffness proper- which 50% of the test specimens fail in a brittle
ties of the material at the operational temperature manner under the specified impact conditions of this
are needed to determine the material’s capability in test.
the application. In spite of this, the RTI of a material
5.3.5.1 Significance of test
is a good indicator of a material’s capability for long
term exposure to elemental temperatures. Data collected under this method can be used to
predict the behavior of plastics or elastomers at low
Some plastic applications, such as gears to be used
temperatures. Such data can only be used where
in appliances, may require an Underwriter’s Labora-
the conditions of deformation are similar to those
tories relative thermal index. Generally, this is a
specified in the test method. It is useful for
temperature value assigned to a polymer, based on
specifications, but does not measure the lowest
long term testing, extrapolated to the life time of a
temperature at which a material may be used.
product design, at which the part can operate without
failing as an electrical insulator. 5.3.5.2 Limitations for gear applications
5.3.4.3 Details of test Actual low temperature performance may be under-
stated using this test, as it may not measure the
A relative thermal index of a material is an indication
lowest temperature at which the material may be
of the ability of a material to retain a particular
used. The test is difficult to run, the specimens bear
property (physical, electrical, etc.) when exposed to
no relation to the shape of a gear, and the needed
elevated temperatures for an extended period of
attendant support of the gear design would further
time. It is a measure of the material’s thermal
understate the performance. Data should only be
endurance. For each material, a number of relative
used as a relative indication of performance between
thermal indices can be established, each index
material properties which tested identically, and
related to a specific property of the material.
hence for specification work only. When choosing a
The RTI of a material is established on the basis of polymer for gears required to perform under sudden
either accelerated aging experiments or on a generic changes in load at low temperatures, the brittleness
basis from field experience with specific families of temperature for each considered polymer should be
materials. There may be up to three independent evaluated and compared.

23
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

5.3.5.3 Details of test mechanical property changes. The second is for the
susceptibility to attack in stressed regions.
The test determines temperature at which 50% of
test specimens fail when subjected to an impact of a 5.4.2.1 Significance of test
striking edge moving at 2000 mm/s (+/-- 200 mm/s)
over a distance (after striking the specimens) of 6.4 The choice of types and concentration of reagents
mm, the specimen holder having been held in a (including lubricants), temperature of the test, and
cooling medium at a known temperature for a period properties to be reported is necessarily arbitrary.
of 3 minutes (+/-- 0.50 min). The specification of these conditions provides a
basis for standardization and serves as a guide to
5.4 Environmental properties investigators wishing to compare the relative
resistance of various plastics to typical chemical
5.4.1 Standard test for water absorption of reagents.
plastics -- ASTM D570
5.4.2.2 Limitations for gear applications
This test method covers the determination of the
relative rate of water absorption by all types of As with all standard tests, correlation of the test
plastics. results with the actual performance of plastic gears is
dependent upon the similarity between the testing
5.4.1.1 Significance of test and the actual conditions.

Moisture absorption will affect the dimensions and It should be noted that this ASTM standard address-
physical properties of plastic gears in varying es statically loaded specimens, unlike gearing
degrees. applications which are dynamically loaded. These
dynamic loads may contribute to differences in
5.4.1.2 Limitations for gear applications performance and susceptibility to chemical expo-
sure.
This test shows only weight change due to water
absorption when immersed. Effects of water absorp- 5.4.2.3 Details of test
tion on dimensions and properties are not quantified
by this test. The test specimens are conditioned at 23°C and at
50% RH for not less than 40 hours prior to testing.
5.4.1.3 Details of test Shape and dimensions of the specimens depend on
the test to be performed according to the ASTM
Depending on the material’s water absorption char- standard.
acteristics versus temperature, the procedure for
achieving its “dry” condition varies as described in Two procedures are followed in the immersion test
the ASTM standard. These “dry” samples are then depending on interest. Procedure I is for weight and
measured and weighed. dimensional changes. Procedure II is for changes in
mechanical property.
There are several immersion tests in distilled water
that may be conducted. In water at 23°C, these are The mechanical stress test evaluates specimens
the 24 hour, the two hour, the repeated, and the mounted on strain fixtures and exposed to chemical
long--term immersion tests. Conducted in boiling reagents, either by immersion or by the wet--patch
water are the 2 hour and the 1/2 hour immersion test. method. These specimens are subsequently
compared to unstrained specimens similarly ex-
5.4.2 Standard practices for evaluating the posed. Exposure times are 7 days for room
resistance of plastics to chemical reagents -- temperature, of 3 days for elevated temperatures.
ASTM D543 Another set of specimens are identically strained,
but not exposed, and serve as a control.
These practices cover the evaluation of all plastic
materials for resistance to chemical reagents. Two After exposure, mechanical properties of exposed
major tests are described: an immersion test, and a and unexposed specimens are compared. Standard
mechanical stress test to reagent exposure. The first methods are followed for tensile, flexural, or other
is for weight and dimensional changes, and also for property evaluation.

24
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

5.5 Miscellaneous properties 5.5.2.2 Limitations for gear applications

5.5.1 Test method for rubber property -- The Rockwell hardness measurements in plastics
durometer hardness -- ASTM D2240 do not necessarily relate to the material’s resistance
to wear.
This test method is used to determine the indent 5.5.2.3 Details of test
hardness of elastomeric and plastic materials using
the durometer hardness test apparatus. In this test, a rounded indenter of set diameter, (12.7
mm for Rockwell R, 6.35 mm for Rockwell M) is
5.5.1.1 Significance of test applied to the specimen under a 10 kg minor preload.
A 60 kg major load for Rockwell R or a 100 kg major
Durometer hardness testing is used to determine the load for Rockwell M is applied for 15 seconds. The
indentation or surface hardness of a material. load is released. The Rockwell number is deter-
Durometer hardness is often used in the specifica- mined from the difference in travel of the indenter
tion of elastomers with all other physical properties from the major load to the preload. Each Rockwell
implied by the durometer for that elastomer class. division is equal to 0.002 mm of travel. The Rockwell
number is the number of divisions traveled (depth of
5.5.1.2 Limitations for gear applications
indent) subtracted from 150. The higher the
The durometer hardness measurements in plastics Rockwell Number the harder the material. There are
do not necessarily relate to the material’s resistance other Rockwell Scales, however the “R” and “M”
to wear. scales are traditional for plastic material.
5.5.3 Density and specific gravity (relative
5.5.1.3 Details of test
density) of plastics by displacement – ASTM
In this test, a pointed or blunt indenter of set diameter D792
(sharp point for Shore A, 0.10 mm radius point for This test method presents procedures to determine
Shore D) is applied to the specimen. The spring load the specific gravity (relative density) and density of
for the durometer tester determines the force of solidified plastics as in extruded shapes and molded
penetration. The application force should be high objects. The specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of
enough to ensure adequate contact of the Shore a certain volume of solidified plastic to the mass of an
meter’s presser foot. The Shore hardness number is equal volume of water or some other reference
read from the durometer scale on the test apparatus. liquid. Two methods are presented: 1) procedures in
The durometer can be determined after immediate water, and 2) procedures in liquids other than water,
application or after a time period agreed upon by which can be used if the plastic is lighter than water
specification. The Shore number is inversely related or undergoes significant absorption of water at 23° C
to the distance the indenter penetrates into the test over the testing duration.
specimen. One Shore point is equal to 0.025 mm of
5.5.3.1 Significance of test
penetration. The higher the Shore number the
harder the material. There are other Shore scales, The specific gravity or density can be measured and
however, the “A” and “D” scales are traditional for used to 1) identify a plastic, 2) to track physical
elastomer and plastic materials. changes in a sample, 3) to determine the uniformity
among samples, or 4) to indicate the average density
5.5.2 Standard test method for Rockwell
of large objects. Differences in density of the same
hardness of plastic and electrical insulating
object, or among samples, may be due to changes or
materials -- ASTM D785
differences in crystallinity, loss of plasticizer, absorp-
This test method is used to determine the indent tion of a solvent, and/or differences in thermal
hardness of plastic materials using the Rockwell history, porosity, and/or composition. Density can
hardness test apparatus. also be used to calculate, knowing the volume of a
part, expected weight and material costs of that part.
5.5.2.1 Significance of test 5.5.3.2 Limitations for gear applications
Rockwell hardness testing is used to determine the In practice, when using the specific gravity or density
indentation or surface hardness of a material. along with an expected gear volume to calculate the
Rockwell hardness can also be used to determine expected weight of material in a gear, the calculated
the degree of cure for a thermoset material. weight might not be exact. The lack of exactness

25
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

might be due to differences in crystallinity induced by some cases be subject to a source of flame. It is
differences in processing conditions of the gear and important to note that any UL flammability rating is
sample used to determine the specific gravity. given at a particular thickness, and that as the
Another factor causing the lack of exactness that is sample thickness increases, a better rating can often
not discussed in 5.5.3.1 is unaccounted for shrink- be obtained. When specifying or requesting a rating,
age of the gear during molding which might change the thickness of the application must be specified.
the anticipated volume.
5.5.4.2 Limitations for gear applications
5.5.4 Flammability Compliance with these regulatory requirements
There are several types of flammability testing, the often requires the addition of additives which may
most common being the UL Flammability Class. alter the mechanical performance or characteristics
of the base material. Because of these performance
UL Subject 94 and/or ASTM D635 and ASTM differences, the development for any gear
D3801: In this test, specimens are subjected to a application shall be done with the material that meets
specific flame exposure, and the relative ability to the regulatory requirements.
maintain combustion after the flame is removed
becomes the basis for classification (HB, V--2, V--1,
V--0, 5V). In general the more favorable ratings are
given to materials that extinguish themselves rapidly
6 General description of plastic materials
and do not drip flaming particles. Each rating is
specified on a specific material thickness. This brief description deals only with characteristics
of materials used for gears.
Other flammability tests are:
6.1 Classification
Oxygen Index Test, ASTM D2863: This test
measures the percentage of oxygen necessary to Plastics are generally classified in two major groups,
sustain combustion of the plastic material. The thermoplastics and thermosets.
higher the value (more oxygen needed), the lower
6.1.1 Thermoplastics
the combustibility. Since air contains about 21%
oxygen, any material with a rating below 21 will 6.1.1.1 Definition and properties
probably support combustion in a normal, open air
Thermoplastics are materials that repeatedly soften,
environment.
or melt, when heated, and harden, or freeze, when
Smoke Density Test, ASTM E662: Often referred cooled. Heating permits the intertwined molecular
to as the NBS Smoke Density Test, a specified area chains to slide relative to each other. At some higher
of plastic is exposed to heat under flaming condi- temperature, the sliding is free enough for the
tions. Smoke measurements are reported as material to behave as a liquid and may be used to fill
“specific optical density”, a dimensionless unit that molds. The temperature at which this degree of
represents the optical density of the smoke over a softening takes place varies with the type and grade
unit path length within a chamber of unit volume of plastic. Cooling restores the intermolecular bonds
produced from a sample of unit surface area. and the material behaves essentially as a solid.
However, these solid materials, to a varying degree,
Glow Wire Test, IEC 60695--2--10, 11, 12, 13: This
retain some aspects of a liquid in the form of
test simulates conditions present when an exposed, viscoelastic behavior. See 2.1. At the same time,
current carrying conductor contacts an insulating this type of molecular bond generally imparts a
material during faulty or overloaded operation. The greater toughness, or resistance to impact loads.
test can be applied at one or more recommended
6.1.1.2 Structure
temperatures (550_C, 650_C, 750_C, 850_C,
960_C) and at any sample material thickness. Thermoplastic materials can be further classified by
their chemical structure. Many of the physical
5.5.4.1 Significance to gearing
property differences among plastics can be
Most gearing applications do not require a specific attributed to their structure.
flammability rating, since they are usually enclosed
6.1.1.2.1 Crystalline
and not exposed to a source of flame. The housing
around the gear may have a flammability require- Thermoplastic materials are divided into two catego-
ment since it has more surface area, and may in ries or families of plastics: semi--crystalline (general-

26
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

ly referred to as crystalline) and amorphous. Amorphous plastics have low shrink characteristics
Crystalline thermoplastic materials are melt proces- and are not susceptible to high differential shrinkage
sable plastics that, upon cooling from the melt allowing for accurately molded, warp free parts.
phase, solidify with distinct crystalline domains. Some amorphous plastics (see table 3) have good
Crystalline materials are easily differentiated from impact properties.
amorphous thermoplastics because they are
opaque. Crystalline materials display good chemi- 6.1.1.2.3 Thermal response -- crystalline vs.
cal resistance, fatigue properties and wear resist- amorphous
ance compared to amorphous plastics. Crystalline
A primary thermal transitional common to all thermo-
materials also maintain usable physical properties
plastic resins is the glass transition temperature, or
beyond their glass transition temperature. Crystal-
Tg. For crystalline resins, this is the temperature at
line materials (see table 2) have a distinct melt
which the amorphous regions of the polymer begin to
temperature beyond which the plastic is a liquid. See
soften, allowing the harder and more ordered
figure 16.
crystalline regions to move over each other.
The ordering of crystalline plastics makes them Mechanically, crystalline polymers begin to lose a
stiffer, stronger, but less resistant to impact than their major portion of their modulus through this transition.
non--crystalline counterparts. See figure 17. Amorphous resins, which contain no crystalline
regions, very quickly lose all modulus at the Tg,
6.1.1.2.2 Amorphous materials
becoming unusable for mechanical purposes. In
Amorphous plastic, like a pane of glass, is more fact, it is above this thermal point that amorphous
similar to a super cooled liquid than a solidified materials flow.
material. Like glass, amorphous materials are
transparent. Amorphous plastics have limited Crystalline polymers also exhibit a melting point, Tm,
chemical resistance and do not have useable the temperature at which the crystalline regions of
properties beyond their glass transition temperature. the material change state. This transition point is
Because amorphous plastics do not have specific typically very sharp and unique for each crystalline
melt temperatures, the glass transition temperature polymer, and is the point at which no mechanical
can be considered the onset of melt. Amorphous structure is evident. Amorphous resins do not exhibit
plastics do have good creep resistance properties. a melting point.

Crystalline Amorphous

Melt

Crystals

Amorphous

Solid

Figure 16 -- Two dimensional representation of crystalline and amorphous thermoplastics

27
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Crystalline (glass fiber reinforced)


Tg

Tg
Amorphous (glass fiber
reinforced)
Modulus

Crystalline (unreinforced)
Tg
Tg

Amorphous (unreinforced)

Tm

Temperature
Figure 17 -- Modulus behavior vs. temperature of crystalline and amorphous resins, neat and glass
fiber reinforced
Figure 17 shows the modulus response for neat additives. The use of regrind may offer a cost
amorphous and crystalline resins, as well as glass reduction.
fiber reinforced versions. For both types of poly-
Further economy is possible with “hot runner”
mers, the addition of reinforcing fibers substantially
molding systems in which no scrap is produced.
increases the modulus, yet does not affect the
inherent thermal transition temperature points. Solidification by cooling does make the molded part
subject to variation in properties with differences in
NOTE: Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) (see cooling rate. Very often, the greater rate of cooling at
5.1.3) is an analytical method to determine polymer the surfaces which contact the mold produces a
property changes as a function of temperature. The
harder and stronger “skin”, while the more slowly
change in modulus characteristics of a plastic material,
as it approaches or exceeds important and unique ther- cooling internal material, or core, is somewhat softer.
mal transitions, can yield important design information A similar effect takes place at sharp internal corners
about the load bearing capabilities within the tempera- of the molded part, such as the sharp fillets at the
ture range of operation. These data are more useful to base of gear teeth. Although this surface also
the design engineer than the commonly cited ASTM
contacts the cooled mold, the correspondingly sharp
test, deflection temperature under load (DTUL), which
determines at what temperature a standard molded external corner of the mold is a poorer conductor of
specimen deflects 0.25 mm. heat, and thus produces a weaker skin, than the less
sharp surfaces elsewhere in the mold.
6.1.1.3 Molding considerations
6.1.1.4 Design considerations
Thermoplastic materials are particularly well suited The thermal effects associated with this type of
for molding. Molded material in the form of sprues solidification may also affect the design of the gear
and runners, if properly processed, can often be blank. Best molding results are obtained when the
reground and recycled with little or no loss in various sections in the blank are approximately
properties, at least for a limited number of reuse uniform in thickness. For many thermoplastic
cycles. This is less so for materials with fiber materials, large gears with thick sections cannot be

28
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

molded to meet the same high quality levels of Some of these properties are:
smaller gears. -- strength;
6.1.2 Thermosets -- impact resistance;

6.1.2.1 Definition and properties -- rigidity (modulus);


-- thermal conductivity;
Thermosets are plastics that undergo chemical
change during processing to become permanently -- flame retardance;
infusible. If excessive heat is applied to a thermoset -- dimensional control;
material after the chemical change has taken place, -- color;
the plastic is degraded rather than melted. Before
-- heat stability;
the processing, the molecular structure of the
thermoset plastic is similar to that of a thermoplastic -- noise reduction;
material. Heating permits the relative sliding of the -- oxidative stability;
molecules, the material takes on the properties of a -- U.V. stability;
liquid and can be used to fill molds. However, while
-- lubricity;
still subjected to heat in the mold in a curing process,
the intertwined molecules develop cross--links to -- wear resistance;
form an irreversible network which prevents further -- processability.
relative sliding. 6.3 Available forms
The resulting solid plastic behaves much more like 6.3.1 Molding materials
an elastic material similar to metals. The viscoelastic
For injection molding, which covers just about all the
behavior is much reduced from that of most thermo-
thermoplastic materials, the material is supplied in
plastics. At the same time, these thermoset
the form of pellets. If the molded part material is to
materials tend to be much less resistant to impact
contain additives, these additives are generally
loading, and tend to be used only with some
pre--compounded in the pellet material, uniformly
reinforcing medium in even moderate impact ap-
distributed in the proper proportion.
plications. On the other hand, thermosets tend to
maintain their strength properties at much higher For molding processes used for thermoset materi-
temperatures than most thermoplastics. als, the material may be in the form of pellets or
molding preforms. These preforms are of a size and
6.1.2.2 Molding considerations shape to suit the mold, and of a volume to completely
fill the mold cavity with a minimum of flash. If the
Solidification by chemical reaction often requires molded part is to contain laminations of reinforce-
greater processing time to allow for completion of the ment material, these laminations are introduced into
curing. This tends to increase processing cost. the preforms.
Some of the molding processes used for thermoset
6.3.2 Machining materials (see 4.1)
plastics are almost scrapless, but others do leave
substantial scrap. Plastic materials to be machined into gears are
available in a variety of forms. They are selected to
6.1.2.3 Design considerations suit the size of the gear and the machining process
The thermoset solidification process makes the used to prepare the gear blank.
molded material less sensitive to cooling rates. It Most common are extruded circular rods or tubes.
therefore may permit the successful molding of parts For some plastic materials, these rods are extruded
with varying section thickness and large parts with by stock shape suppliers in diameters up to 200 mm;
heavy sections. for others only up to 150 or 100 mm. To go beyond
these diameter limits, materials may be available in
6.2 Additives
the form of cast solid or tubular bars or in the form of
A variety of organic and inorganic materials are disks. For thin gears, the blanks may be stamped or
added to plastics. A few may be used to reduce cost, cut from sheets; for thick gears and large diameters,
but most are used to improve a preferred property. the gear blanks may be cut from plates that are
See table 1. stocked up to 100 mm in thickness.

29
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Table 1 -- Additives in plastics for molded gears

Percentage Reason Limiting


Type Name range for use1) factors2)
Fillers Minerals (mica, talc, carbon 5--40 C, DC, E, H WM, RI, TW
powder, glass beads, etc.)
Organic <1 PA, H -- --
Reinforcements Glass fiber 5--40+ H, w D, WM, TW
Carbon fiber 10--40+ H, E, W C, D, TW
Aramid fiber 5--20 H, ST, W, F C, d
Organic fabrics ST (Thermoset materials
only)
Lubricants PTFE 1--20 F, W C, MC, st
PFPE <1 F, W, PA C
Silicone 1--4 F, W MC
Graphite 5--10 F, W ST, RI
Molybdenum disulfide 2--5 W -- --
Impact modifiers TPU 5--20 II ST
Others Color <2 -- -- ST, D, C
Processing aids MC w, c
Stabilizers (UV/Heat) -- -- c
Flame retardance -- -- C, MC, TW, D, ST, RI
NOTES:
1) C -- reduce cost; F -- reduce friction; H -- improve heat resistance; II -- improve impact resistance; ST -- improve
strength; W -- reduce wear; PA -- processing aide; E -- electrical; DC -- dimensional control (shrinkage).
2) C -- high cost; D -- distortion molding; MC -- molding condition; ST -- strength reduction; TW -- tool wear -- RI --
reduce impact resistance; WM -- wear of gear mate.
NOTE: Lower case letter imply a lesser effect.

The stocked materials are generally limited to 7 Plastic materials widely used for gears
commonly used plastics which are extrudable. They
are typically either without additives or with very few, A wide range of plastics are available with a wide
mostly in the form of color or internal lubricants. range of properties. Of these, there are a limited
Extruded rods can be custom prepared from almost number that have the combination of properties,
any kind of injection moldable plastic, including most often with the help of additives, to give them wide use
additives. Although glass fibers may be introduced as plastic gear materials. The plastics listed below
during extrusion, as it is with some stocked rods, the represent a generally accepted selection whose test
glass interferes with machining and subsequent use. results suggest increased future use. Not included in
Cast forms can be made from any material that suits this list are other plastics used for gears when their
the casting process. Cast bars may also have metal special properties are required for special applica-
inserts which, after machining, serve as a metal core tions. Over the course of time, it is expected,
that supplies high strength connections to steel additions to this list will be needed. These will
shafts. include plastics yet to be developed or, possibly,
those currently available but whose suitability for
For very large gears, sections of the gear are cast in gears has not yet been widely recognized.
the approximate shape and then machined to be This information sheet does not attempt to supply the
assembled as a full ring on a metal supporting properties of the different plastics, neither quantita-
structure. The gear teeth are then machined in this tively as reported by their manufacturers and
form and either kept on this structure, or suppliers, nor even as qualitative comparisons. The
disassembled for shipping and then reassembled to number of materials, along with all the variations
the same or similar support. created by the use of additives, are too great for such

30
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

an undertaking. Furthermore, data published by the specifically for gear applications, they were
various suppliers are not uniformly comprehensive designed for applications with similar mechanical
and are not necessarily collected under identical test and physical property requirements. Their suitability
conditions, even when the same ASTM standard is for economical manufacturing processes also
referenced (see 5.1). contributes to their widespread use.
The best sources for this type of information are the Individual polymers are listed in tables 2 (for molded
material suppliers. They can often supply data not gears) and 3 (for machined gears). Each listing is
widely distributed, especially data more directly accompanied by the abbreviations sometimes used
related to the requirements of the specific gear as substitute identifications. Also shown are the
application. If a general listing of properties is thermal and crystallinity classifications, followed by
desired, such as for preliminary qualitative codes for commonly used additives.
evaluations, it may be obtained from commercial
7.2 Thermosets
listings.
Only a small number of thermoset plastics have
7.1 Engineering thermoplastics
been used for gears to any substantial degree. The
Most of the plastics listed here are thermoplastics, of properties of most of this class of plastics are
the type commonly referred to as “engineering generally less favorable to gears than to other
plastics” to indicate their relatively high strength applications. The different type of processing is
properties. Although not necessarily developed often an additional obstacle to broader use for gears.
Table 2 -- Plastic materials for molded gears
Chemical name Thermal Commonly used
(common name) Abbreviation classification 1) Crystallinity 2) additives 3)
Phenol--formaldehyde (phenolic) PF TS -- -- O, L, R, I
Polyamide (nylon) PA TP C N, R, L, I, O
Polybutylene terephthalate PBT TP C N, R, L, I
(polyester)
Polycarbonate PC TP A R, L, I
Polyimide TPI TP C N, R, L, I, O
Poly--oxymethylene (acetal) POM TP C N, R, L, I
Polyphenelene sulfide PPS TP C R, L, I, O
Thermoplastic polyurethane TPU TP A N, R, L
NOTES:
1) TP -- thermoplastic; TS -- thermosetting.
2) C -- crystalline; A -- amorphous.
3) N -- none; R -- reinforcement; L -- lubricant; I -- impact modifier; O -- other filler.

Table 3 -- Plastic materials for machined gears


Chemical name Thermal Commonly used
(common name) Abbreviation classification 1) Crystallinity 2) additives 3) 4)
Polyamide (nylon) PA TP C N, L, R
Polyimide PI TS, TP -- -- N, L
Polycarbonate PC TP A N, L, R
Poly--oxymethylene (acetal) POM TP C N, L, R
Polyamide--imide PAI TS -- -- N, L, R
Ultra high molecular weight UHMW--PE TP C N
polyethelene
Phenol--formaldehyde (laminated PF TS -- -- Cotton fabric
phenolic) Nylon fabric
NOTES:
1) TP -- thermoplastic; TS -- thermosetting.
2) C -- crystalline; A -- amorphous.
3) N -- none; R -- reinforcement; L -- lubricant; I -- impact modifier.
4) See 4.1.1.2 for machining reinforced materials.

31
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

8 Material selection procedure -- ambient temperature during shipping and


storage (the range may be more extreme than
during operation, and an extreme condition may
The material selection procedure consists of
be carried over to the very start of operation).
successively matching material properties against
application requirements and progressively narrow- In the material selection process, the possible short
ing the list of suitable candidates to a limited few, or term temperature effects on the plastic material are:
even only one. A systematic procedure is preferred -- dimensional change due to thermal
over a random search. In a random search, it is expansion or contraction;
possible to overlook some suitable material or to -- reduction in strength and stiffness with
ignore some important application requirements. increasing temperature;
In the procedure described below, the various -- reduction in impact strength with reducing
conditions of the application are considered in an temperature.
order that generally speeds the selection process. If the application also requires that the gears be
The types of application conditions are: maintained at a high temperature for extended
-- environment; periods of time, the added effects are:

-- mechanical; -- material degradation leading to loss of


strength properties;
-- regulatory;
-- stress relaxation (e.g., press--fit assemblies);
-- manufacturing;
-- distortion due to creep if load is applied
-- cost. continuously.
8.1 Environmental considerations 8.1.2 Moisture absorption

The properties of plastic materials are influenced by The level of moisture absorption experienced in
environmental conditions. Also, this influence can each application will be based on one or more of the
vary significantly among the different materials following:
available for gear applications. Therefore, the -- ambient humidity (outside of gear unit) during
environmental considerations are often examined operation, including submersion in water;
first in the material selection process.
-- heating of any source which tends to drive off
The common environmental conditions are de- moisture;
scribed below. Each description consists of a list of -- ambient humidity during shipping and stor-
potential sources of the condition followed by a list of age (the range may be more extreme than during
possible effects on the plastic material properties. operation, and an extreme condition may be
The material selection process will consist of carried over to the very start of operation);
identifying those materials that offer adequate -- moisture absorbed during special processing
performance under all of the conditions that apply. prior to use, such as autoclave sterilization.
8.1.1 Temperature range (ambient, heat from In the material selection process, the possible
gear action) moisture effects on the plastic material are:
The temperatures experienced in each application -- dimensional change;
will be based on one or more of the following: -- reduction in strength and stiffness with
increasing moisture content;
-- ambient temperature (outside of gear unit)
during operation; -- reduction in impact strength with reducing
moisture content.
-- heating due to adjacent sources of heat, such
as the motor, other electrical components, or 8.1.3 Chemical exposure
process heaters; Resistance to chemical exposure is often the reason
-- heating of the gears during operation due to for the selection of a plastic material. However,
some combination of friction and hysteresis plastic materials may have greatly different resist-
effects; ance to individual chemicals. The selection process

32
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

must eliminate those plastics that lack the necessary system. In general, materials with good toughness
chemical resistance. and impact resistance (nylons, elastomers) perform
relatively well in abrasive environments.
The source of the chemical exposure may be any of
the following: 8.1.6 Radiation exposure

-- process fluid or gas inside the geared The source of such radiation may be:
product; -- ultraviolet light from natural (sunlight) or
-- ambient atmosphere which has been artificial sources;
contaminated by adjacent process equipment; -- gamma and electron beam (e--beam)
-- chemicals coming from other components radiation for sterilization of medical devices;
found in the product. -- x--rays for medical or industrial inspection.
Hostile chemicals can have the following effects on a The effect of radiation exposure may reduce the
non--resistant plastic material: strength of some plastic materials.
-- crazing (surface cracks) which reduce gear 8.1.7 Electrical effects
strength;
A variety of electrical considerations may be encoun-
-- other chemical effects which degrade tered in some plastic gear applications, such as:
material strength and wear resistance;
-- generation of static electricity from the rub-
-- dimensional changes. bing action of tooth contacts (leading to sparking
8.1.4 Lubrication or dust attraction);
-- insulating or grounding (electrostatic dissipa-
The lubricant, either an oil or grease, may act as one
tion) requirements for sources of electricity
form of chemical exposure. If the type of the
outside of the gears;
lubricant is dictated by conditions necessary to other
aspects of the application, the plastic gear material -- ozone.
must be selected with appropriate chemical resist- While sparking can have a damaging effect on the
ance. With less restrictive conditions on the choice plastic gear, the electrical properties of the material
of lubricant, it may be possible to select a type which are generally selected to support the performance of
is chemically compatible with an otherwise preferred the product. This may mean the choice of a material
plastic material. with relatively high electrical conductivity or other
special electrical properties.
8.1.5 Abrasive particles
8.1.8 Flammability
The source of such particles may be:
For many plastic applications, the consequences of
-- external dust entering into an inadequately
exposure to an actual flame must be considered.
sealed gear case;
This is important not only in electrical applications,
-- particles in an inadequately filtered lubricant; but also in any application where the plastic consti-
-- wear particles from one or more mating tutes a significant percentage of the exposed area of
gears, including particles of potentially abrasive a defined enclosed space, i.e., plastic housings.
additives; Typical tests measure combustibility, smoke genera-
tion, and ignition temperatures. The most common
-- wear particles from bearings or other sliding
test for thermoplastics are the UL Subject 94
components.
Flammability Class (see 5.5.4).
The major effect of such particles is the increased
8.2 Mechanical considerations
wear rate on the contacting gear surfaces. In some
reinforced materials, this wear may rapidly remove a Once the list of materials has been narrowed by the
polymer--rich tooth surface exposing the reinforcing elimination of those that do not satisfy environmental
material which may further increase wear. While requirements, the selection procedure should look at
material selection can play a role in reducing a gears mechanical requirements. These can then be
susceptibility to wear caused by these particles, it is matched against the appropriate mechanical prop-
generally preferred to design the abrasives out of the erties as discussed elsewhere in this document.

33
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

8.2.1 Gear tooth loading 8.2.4 Friction conditions

The information on tooth loading will be derived from Operational requirements may place limits on the
the product operating conditions translated into the coefficients of friction and thereby also restrict
following: material selection. The role of these friction
properties are:
-- load magnitude;
-- static coefficient, used to determine starting
-- type of load: static, dynamic, impact, or stall; loads;
-- load rate and frequency; -- dynamic coefficient, used to determine
operating efficiency.
-- number of repeated load cycles over the life
of the product; 8.2.5 Noise

-- direction of repeated load on each tooth: one The source of audible noise in gearing has generally
direction or reversed, as in an idler gear or been recognized to be the impacting and/or squeak-
reversing drive device. ing of the engagement/disengagement of gear teeth
and/or of gears turning on shafts. Wave energy from
This load information can be translated into material
initial events (impacts and/or squeaking) are then
strength requirements either by analytical or test
conducted through the gear material to and through
means, or by comparison to experience with similar
the materials of associated components of the
applications, with attention to bending, shear and
assembly, e.g., shafts, housings, etc. This con-
contact stresses.
ducted wave energy can then be radiated from
8.2.2 Speed surfaces of gears and the associated components of
the assembly. Additionally, forced/resonant vibra-
This information is applied as follows: tions of the structure of gears and associated
components of the assembly can amplify audible
-- along with duty cycle, to determine if
noise.
operational heating is a factor;
Audible noise reduction in assemblies that include
-- along with gear accuracy, to evaluate poten-
gears can be a high priority for engineers/designers.
tial dynamic effects (increase in tooth loading
from induced vibration); Reduction of noise can sometimes be accomplished
by judicious selection of materials for gears and
-- along with tooth contact pressures, to associated components in the assembly. In order to
determine effect on wear. achieve reduction in audible noise, selected materi-
als should lessen the impact and/or squeaking,
8.2.3 Wear conditions
reduce conduction of wave energy, and reduce the
The rate of wear generally cannot be predicted from radiation of audible noise from surfaces.
comparison of calculated wear factors to laboratory
In solids, impact and/or squeaking, conduction of
test data on plastic materials. However, such
wave energy, and radiation of audible noise from
factors, in combination with data from similar ap-
surfaces are determined, essentially, by six material
plications, may be useful for qualitative comparisons
properties: 1) lubricity; 2) wear; 3) hardness;
of candidate materials. The application data used
4) mass; 5) stiffness; and/or 6) damping. Audible
are:
noise generation in plastic materials is generally
-- tooth contact pressures, calculated from recognized as less of a problem when compared to
tooth loads and gear geometry; metals. This has been attributed to lower hardness,
higher lubricity, lower mass, lower stiffness and
-- tooth sliding velocity, calculated from rotation- higher damping.
al speed and gear geometry;
Lubricity (see 5.2), wear (see 5.2), hardness (see
-- PV factor for gears, calculated as the product
5.5.1 and 5.5.2), mass (see 5.5.3), stiffness (see
of the above items;
5.1.2), and damping (see 3.3.3 and 5.1.3) among
-- a relative measure of the total wear duration, plastics materials differs. Therefore, like the com-
such as the number of tooth load cycles. parison between plastics and metals, the judicious

34
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

choice of plastics materials through comparisons of 8.5 Cost considerations


these parameters need to be investigated.
If the material selection process at this point is left
with multiple choices, cost considerations may be
Another type of noise encountered by engineer/de-
responsible for the final selection. In evaluating the
signers is “visual” noise as is experienced in poor
costs associated with each of the materials, it is
print quality in copiers, computer printers, fax
important to consider all the cost elements, not just
machines, etc. This noise can be, generally,
the bulk cost of each material. These cost elements
correlated with some degree of loss of conjugate
will include:
action of gear interfaces. Typically, for visual noise
reduction through judicious materials selection, -- tooling cost, especially the cost of molds for
similar procedures as for audible noise reduction molded gears;
should be followed. However, increased emphasis -- raw material, where the relative scale of use
on wear resistance (see 5.2), needs to be in other molded parts may be a significant cost
considered. factor, and where regrind use and disposal may
be an additional factor;
8.3 Regulatory requirements
-- processing, which may include cycle time and
number of mold cavities for molding, cutting rate
This exposure may take place with the gears in food
for machining, tool maintenance, scrap rate, and
processing and serving devices. The primary
frequency to process adjustments to maintain
consideration is generally of the possible contami-
quality;
nating effect of the plastic on the food. Other
products, such as dental or medical devices, may -- secondary operations, including part han-
also contact substances that later enter the human dling and packing, made necessary for some
body or other living organisms. As a result, the materials and not for others because of relative
difficulties in initial processing;
plastic material selected must meet approval of the a
regulatory organization such as the National Sanita- -- assembly, where some materials may impose
tion Foundation (NSF) or the Food and Drug restrictions on some cases of press--fit or adhe-
Administration (FDA). These applications may also sive bonded joints.
require biocompatibility testing as outlined in ISO 8.5.1 Tooling (including mold)
10993, Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices.
In selecting the plastic material, it is important to
8.4 Manufacturing considerations consider whether it will impose special conditions on
the tools used to produce the gear. Tool costs may
The material selection may be further influenced by be greater for one material than for another,
manufacturing considerations. potentially both in initial cost and in the frequency of
maintenance or replacement.
8.4.1 Molding 8.5.1.1 Molding tools
The molding process generally presents a wide If the material must be processed at higher tempera-
choice of available materials, both in unmodified tures, the complexity and cost of the mold will be
form and as compounded with various additives. increased. Plastics with abrasive additions will
Even among the moldable materials, there may be require more frequent replacement of mold compo-
wide differences in the resulting gear quality. The nents and, often, molding machining components as
choice of the material may require changes in part well. Some other additives may produce a tough
design to reduce any molding difficulties. adhering film on mold surfaces, increasing mold
maintenance and reducing mold life.
8.4.2 Machining
8.5.1.2 Machining tools
Producing gears by machining introduces its own Frequency of resharpening and replacement, and
restrictions on material selection. These restrictions the associated loss of productivity, will be increased
may be the commercial availability of some materi- when the plastic material contains additives that
als. They may also come from practical consider- more rapidly dull or coat the cutting tools. If the
ations in the machining process. selected material tends to leave firmly attached burrs

35
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

after machining, more frequent sharpening may be Excess or unused material must be disposed of
needed to minimize this effect. This may also be properly, according to prevailing environmental law,
required when machining a material that more or may possibly be returned to the manufacturer if
readily deteriorates under the influence of the heat the containers are unopened. The manufacturer’s
produced by the cutting action. This heating may policy for these situations should be checked.
need to be limited by not allowing an otherwise
Material purchased for a machining operation will be
acceptable degree of dulling of the tool’s cutting
supplied in rod or bar form by a stock shape supplier.
edges before tool replacement is required.
These products will be priced based upon their
8.5.2 Raw material -- cost and availability dimensions (length and diameter, for example).
Most stock shape suppliers carry a wide variety of
The many types of plastic materials for use in gear products, produced from plastics supplied by many
applications described in this document are readily manufacturers. It may be possible, in some cases, to
available on a commercial scale from a number of specify the precise type and grade of plastic material
sources. Typically, plastics for gears will be pur- required.
chased in one of two forms, either as ready--to--use
pellets for a molding operation, or as bar or rod stock 8.5.3 Regrind
for a machining operation. The pellets for use in It is common in injection molding of plastic gears for a
molding operations may be purchased either directly significant percentage of the plastic material to be in
from the manufacturer, or through a distributor the sprue and runners that feed the resin to the gear
authorized to sell by the manufacturer. The pellet- cavities. The weight of this material may be
ized materials typically come packaged either in substantial in relation to the weight of the molded
bags (23 or 25 kg per bag, packaged on a pallet of up gears, and its cost becomes part of the total material
to 1000 kg in total weight) or lined boxes (usually cost. To offset this added cost, consideration is often
between 450 and 1000 kg in weight, depending upon given to regrinding some part of the runner systems,
the manufacturer and the grade of material). or other scrap of the same material, and blending this
“regrind” in to the virgin plastic material used for the
Packaged materials are shipped via truck, with
gears. Not only is there a savings in the reduction of
delivery times dependent upon shipping distance.
purchased material, but there may be added savings
Lead times necessary for an order to be shipped
through a reduction in any scrap disposal costs.
once it is received by the manufacturer or distributor
may vary from a few days or less for the most For many plastics, if regrind is properly processed
commonly used products, to six weeks or more for and limited in percentage of the total mix and in the
custom formulations or unusual materials. number of regrind cycles, this practice may be
followed without significant loss of material proper-
These products are typically sold on a delivered ties. For other plastics, for example those with long
basis (freight pre--paid and absorbed by the seller), fiber reinforcements, successive processing does
F.O.B. shipping point. The selling prices are set by degrade their properties and adding regrind may be
the manufacturer, and are expressed as dollars per restricted. In considering material cost as a factor in
kilogram of product. material selection, the suitability of using regrind and
Since plastics are sold on a weight basis, with the its percentage in the mix helps determine the true
specific gravity of differing grades of material often costs.
varying substantially, but finished products such as 8.5.4 Processing
gears are defined by a specified volume of material,
it is advisable to compare relative prices of plastic The term processing is a general but extremely
raw materials on a kilogram--volume cost basis. important component of injection molding. Process-
ing refers to the establishment and documentation of
Once the plastic material is received, it should be a stable thermoplastic injection molding “process”.
handled according to the manufacturer’s recom- The principal component or variables of the process
mendations, which may include specific instructions are time, temperature and pressure. Uniform proc-
for drying the product prior to use or other cautions essing plays an important role in controlling the
(for example, acetal polymers should never be accuracy and strength of gears. Lack of accurate
mixed with polymers containing PVC). processing can cause gears to be undersized,

36
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A01

oversized, have a poor physical appearance, and in and greater risk of cracking and rejection of
extreme cases can cause brittleness. When proc- assembled parts.
essing unfamiliar material, pay special attention to
8.6 Quality
the recommended setting on the material data
sheets supplied by the material manufacturer. Meeting gear quality requirements may be of
primary importance in the material selection pro-
8.5.5 Packing and handling
cess. Quality generally refers to the geometry of the
A plastic material that is more vulnerable to collision plastic gears, typically features defined by dimen-
damage at its gear tooth surfaces may require sional measurements, including those related to the
special protective packaging and additional han- shape and proportions of the individual teeth.
dling. This greater tendency for damage may result
8.6.1 Machining
from a lower surface hardness when the part is
released from the mold, or from a generally lower When the gear is to be manufactured by machining,
resistance to impact. the resulting quality is less often dependent on the
material selected. For most materials, the gear
8.5.6 Secondary operations for molded gears
geometry quality is determined by the machine and
Post molding operations may be needed for a variety cutting tools used, and by the care in establishing
of reasons. Machining is used to add features that and maintaining the process.
were not practical to be introduced in the molding
8.6.2 Molding
process. Material selection will then be influenced
by the need to maintain ease of machining and low The results of this process may vary depending on
cost. Another kind of post mold operation is the material selected. Molding gears of satisfactory
annealing or other thermal treatment used to reduce geometry requires tight control of shrinkage, both its
internal stresses or to increase dimensional stability. uniformity within the individual gear and its predict-
The need for such treatment, or its greater complex- ability and consistency over long runs. As men-
ity and cost, can result from ill advised selection of tioned in 4.2, some plastics do not shrink uniformly
one material over another. and this can affect gear quality. Variations in
lot--to--lot consistency of material should also be
8.5.7 Assembly operation
considered. Other material related issues which
Some plastic materials are better suited to the use of may affect gear quality include tool wear, plate--out,
snap--fits or similar assembly aids. Molded distor- process instability and regrind usage. These
tions that substantially add difficulty to the assembly considerations are best confronted by consultation
process may result from material selection. Such with the molder, tool builder and material supplier
distortions often require greater assembly forces early in the material selection process.

37
AGMA 920--A01 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

(This page is intentionally blank)

38
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 920--A00

Bibliography

The following documents are either referenced in the text of AGMA 920--A00, Materials for Plastic Gears or
indicated for additional information.

ANSI/AGMA 1006--A97, Tooth Proportions for Plas- ASTM D792--98, Standard Test Methods for Densi-
tic Gears ty and Specific Gravity (Relative Density) of Plastics
by Displacement
ASTM D256--97, Standard Test Methods for Deter-
mining the Izod Pendulum Impact Resistance of ASTM D1822--99, Standard Test Method for Ten-
Plastics sile--Impact Energy to Break Plastics and Electrical
Insulating Materials
ASTM D543--95, Standard Practices for Evaluating ASTM D2240--97e1, Standard Test Method for
the Resistance of Plastics to Chemical Reagents Rubber Property--Durometer Hardness
ASTM D570--98, Standard Test Method for Water ASTM D2990--01, Standard Test Methods for
Absorption of Plastics Tensile, Compressive, and Flexural Creep and
Creep--Rupture of Plastics
ASTM D635--98, Standard Test Method for Rate of
Burning and/or Extent and Time of Burning of ASTM D2863--97, Standard Test Method for Mea-
Plastics in a Horizontal Position suring the Minimum Oxygen Concentration to
Support Candle--Like Combustion of Plastics (Oxy-
ASTM D638--99, Standard Test Method for Tensile gen Index)
Properties of Plastics ASTM D3702--94 (1999), Standard Test Method for
ASTM D648--98c, Standard Test Method for Deflec- Wear Rate and Coefficient of Friction of Materials in
tion Temperature of Plastics Under Flexural Load in Self--Lubricated Rubbing Contact Using a Thrust
the Edgewise Position Washer Testing Machine
ASTM D3801--00, Standard Test Method for Mea-
ASTM D671--93, Standard Test Method for Flexural suring the Comparative Burning Characteristics of
Fatigue of Plastics by Constant--Amplitude--of-- Solid Plastics in a Vertical Position
Force
ASTM D4065--95, Standard Practice for Determin-
ASTM D696--98, Standard Test Method for Coeffi- ing and Reporting Dynamic Mechanical Properties
cient of Linear Thermal Expansion of Plastics of Plastics
Between --30°C and 30°C With a Vitreous Silica ASTM D4092--96, Standard Terminology Relating
Dilatometer to Dynamic Mechanical Measurements on Plastics
ASTM D732--99, Standard Test Method for Shear ASTM D5023--99, Standard Test Method for Mea-
Strength of Plastics by Punch Tool suring the Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Plas-
tics Using Three Point Bending
ASTM D746--98, Standard Test Method for Brittle-
ness Temperature of Plastics and Elastomers by ASTM D5024--95a, Standard Test Method for
Impact Measuring the Dynamic Mechanical Properties of
Plastics in Compression
ASTM D785--98, Standard Test Method for Rock- ASTM D5026--01, Standard Test Method for
well Hardness of Plastics and Electrical Insulating Plastics: Dynamic Mechanical Properties: In
Materials Tension
ASTM D790--99, Standard Test Methods for Flexu- ASTM D5279--99, Standard Test Method for Mea-
ral Properties of Unreinforced and Reinforced suring the Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Plas-
Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials tics in Torsion

39
AGMA 920--A00 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

ASTM D5418--99, Standard Test Method for Mea- ISO 10993--8:2000, Biological evaluation of
suring the Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Plas- medical devices -- Part 8: Selection and
tics Using a Dual Cantilever Beam qualification of reference materials for biological
tests
ASTM E662--97, Standard Test Method for Specific
Optical Density of Smoke Generated by Solid ISO 10993--9:1999, Biological evaluation of
Materials medical devices -- Part 9: Framework for identifica-
tion and quantification of potential degradation
ASTM F433, Standard Practice for Evaluating products
Thermal Conductivity of Gasket Materials
ISO 10993--10:1995, Biological evaluation of
IEC 60695--2--10, Fire hazard testing -- Part 2--10: medical devices -- Part 10: Tests for irritation and
Glowing/hot--wire based test methods -- Glow wire sensitization
apparatus and common test procedure
ISO 10993--11:1993, Biological evaluation of
IEC 60695--2--11, Fire hazard testing -- Part 2--11: medical devices -- Part 11: Tests for systemic
Glowing/hot--wire based test methods -- Glow--wire toxicity
flammability test method for end products
ISO 10993--12:1996, Biological evaluation of
IEC 60695--2--12, Fire hazard testing -- Part 2--12: medical devices -- Part 12: Sample preparation and
Glowing/hot--wire based test methods -- Glow--wire reference materials
flammability test method for materials
ISO 10993--13:1998, Biological evaluation of
IEC 60695--2--13, Fire hazard testing -- Part 2--13: medical devices -- Part 13: Identification and
Flowing/hot--wire based test methods -- Glow--wire quantification of degradation products from
ignitability test method for materials polymeric medical devices

ISO 10350--1:1998, Plastics -- Acquisition and ISO 10993--14:2001, Biological evaluation of


presentation of comparable single--point data -- Part medical devices -- Part 14: Identification and
1: Moulded plastics quantification of degradation products from
ceramics
ISO 10993--1:1997, Biological evaluation of
ISO 10993--15:2000, Biological evaluation of
medical devices -- Part 1: Evaluation and testing
medical devices -- Part 15: Identification and
ISO 10993--2:1992, Biological evaluation of quantification of degradation products from metals
medical devices -- Part 2: Animal welfare and alloys
requirements
ISO 10993--16:1997, Biological evaluation of
ISO 10993--3:1992, Biological evaluation of medical devices -- Part 16: Toxicokinetic study
medical devices -- Part 3: Tests for genotoxicity, design for degradation products and leachables
carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity
ISO 11403--1:1994, Plastics -- Acquisition and
ISO 10993--4:1992, Biological evaluation of presentation of comparable multipoint data -- Part 1:
medical devices -- Part 4: Selection of tests for Mechanical properties
interactions with blood ISO 11403--2:1995, Plastics -- Acquisition and
presentation of comparable multipoint data -- Part 2:
ISO 10993--5:1999, Biological evaluation of
Thermal and processing properties
medical devices -- Part 5: Tests for in vitro
cytotoxicity ISO 11403--3:1999, Plastics -- Acquisition and
presentation of comparable multipoint data -- Part 3:
ISO 10993--6:1994, Biological evaluation of
Environmental influences on properties
medical devices -- Part 6: Tests for local effects after
implantation U.L. 94, Test for Flammability of Plastic Materials for
Parts in Devices and Appliances
ISO 10993--7:1995, Biological evaluation of
medical devices -- Part 7: Ethylene oxide U.L. 746B, Polymeric Materials -- Long Term
sterilization residuals Property Evaluation

40
(This page is intentionally left blank.)
PUBLISHED BY
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
1500 KING STREET, ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA 22314

Вам также может понравиться