Facial Expressions: using realistic animations,

facial muscle action and expressive faces in stained glass

to design and evaluate a web-based tool for fine art instructors

by
Marlene Herbst Loth

A Master’s Research Paper

submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Biomedical Communications
MScBMC
offered through the
Institute of Medical Science, School of Graduate Studies
in collaboration with
Biomedical Communications
Institute of Communication and Culture
University of Toronto at Mississauga

© Copyright by Marlene Herbst Loth, 2005

Abstract

A prototype of an interactive web-based tool was designed for fine art instructors to present a
visual index of photographic facial expressions clarifying the movements of facial muscles,
examined in the context of traditional stained glass windows. Six basic expression categories
considered by psychologists to be recognizable across cultures were selected as the
foundation of the learning tool. Eleven undergraduate students from the University of
Toronto at Scarborough (UTSC) volunteered to evaluate the program using a preliminary
assessment questionnaire and a post presentation questionnaire. In addition, the researcher
collected informal written feedback that revealed design, navigation and labeling issues not
covered in the questionnaires. The students’ assessment indicated that the interactive
prototype successfully communicated that sensory stimuli, human emotional display, facial
expressions and the movements of facial muscles were strongly interrelated. The students
considered the interactive muscle illustration a good tool for artists to study anatomy. The
concept that there are several degrees of each of the six basic expressions was judged
reasonably clear. Evaluation results indicated students considered it essential to study
photographic faces in context with artistic depictions of facial expressions.

2
 Acknowledgements

Many thanks to the members of my Master’s Research Project Committee:

Supervisor:
Leila Lax, B.A., B.Sc.AAM, M.Ed.
Assistant Professor, Biomedical Communications,
Institute of Communication and Culture, University of Toronto at Mississauga &
Associate Member, Institute of Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine,
University of Toronto

Co-Supervisor, 2nd Voting Member:

Linda Wilson-Pauwels, AOCA, B.Sc.AAM, M.Ed., Ed.D.
Professor, Biomedical Communications,
Institute of Communication and Culture, University of Toronto at Mississauga &
Director, M.Sc.BMC program and Associate Member,
Institute of Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto

Committee Members:
Shirley Ann Brown, B.I.D., M.A., Ph.D.
Professor, Art History
Department of Visual Arts, York University
Atkinson Faculty of Liberal and Professional Studies

Patricia Stewart, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.

Professor Division of Anatomy, Department of Surgery
Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto

Jodie Jenkinson, B.A, M.Sc.BMC

Assistant Professor, Biomedical Communications,
Institute of Communication and Culture, University of Toronto at Mississauga &
Associate Member, Institute of Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine,
University of Toronto

Sharon Nancekivell, B.A., B.Ed., M.A.

Assistant Professor, Biomedical Communications,
Institute of Communication and Culture, University of Toronto at Mississauga &
Associate Member, Institute of Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine,
University of Toronto

3
Introduction
Artistic interest in individual facial features developed during the 5th century B.C.
when Greek artists turned for inspiration to direct observation from nature. The artist
Lysippos (4th and 3rd century B.C.) appears to have used plaster molds of living faces as
models for his portraits (Grüsser 1984). While individual features rarely dominate in
medieval paintings and sculptures, the portrait art of the late Gothic and Renaissance periods
soon reached an admirable state of perfection in the depiction of realistic expressions. During
the Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer initiated the first
scientific studies of the body to enhance artistic understanding of anatomy, physiognomy and
emotional expression (Vollmer 1956; Koerner 1993). Leonardo’s advice when studying
facial expressions was to “be a calm spectator of how people laugh and weep, hate and love,
blanch from horror and cry out in pain; look, learn, investigate, observe, in order that thou
mayst come to know the expression of all human emotions.” 1
Although direct observation of emotion in everyday life is not an easy solution, it is
important to the accurate and realistic depiction of facial expressions. When we see people in
the grip of strong emotions there are major obstacles. Expressions don’t last very long; they
are frequently very subtle when they do last; and we usually feel too inhibited or involved to
look on objectively when someone else is suffering anguish or pain (Faigin 1990).

Facial anatomy for the artist

For artists seeking to learn about facial expressions, real world direct observation is
often replaced by references. Traditionally artists refer to the work of other fine artists, books
and photographs to study emotional expression and facial anatomy. More recently, many
artists use references found on the World Wide Web.
In his Atlas of human anatomy for the artist, Peck (1951) discusses theoretical aspects
of facial expressions based on the work of Darwin and includes drawings of expressive facial

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1
Quotation used by Peck, Atlas of human anatomy for the artist (1951), pg. 249, from
a translation of Merejkowski, The romance of Leonardo da Vinci, 1931.

4
features involving the eyes, nose and mouth. Darwin’s The expression of the emotions in man
and animals (1897) remains to this day an excellent book on the subject. In Peck’s
subsequent text, Atlas of facial expression: an account of facial expression for artists, actors
and writers (1987), the author observes that artists, actors and writers are probably the most
vigilant observers and most accurate recorders of facial expressions. Peck includes good
drawings and colourful descriptions of the six basic facial expression categories in this
volume, but doesn’t include any photographs from life. Photographs that capture spontaneous
emotions in a striking way are powerful reference tools for the artist, designer and illustrator.
We are instinctively drawn to photographs of the face, where the movements of the
soul are clear (Faigin 1990). Timelli and Verucchi’s Expression gestualita: Semiologia del
disegno anatomico (1987) features excellent photographs of live models, as well as good line
drawings of facial expressions, but does not feature any facial anatomy. In contrast, Faigin
(1990) takes a comprehensive approach to the subject of facial expression. In The artist's
complete guide to facial expression, he deals specifically with depiction of the subtleties of
human emotion and the muscles of expression. Faigin acknowledges a debt to Ekman (1978)
and other contemporary psychologists who study facial expressions. Their research was a
major source in the development of Faigin’s book. The volume consists of three parts: the
structure of the head, the muscles of expression and the six basic expressions. Faigin’s
drawings are based on hundreds of his own photographs of actors portraying various
expressions and on newspaper photographs and magazines. He freely admits that his methods
were hardly scientific and it was difficult to draw conclusions from the results (Faigin 1990,
p.14). In the end, about half of his expression drawings were based on photographs from
spontaneous situations.
The first scientific photographs of facial expressions in a live model were taken by
de Boulogne to illustrate and therefore prove a series of experiments investigating the
structure of human facial muscles. De Boulogne’s book Mecanisme de la physionomie
humaine (1862) contained over 100 original photographic prints pasted into an
accompanying album. De Boulogne combined his intimate knowledge of facial anatomy with
his skill in photography and expertise in using electricity to stimulate individual facial
muscles. He produced a fascinating interpretation of the ways in which the human face

5
portrays emotions. To illustrate and photograph the expression of fear, de Boulogne used
multiple electrodes applied to both the neck and the forehead. The muscles he activated in the
fear expression included corrugator, risorius and platysma. In Muscles: testing and function
(Kendall and Kendall 1949), the testing of twenty-one neck, facial and throat muscles are
demonstrated in photographs using a live model. Grant’s atlas of anatomy (Anderson 1983)
includes photographs of nine facial expressions demonstrating the muscles of expression in
action. Each photograph is labeled for a specific muscle.
Exactly which facial muscles are involved in specific expressions of emotion is still
an area of controversy. There are major disagreements in anatomy textbooks on a number of
key issues (Faigin 1990, p. 16). For example, no two texts seem to agree on exactly which
muscles make us smile. While some books insist that the risorius is crucial to the action,
others assert that this is totally incorrect. Some even dispute the very existence of the muscle,
saying that it’s really another muscle – the platysma that does the work. Several other facial
muscles are in a similar position of having their very existence in doubt. The muscles of the
face are so minute, so confusingly deployed under the surface and of so little interest to
researchers (not being crucial in disease, sports, or disabling injuries) that some fundamental
questions are still unresolved (Faigin 1990, p. 16).
This makes the prospect of visualizing and depicting exactly what is going on under
the skin in an emotional expression very challenging. Lack of fundamental knowledge and
references that include only part of the information are drawbacks for the fine art instructor
teaching facial anatomy. Isolated references such as drawings and illustrations of anatomical
dissections are found in a number of anatomical atlases. In Grant’s atlas of anatomy (1983)
illustrations 7-15A and 7-17 are good references for some facial muscles. Gray’s anatomy
(Gray 1959) has a useful drawing of the muscles of the face, head and neck with a good
description of the action of frontalis and occipitalis. In the Atlas of human anatomy
(Spalteholz 1969), dissections of facial muscles are included in five plates. In A.D.A.M.
student atlas of anatomy (Olson 1996), two detailed drawings of the superficial muscles of
the face, plates 7.21 and 7.22 are useful. In Anatomy and physiology (Seeley, Stephens, and
Tate 1995) a table includes detailed information on facial muscles, their origin, insertion and
function along with illustrations and photographs of the muscles of facial expression.

6
Web sites with images and animations of facial expressions and muscles
Existing online resources suffer from the same problems that are found in traditional
media. There is no comprehensive online resource for fine art students that combines realistic
facial expressions with the anatomy of facial muscles. Photographs of facial expressions and
two and three-dimensional computer animations are included on web sites showcasing the
research of various computer science departments or individuals researching facial
expressions. These are interesting isolated examples, but are generally too focused on
specific aspects of the subject. An example is the collection of six photographic faces of
Andrei State, senior researcher at the Department of Computer Science, University of North
Carolina: http://www.cs.unc.edu/~andrei/expressions/.
Animations of facial expressions have been created as a collaborative effort at the
University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie Mellon University: http://www-
2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/user/ytw/www/facial.html These fascinating 2-D animations
depict six basic facial expressions, applied to real facial features to extract information about
facial motion. Clicking on each face begins a sequence of movements in which lines appear
indicating the strength and direction of the movement (Cohn et al. 1997). At Stanford
University, DiPaola (2001) simulates different facial expressions with an interactive 3-D face
as part of his research using the computer software Façade:
http://dipaola.org/stanford/facade/movies/ronny_demo.mov
Online images and animations of the muscles of facial expression are featured on
HTML pages and as components of anatomy lessons and teaching modules. A typical
example is the web site of Norman (1999) with images from several anatomy atlases:
http://mywebpages.comcast.net/wnor/lesson1.htm. Existing online tools for learning the
muscles of facial expression are either poorly rendered or the interactivity is unsatisfactory.
For instance, primary colours and over-simplification characterize the interactive diagrams of
facial muscles at the Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine web site:
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/GrossAnatomy/dissector/mml/mmlregn.htm.
The muscles of facial expression on the BBC science and nature page
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/facial/frontalis_animation.shtml)

7
include only two facial muscles, orbicularis oris and frontalis, in a simple animation game. In
order to be a useful learning tool, at least eleven of the muscles responsible for facial
expressions would have to be included in the game.
Cynthia Yoon’s (2003) use of a Flash animation to teach the Manktelow-Zuker
measurement technique for objective evaluation of facial paralysis is an excellent prototypic
interactive tool. It includes techniques such as morphing from the surface anatomy to the
underlying muscles and the skull. In addition, it includes the ability to affect movements of
the muscles of facial expression.
In recent times there has been a resurgence of research involving facial expressions
led by psychologists rather than anatomists. The focus of their interest is the subject of
nonverbal communication. Hager (2003) is author of the DataFace site and co-author of the
Facial Action Coding System (FACS) by Ekman, Friesen and Hager (2002). These
researchers have developed an anatomically based coding system for the objective study of
facial action, a system that outlines specific actions produced by particular facial muscles.
The DataFace site (http://www.face-and emotion.com/dataface/general/about.jsp)
includes samples of research from Ekman, the leading authority on the subject of facial
expressions. It also contains information dealing with theories of emotion, physiognomy and
facial anatomy. An interactive diagram for learning about the muscles of facial expression is
featured on the DataFace site. Although the content of the Hager site is excellent and no
other resource deals with facial expressions in such a comprehensive way, the interface
design could be improved. The main problem is that the text, photographs and animations are
loosely organized around various topics with no central visual theme.

Development of emotional expression in stained glass

Emotional expression as a form of nonverbal communication has long attracted the
attention of stained glass artists. They traditionally painted vivid facial expressions onto glass
and fired the painted details in a kiln for a permanent bond. The appearance of a genuine
expression of emotion would prompt beholders to experience feelings of joy or fear and to
weep or grieve with the protagonist in a window. It is a short step from recognizing the
face’s powerful grip on our consciousness and the primal nature of expressions to

8
recognizing that the same power applies to painted depictions of the face (Faigin 1990). By
moving viewers to identify with the emotions of people in stained glass windows, art gained
a great deal in power and impact. It allowed the beholder to empathize with the depicted
personalities. It is no coincidence that nearly every acknowledged master of Western art was
a master of facial expression including Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528), who in addition to being
a brilliant portraitist also designed excellent stained glass windows.
Stained glass has always reflected contemporary artistic and cultural trends in
drawing, painting and sculpture but it was not until the 16th century that this form of art
featured figures with authentic detail, including faces that convincingly expressed surprise,
horror, anger, sadness, joy and derision. Traditional stained glass windows dating from the
16th century onwards exhibit a lively and coordinated set of facial expressions that commonly
occur within specific historical scenes and episodes. These visual passages, designed to tell a
story or illustrate text from the scriptures, are the medieval equivalent of modern cinema
(Lee, Seddon and Stephens 1982; Reyntiens 1990). Biblical text is replete with references to
powerful human emotions. In Strong’s Concordance (Strong 1967), which lists every word in
the old and new testaments, the word “fear” and its variations occur 529 times and “anger”
occurs a total of 275 times. “Sad”, “sorrow” and “grief” together occur 250 times. The words
“joy” and “happy” together occur 226 times. Finally, “Abhor,” “scorn,” and “derision” occur
89 times while “astonished”, “amazed” and “surprise” occur 81 times. Realistic stained glass
faces that depict the six basic facial expressions are a good resource for students of fine art
interested in learning about how other artists have historically interpreted the emotions.

Research Problem
An analysis of facial expressions cannot be undertaken without some investigation of
the emotions that cause them and some comprehension of the facial anatomy that produces
them (Peck 1987). Since emotion, facial expression and muscular anatomy are interrelated
phenomena that involve stimulus and response, structure and function, it makes sense that art
students should study them in an integrated manner. There is, to date, no online tool that
explains facial expressions using realistic animations in conjunction with an inventory of fine
art images such as those found in figurative stained glass. In addition, online resources that

9
illustrate the muscles of facial expression occur mainly as components of anatomy
courseware or anatomy lab simulators.
The purpose of this research project was to design a prototype web-based tool to
teach the six basic facial expressions (Peck 1987, Faigin 1990), the way they are formed, and
traditionally depicted in the art of stained glass. Fine art students evaluated the prototype.

The objectives of this project were

1. To design a tool for fine art instructors in which six categories of facial expressions
(photographic faces and examples of faces painted on glass) could be visually compared
and contrasted at a glance.
2. To develop a program that links the six facial expressions to the muscles of
expression and appropriate text descriptions.
3. To develop a dynamically interactive way to communicate the concept that
stimuli, human emotional display, facial expressions and the movements of facial
muscles are strongly interrelated.
4. To evaluate whether the realistic (photographic) face used in conjunction with
examples of faces painted on stained glass and an interactive section demonstrating facial
muscles, were useful tools for teaching the six categories of facial expressions.

Description of prototype web-based tool

A brief overview
From the perspective of an instructor, it is important to offer a visually appealing
program, not one that is boring, obsolete or confusing. This requires the use of sound theory
and design in the conception of the interactive tool and careful testing and evaluation of its
effectiveness (Mullet 1995). In order to engage a population of fine art students, a learning
program that imparts a sense of discovery, fun and participation in the process of selecting
and developing content may be an appropriate approach. This requires an interface with
flexibility, where comparisons can be visually assessed and accepted or rejected, and fine art
images can be substituted for more satisfactory or appropriate alternatives. An online tool

10
would also allow the instructor to make current course work available for students to review
after class.

Six categories of facial expression

The web-based tool was designed with six categories of facial expressions as a
foundation and central theme to which all subsequent details were connected. The use of
these categories was based on the work of Peck (1987) and Faigin (1990). These basic
categories are recognized by anthropologists who study communication and sociality and are
used by researchers in the field of psychology (Schmidt and Cohn 2001) Studies have shown
these universal facial expressions to be recognizable across cultures. Although there are those
who disagree about the facial configurations associated with particular emotional situations,
most researchers today concede the cross-cultural consistency of the combinations of facial
movements (behavioral phenotypes) that make up the expressions of happiness, surprise,
sadness, fear, anger, and disgust (Schmidt and Cohn 2001). In his seminal work on the
expression of the emotions, Darwin (1897) correctly theorized that certain states, such as
annoyance, anger and rage, are variations of each other and can be linked by a scale of
intensity, whereas others, such as happiness and sadness, are polar opposites (Collier 1985).
The classification scheme that incorporates increasing intensity of emotion on a continuous
scale (Cohn et al 1997; Rolls 1999) was the model that was adopted for the animation of
facial expressions in this study.

To convey the six categories of facial expressions, the program was divided into three
sections:
1. Photographs of a male model’s face in which sliders were used to animate the
expressions
2. An interactive section with muscle buttons and sliders to demonstrate the muscles
of facial expression and their actions
3. A section to display portions of stained glass windows depicting faces
showing one of the six selected facial expressions.

11
1. Photographic facial expression component
A series of original photographs of a
male model were taken to depict a
neutral face and three degrees of each
of the six expressions on a scale of
mild to extreme (Figure 1). One
hundred and forty photographs in
frontal, three-quarter and side views
were recorded with a Nikon Coolpix
4500 digital camera. Figure 1. Neutral expression and three degrees of fear
on a scale of mild to extreme, frontal view

As an aid to simulating the expressions, a series of hand-drawn visual references were

created. These drawings, representing increasing intensity of emotion (Figure 2), were
based on the work of Cohn et al (1997) and Rolls (1999). Additional visual references
came from the photographs of de Boulogne (1862) and Timelli and Verucchi (1987).

shock ecstasy anguish terror rage revulsion

surprise happiness sadness fear anger disgust
confusion pleasure pensiveness apprehension frustration disdain

Figure 2. Hand-drawn visual references for simulating degrees of each of the six basic facial expressions

12
 The one hundred and forty
photographs of the model were
subsequently organized into six
facial expression categories and
three views. They were then
animated with Flash MX and
sequenced so that they could
be manipulated with a scaled
slider (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Animation (morphing) of the photographic
anger face using a scaled slider

2. Human muscles of facial expression component

An outline drawing of the face of the model and the muscles of facial expression were
drawn in Flash MX. Each muscle consisted of a textured line drawing with two-tone
flesh-coloured shading. The individual muscles were converted into interactive, rollover
muscle buttons. Activation of these buttons displayed a text description of the origin,
insertion and action of each muscle of facial expression. In addition, animated sequences
controlled by sliders were designed to show the contraction of the frontalis muscle in
expressions of fear and surprise, and its position on the skull (Figure 4. A and B).

A B
Figure 4. A) Interactive, rollover muscle buttons and B) animated sequence showing frontalis muscle in an
expression of fear and surprise

13
3. Stained glass facial expression component
The stained glass faces in six expression categories used for the interactive tool were
from multiple sources. Stained glass windows were photographed at twenty-one churches
in Toronto and Peterborough based on stylistic criteria. The windows chosen featured
realistic contemporary or traditional portrayals of figures depicting emotional incidents
with excellent examples of facial expressions. Some restoration and contemporary
windows were photographed at Robert McCausland Ltd., Toronto.2 Sixteen expressive
faces were also found in books on stained glass (see photographic credits).
Approximately 170 photographs were chosen from the three sources as possibilities and
these were narrowed down to 48 selections based on their outstanding portrayal of one of
the six basic facial expressions. The photographs were re-sized to match the realistic
facial expressions using Adobe PhotoShop. In addition, the backgrounds were changed to
a neutral grey to remove distracting colours and details.

Interface Design
To aid the instructor in presenting a visual index of photographic faces in context
with the movements of facial muscles and facial expressions in stained glass windows, a
welcome page was designed. This introductory page featured the title, The Expressive Face
in Stained Glass: an interactive tool to aid in understanding facial expressions and muscle
anatomy, and six images to convey the theme of the interface. The images depicted six
categories of facial expressions in stained glass windows with rollover labels to identify each
expression. In addition, a moving field of applicable text, positioned beneath the six images
provided additional visual clues to the content of the site. To combat cognitive overload in
the design of a complex and dynamically interactive interface, it is essential to state the goal
and provide a central theme or concept to which all subsequent details may be connected
(Tufte 1990, Zimmerman 1997).
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2
Robert McCausland Ltd. is the oldest stained glass studio in North America. Since its
inception in 1856, the firm has produced more than 36,000 windows for churches and
synagogues worldwide.

14
The visual appearance of each page was designed to be consistent throughout. Consistency
puts the emphasis on changes in data, rather than on changes in data frames (Tufte 1990).
The use of near-symmetrical page layouts was intended to unify and impart harmony to the
interface. The icons and buttons of each of the six basic expressions were given equal
prominence and the symmetrical arrangement of headings, windows and icons provided a
functional solution when there was no need for emphasis or differentiation of subsets (Mullet
1995), Figure 5.

Figure 5. Symmetrical arrangement and equal size of

images emphasize their equal importance

On the page featuring the six categories of facial expressions, changes in the
expressions were communicated by the use of six sliders that functioned like thermometers.
The colour in each thermometer scale changed from a neutral blue-grey to vermilion, to
reinforce the idea that increasing the strength of a stimulus makes a facial expression more
extreme. Tying colour to changes in a slider scale is an elementary and straightforward way
of communicating changes in a dynamic system (Tufte 1990).
To facilitate the instructor’s comparisons of realistic faces and artists’ interpretations
in stained glass, both types of visual information were given equal prominence on the screen.
Images, labels and text were kept in close proximity to eliminate the struggle between
maintenance of context and enforcement of comparison. Proximity would allow the
instructor to compare and contrast the stained glass images while manipulating the realistic

15
expressions with the six centrally located sliders. Keeping all elements positioned within the
eyespan would allow comparisons to be made at a glance (Tufte 1990).
On the page depicting muscle anatomy, the illustration of facial muscles was given
greater prominence because the muscle buttons control the action in the two flanking
windows, displaying appropriate text and animations. On the page explaining the
significance of using stained glass windows in a study of human expression, icon buttons of
stained glass faces were designed to correspond to faces in the stained glass windows.
Appropriate historical descriptions and dates displayed in each window. A zoom function
was designed to let the instructor point out additional details such as hand gestures, body
language and the context of the incidents depicted (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Photograph of a fear expression from a window

at St. Michael’s Cathedral, Toronto

Method of evaluation

Study population
Lora Carney, associate professor, Division of Humanities (Visual and Performing
Arts and Womens Studies), University of Toronto at Scarborough (UTSC), assisted in the
selection of students for the evaluation. Eleven undergraduates, eight females and three
males, participated in the study. Two of these were fine art and art history majors, three were
fine art majors, four were art history majors, one was a society, environment and art history

16
student and one was an English and art student. Each student was offered a UofT Bookstore
gift certificate for participation. The study was approved by the ethics board of the University
of Toronto.

Procedure
The evaluation took place on Nov. 29th, 2004 in the new management building (mw
264) at the Scarborough campus of the University of Toronto. The program was introduced
by the author and reviewed online by the participants, guided by the author. All text was read
out loud to the participants. The group study was conducted in two parts: (1) a preliminary
assessment questionnaire (Appendix I) and (2) during presentation informal written feedback
and a post presentation questionnaire (Appendix II).
In the first part of the study, the preliminary assessment questionnaire was used to
determine the subjects’ opinions about topic-specific issues prior to viewing the program, to
gather information on demographics and to investigate prior knowledge of facial expressions.
In the second part of the study, data were collected during and immediately after
presentation of the learning material. As the prototype web-based learning tool was presented
by the researcher, the subjects were asked to provide informal written feedback on what they
liked or disliked about each page of the interface. They were asked to be candid about their
opinions and write down all their thoughts immediately. The open-ended method of data
collection was used to investigate additional and potentially important ideas on areas not
covered in the questionnaires.
At the end of the second part of the study, immediately following prototype
presentation, subjects were asked to complete the post presentation questionnaire, evaluating
the quality of the web site as a learning tool and the visuals.

Analysis of data
The preliminary assessment questionnaire was analyzed both quantitatively and
qualitatively. The informal written feedback comments were sorted into themes. Data from
the post presentation questionnaire was analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively.

17
Results
3. Preliminary assessment questionnaire
Demographics indicated that three students were fine art majors, four were fine art
history majors and two were majoring in both these fields. The remaining two subjects were
majors in other fields taking elective art history courses. Participants indicated that the study
of facial expressions was most important and relevant for actors, artists and interpreters
(Figure 7).

category description no. of positive

responses

actors study expressions to seem more realistic

11

artists study expressions to visually communicate various emotions

11

interpreters watch faces of speakers to accurately determine the message

9
to translate

caregivers of observe facial expressions to interpret childrensÕ feelings

8
preverbal infants

computer study the behavioral science of the face to design effective

8
scientists interfaces
police study faces of suspects to determine if they are telling the
7
detectives truth

medical
3
personnel observe facial expressions during physical exams

Figure 7. Results of quantitative analysis

Six of the eleven (54.5%) subjects rated themselves as being very good at judging facial
expressions. Seven of the eleven (63.6%) subjects indicated that they were not very good or
poor at understanding the muscular mechanics of faces. Seven (63.6%) of the participants
acknowledged that an online tool for learning about facial expressions would be useful or
somewhat useful depending on what you were studying (Figure 8). The students suggested
that the proposed program would be useful if you were studying realism, but of questionable
use when studying abstract art.

18
Figure 8. Results of questions 3, 4 and 5

When the subjects were asked to list the six basic facial expressions recognizable across
cultures, all subjects chose happiness (11/11) and sadness (11/11) as key emotions. This was
followed by anger (8/11). Other emotions mentioned included surprise, excitement,
confusion, shock and fear. The choices corresponded well with three of the six basic facial
expressions, happiness, sadness and anger. The correlation with surprise was less strong,
with fear least strong, and no mention was made of disgust.

Post Presentation Questionnaire

Analysis of the post presentation questionnaire indicated that 9/11 (81.8%) of
participants found the concept of degree or intensity of each of the six basic expressions
was clearly or fairly clearly communicated. The two windows to compare and contrast
realistic facial expressions with artists’ renderings were judged to work well or fairly well
by 8/11 (72.7%) of the subjects. Nine of eleven (81.8%) participants indicated that it was
essential to study artistic depiction of facial expressions with reference to the photographed
face to fully explore intensity and complexity of human emotional expression (Figure 9).

19
Figure 9. Results of questions 1.a., 1.e. and 1.g.

Results indicated that the subjects considered the facial anatomy section an interesting and
informative part of the interface. All participants were of the opinion that the anatomical
illustrations of the facial muscles were clear 4/11 (36.3%) to fairly clear 7/11(63.6%). Nine
of the eleven subjects (81.8%) felt that the grid was effective in visualizing facial and muscle
movements. Ten of the eleven (90.9%) participants indicated that the interactive prototype
successfully communicated the concept that sensory stimuli, human emotional display, facial
expressions and the movements of facial muscles were strongly interrelated (Figure 10).

Figure 10.
Results of questions
2.a., 2.d. and 2.e.

20
From the evidence presented, eight of the eleven subjects (72.7%) indicated that they saw a
correlation between the six realistic facial expression categories and the six expression
categories in stained glass. Although the subjects did not use the web site as a research tool,
the majority of participants hypothetically indicated that the interface could function very
well 3/11 (27.2%) or fairly well 5/11 (45.5%) as a research tool (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Results of questions 1.i. and 1.j.

Informal written feedback

Data collected during the presentation, from the informal written feedback sheets,
were sorted by theme. These data revealed additional issues not covered in the
questionnaires.
• importance of consistency and clarity in text formatting
• appropriate use of colour for text fonts
• importance of highlighting keywords
• use of navigational arrows
• additional labels, dates and descriptions for historically referencing the images
• inclusion of an online quiz on reading facial expressions for self-assessment
• links to an email address for communication with the author (i.e. feedback comments)
• credentials of the author and committee members, etc.

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Discussion
Traditionally, the major emphasis of anatomy textbooks for artists has been to reveal
and explain muscular dissection and skeletal structure from the perspective of the laboratory
medical anatomist. In this prototype web-based tool, the emphasis was instead on the inter-
relationship of stimuli, human emotional display, facial expressions and the movements of
facial muscles. This inter-relationship was successfully accomplished through the
development and evaluation of the interactive thermometer sliders demonstrating various
intensities of emotion. Systematic collection of visual data using photography was key to
effective development. Use of photographic data in combination with Flash computer
software supported this novel presentation. In Designing visual interfaces: communication
oriented techniques, Mullet (1995) writes that problem solving and communication, not
personal expression, is the key to effective visual design for graphical user interfaces. This
implies that intellectual criteria and systematic problem solving should inform creative
decisions.
The problems that confronted Faigin in his excellent contribution to the literature of
art instruction, The artist’s complete guide to facial expressions (1990), were similar to the
problems I encountered in the development of my interactive teaching tool. Faigin based all
his drawings on photographs of actors portraying various expressions and on newspaper
photographs and magazines. He admits that his methods were not that scientific and that it
was difficult to draw conclusions from the results (Faigin 1990). My approach to this
problem was intentionally more systematic. I familiarized myself with research on human
emotion and facial expressions and then provided the model with hand-drawn visual
references to simulate the expressions, which I then photographed and categorized according
to each expression. My goal was to use realistic photographs in combination with artists’
interpretations of facial expressions in stained glass to allow students to critically examine
the various intensities of the six facial expressions. Although traditional textbooks provide
excellent resource and reference material they are not interactive. The inter-relationship
between dimensions of facial expression and musculature is most effectively demonstrated in
an interactive online teaching tool, easily accessible to students via the World Wide Web.

22
 The second problem that confronted me was again similar to that experienced by
Faigin. As highlighted earlier in this paper, there is much disagreement in anatomy textbooks
on exactly which muscles are involved in each specific facial expression (Faigin 1990). Until
anatomists resolve more of the fundamental issues, the prospect of accurately depicting what
is going on under the skin will remain a challenge. The solutions I developed in the muscle
anatomy portion of my interface are far from satisfactory. Initial exploration of this visual
problem has led to a solution using interactive buttons to display origins, insertions and
actions of muscles. Although this is informative, it is incomplete. A comprehensive visual
guide to muscle movements in the six basic facial expressions, superimposed on the model’s
face would be a significant addition to this learning tool.
This study indicates students in studio courses and fine art history courses have
different preferences in learning tools. This finding has implications for where and how this
learning tool should be used. Students taking studio, a combination of studio and art history
or elective courses found the muscle anatomy component intriguing and useful as an aid to
learning the appearance and names of facial muscles. This preference is suggested by
comments from these students such as: “the muscle anatomy is the most interesting part of
the site because it is new information that is not as easily observed.”
Art history students, on the other hand, indicated more interest in issues such as
historical context and dates. They prefer labeling all images, adding text references and
highlighting keywords as well as indicating sources for all the stained glass faces. They also
prefer to use facial expressions from other sources in fine art history such as drawings,
paintings and sculptures, in order to broaden the scope of the tool and make it appropriate to
a larger audience.

Conclusions
In summary, the development and evaluation of this prototype web-based tool
demonstrates that more research is necessary to determine the specific needs and preferences
of students in fine art studio and art history courses. This study involved a relatively small
number of students and although substantial data were collected, there are many questions

23
left unanswered. Additional corrections and adjustments to the prototype could be made
when it is published online and used by subsequent populations of students.
Further research is needed to extend anatomical knowledge of the muscles of the face
before determinations can be made on how they influence the six categories of facial
expressions depicted in fine art. Anatomical research and first-hand observation might be
accomplished with the assistance of facial plastic surgeons that have specialized knowledge
of the minute and inter-connected muscles of the face.
Additional investigation of human emotional expression in stained glass windows
would also help to establish their relevance to a study of the six basic facial expressions for
students of fine art. The connection that has been established in this study is preliminary and
the source of images very local in nature. Extending the scope to include a more international
selection of images would help in creating more concrete links.
Visual photographic research methods used in this study and the conceptualization of
a scaled (thermometer) slider to indicate dimensionality of change are two important
contributions that have emerged from this research. Future research should focus on applying
these techniques to applications that involve comparisons and contrasts between two sets of
visual data and the visual communication of changes in dynamic systems.

24
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Photographic credits
Anger expressions:
1. Lee, L., Seddon, G., and Stephens, F. 1982. Stained glass.
London: AH, Artists House. pg. 134.
4. Ibid. pg. 135.
6. Baker, J. 1978. English stained glass. London: Thames and Hudson.
plate. 77.
7. Sala de Exposiciones de la Fundacion Santander Central Hispano Del 17 de
mayo al 15 de julio de 2001. La vidriera Espanola Del gotico al siglo XXI.
pg. 119.
8. Dowley, T., ed. 1990. The bible in stained glass. Harrisburg: Morehouse
Publishing. pg. 119.
Disgust expressions:
2. Dowley, T., ed. 1990. The bible in stained glass. Harrisburg: Morehouse
publishing. pg. 93.
5. Ibid. pg. 119.
6. Butts, B., and Hendrix, L. 2000. Painting on light. Los Angeles: J. Paul
Getty. frontispiece.
Fear expressions:
5. Grasis, T. 1979. Latviesu vitraza. Riga: Liesma. plate 25.
9. Baker, J. 1978. English stained glass. London: Thames and Hudson. plate. 16.
Happy expressions:
4. Chin, Y. M. ed. 1999. Faith, hope and light. Philadelphia: Running Press.
pg. 119.
5. Dowley, T., ed. 1990. The bible in stained glass. Harrisburg: Morehouse
Publishing. pg.100.
6. Ibid. pg. 93.
8. Butts, B., and Hendrix, L. 2000. Painting on light. Los Angeles: J. Paul
Getty. pg. 22.
Sad expressions:
8. Baker, J. 1978. English stained glass. London: Thames and Hudson. plate. 52.
9. Ibid. plate. 49.

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