MP+Practical Module

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN PLUMBING
PLUMBING – is the system of pipes and fixtures installed in a building for the distribution of
potable water and the removal of waterborne wastes.
-is the art and science of installing pipes, fixtures and other apparatus to convey and supply water
in buildings and to dispose and discharge waste, water and other liquids, gases and other
substances out of buildings, in a safe, orderly, healthy and sanitary way to ensure the health and
sanitation of life and property.
PLUMBER – is the one who works or engages in the business of installing in buildings the pipes,
fixtures and other apparatus for bringing in the water supply and removing liquid and waterborne
wastes.
Categories of Plumbers:
 Apprentice Plumber – a beginner at the trade who usually serves for 3 to 5 years as
helper to a journeyman
 Journeyman Plumber – has served his apprenticeship and is competent to perform the
tasks of installing and repairing plumbing
 Master Plumber – a person technically and legally qualified and licensed to practice the
profession of master plumbing without limitations in accordance with Republic Act 1378,
having passed the examinations conducted by the Professional Regulation Commission,
has received a certificate of registration from the board of master plumbing and
possesses the current license to practice.
PLUMBING SYSTEM - The combination of supply and distribution pipes for hot water, cold water,
and gas, and for removing liquid wastes in a building; includes: the water-supply distributing
pipes; the fixtures and fixture traps; the soil, waste, and vent pipes; the building drain and building
sewer; and the storm-drainage pipes; with their devices, appurtenances, and connections all
within or adjacent to the building.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM -Water supply piping brings water to the house from the water meter
(public water system) or from a private water system (well or cistern). It then distributes the water
to fixtures and appliances.
The water supply system includes the water service pipe, the water distribution pipes, and the
necessary connections, fittings, control valves, to bring water to all fixtures in, or adjacent to, a
building or premises
DRAINAGE SYSTEM – piping network within the building which conveys from the plumbing
fixtures all wastes and fecal matter (sanitary drainage) as well as rainwater (storm drainage) to a
point of disposal or treatment facility
VENT SYSTEM - Vent piping exhausts sewer gasses to the outside air (usually through a pipe
exiting the roof), and provides proper pressure for the drainpipes to prevent back pressure
(backflow)
June – July 2009 1

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
PLUMBING SYSTEM
WATER SUPPLY DRAINAGE
HOT COLD SANITARY STORM
SOIL WASTE
DIRECT INDIRECT
PLUMBING APPLIANCE – A class of plumbing fixtures intended to perform a special function;

their operation may depend on the setting of controls or on the characteristics of heating
elements, motors, or pressure- or temperature-sensing elements.
PLUMBING APPURTENANCE - A manufactured device or assembly of prefabricated

components which act as an adjunct to the basic piping system and plumbing fixtures; usually
performs a useful function such as operating, maintaining, or servicing the plumbing system; does
not add either to the water demand or to the discharge load of fixtures or of the drainage system.
PLUMBING FIXTURE – A receptacle which receives and discharges water, liquid, or water-
borne-wastes into the drainage system with which it is connected.
1. WATER CLOSET - is a fixture that disposes of the waste matter by using water to
flush it through a drainpipe to another location. Toilets incorporate an 'S' bend; this trap
creates a water seal which remains filled with water between flushing, thus providing a
hygienic barrier by preventing sewer gases from passing up the drainpipe. During
flushing the 'S' bend also provides siphon action which helps accelerate the flushing
process. Water filling up the bowl creates a high pressure area which forces the water past
the S bend. At the S bend when water starts to move it creates a vacuum that pulls the
water and matter out of the toilet. When no more water is left then the air stops the siphon
or vacuum process. At that point the water that is going into the bowl continues to fill up
the bowl to equalize the bowl and the S bend. This ends the cycle of one flush.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
According to style:
 Close-coupled water closet - is one with a two piece tank and bowl fixture.
 One-piece water closet - as it suggests, one with the tank and bowl as one piece .
 Flushometer style water closet - is a bowl with a spud connection that receives the
connection from a flushometer valve. Flushometer type water closets are also referred to
as “top spud” or “back spud bowls.” The “spud” is the name for the connection for the
flushometer valve and the top or rear identifies the location of the spud.
According to flush tank type:
 Gravity Flush - used with tank type water closets, the water is not under pressure and
flushes by gravity.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Flushometer Tank - flushometer tank has the same outside appearance as a gravity
tank. However, inside the tank is a pressure vessel that stores the water for flushing. The
water in the pressure vessel must be a minimum of 25 psi to operate properly. Thus, the
line pressure on the connection to the flushometer tank must be a minimum of 25 psi. A
pressure regulator prevents the pressure in the vessel from rising above 35 psi (typical of
most manufacturers). The higher pressure from the flushometer tank results in a flush
similar to a flushometer valve. The water piping to a flushometer tank is sized the same
way the water piping to a gravity flush tank is sized. Typically, the individual water
connection is ½ in. in diameter.
 Flushometer Valve - A flushometer valve is also referred to as a “flush valve.” The valve
is designed with upper and lower chambers separated by a diaphragm. The water
pressure in the upper chamber keeps the valve in the closed position. When the trip lever
is activated, the water in the upper chamber escapes to the lower chamber, starting the
flush. The flush of 1.6 gal passes through the flush valve. The valve is closed by line
pressure as water reenters the upper chamber, closing off the valve. For 1.6-gpf water
closets, flushometer valves are set to flow 25 gpm at peak to flush the water closet. The
flushing cycle is very short, lasting 4 to 5 seconds. Flushometer valves have either a
manual or an automatic means of flushing. The most popular manual means of flushing is
a handle mounted on the side of the flush valve. Automatic flushometer valves are
available in a variety of styles. The automatic can be battery operated or directly
connected to the power supply of the building.
 Retrofit Direct Flush - direct flush installation in which the flushometer has been
replaced with a sensor-operated system that automatically flushes the fixture when a
user departs. The system uses an infrared proximity sensor to detect a user approaching
the fixture, then it waits until the user departs. A solenoid is used to actuate the flush from
a 6 volt battery inside the unit that also powers the sensor circuit.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Power-assist Flushing – although this requires a compressor, most use the pressure of
the home's water supply to get the job done-with the help of a pressure tank. Water from
the supply line is forced into the air-filled pressure tank at the house pressure of 60 psi or
so, which compresses the air and exerts force on the water in the tank, when the flush
button is pushed, the water jets into the bowl.
According to flushing action:
 Wash Down or Gravity Flush – water enters through an open rim as though a bucket of
water were dumped into the bowl, filling the front trapway and creating siphon action. This
model provides quick removal of water with minimum water rise. Small water surface
makes the model more vulnerable to soiling and clogging; least efficient and most noisy
type.
 Siphon Jet – Water enters through the rim punchings and jets placed in an up-leg of the
rear trap, filling the trapway and creating an instant siphon action without rise of water
level. The result is quick water withdrawal. Large water surface provides an efficient and
clean operation. With quiet flushing and moderate cost.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Siphon Vortex – water enters through diagonal punching around the rim of the bowl,
creating a vortex that draws the water down into the rear trap with a swirling action that
scours the walls of the bowl. Water strikes two parallel ridges and folds over forming a jet
producing siphonic action. Large water surface provides a very efficient and clean
process and the flushing is extremely quiet. Expensive.
 Reverse Trap – water enters through rim punchings and through a jet that fill the rear
trapway completely, creating a siphon action and resulting in quick withdrawal of water
from the bowl. A water jet is located at the inlet of the trapway; most of the bowl surfaceis
covered with water. Efficient model but moderately noisy
According to amount of water used per flush:
 Standard Efficiency Toilets - maximum of 1.6gpf/6.0-lpf
 High-Efficiency Toilets (HETs) - maximum of 1.3gpf/4.8-lpf

The new high-efficiency toilets use 1.28 gpf (or less) - an average of at least 20% less
water than a standard 1.6 gpf toilet.
 Dual Flush Toilets - (0.8 - 1.1gpf / 1.6gpf - 3.0-4.0-lpf/6.0-lpf)

The newest of the high-efficient toilets are dual-flush, which allow you to select the
amount of water that is used to flush the toilet. A "short flush" (0.8 to 1.1-gpf/3.0 to 4.0-lpf)
is used to flush liquid wastes, and a "full flush" (1.6-gpf/6.0-lpf) is used for solid wastes.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
According to mounting:
 Floor mounted
 Wall mounted
For floor-mounted water closets, the outlet is identified based on the rough-in
dimension. The rough-in is the distance from the back wall to the center of the outlet
when the water closet is installed. A standard rough-in bowl outlet is 12 in. Most
manufacturers also make water closets with a 10-in. or 14-in. rough-in. The size of the bowl
is also based on the height of the bowl rim measured from the floor:
A standard water closet has a rim height of 14 to 15 in. This is the most common water
closet to install. A child’s water closet has a rim height of 10 in. above the floor. A water
closet for the physically challenged has a rim height of 18 in. With the addition of the water
closet seat, the fixture is designed to conform to the accessibility requirements.
The water closet must be properly be connected to the drainage piping system. For
floor-mounted water closets, a water closet flange is attached to the piping and
permanently secured to the building. For wood framed buildings, the flange is screwed to the
floor. For concrete floors, the flange sits on the floor. Non- corrosive closet bolts connect
the water closet to the floor flange. The seal between the floor flange and the water closet is
made with either a wax ring or an elastomeric sealing connection. The connection formed
between the water closet and the floor must be sealed with caulking or tile grout.
For wall hung water closets, the fixture must connect to a wall carrier. The carrier must
transfer the loading of the water closet to the floor.
Tests for Flushing Performance
 Ball Removal Test - utilizes 100 polypropylene balls that are ¾ in. in diameter. The water
closet must flush at least an average of 75 balls on the initial flush of three different
flushes. The polypropylene balls are intended to replicate the density of human feces.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Granule Test - utilizes approximately 2500 disc shaped granules of polyethylene. The
initial flush of three different flushes must result in no more than 125 granules on average
remaining in the bowl. The granule test is intended to simulate a flush of watery feces
(diarrhea).
 Ink Test - is performed on the inside wall of the water closet bowl. A felt tip marker is
used to draw a line around the inside of the bowl. After flushing, no individual segment of
line can exceed ½ in. The total length of the remaining ink line must not exceed 2 in. This
test determines that the water flushes all interior surfaces of the bowl.
 Dye Test - uses a color dye to add to the water closet trap seal. The concentration of the
dye is determined both before and after flushing the water closet. The dilution ratio of
100:1 must be obtained for each flush. This test determines the evacuation of urine in the
trap seal.
 Water Consumption Test - determines that the water closet meets the mandate of 1.6
gal per flush. The trap seal restoration test determines that the water closet refills the trap
of the bowl after each flush. The remaining trap seal must be a minimum of 2 in. in depth.
 Water Rise Test - evaluates the rise of water in the bowl when the water closet is
flushed. The water cannot rise above a point 3 in. below the top of the bowl.
 Backpressure Test - is used to determine that the water seal remains in place when
exposed to a back pressure (from the outlet side of the bowl) of 2½ in. of water column.
This test determines that no sewer gas will escape through the fixture when high
pressure occurs in the drainage system piping.
 Rim and Seat Fouling Test - determines if the water splashes onto the top of the rim or
seat of the water closet. This test ensures that the user will not encounter a wet seat
when using the water closet.
 Drain Line Carry Test - determines the performance of the water closet flush. The water
closet is connected to a 4-in. drain 60 ft in length pitched ¼ in./ft. The same 100
polypropylene balls used in the flush test are used in the drain line carry test. The
average carry distance of all the polypropylene balls must be 40 ft in length. This test
determines the ability of the water closet to flush the contents in such a manner that they
properly flow down the drainage piping.
2. URINAL - sanitary fixture equipped with a water supply and drain for flushing away urine.
Urinals are identified as blowout, siphon jet, washout, stall, and wash down. A stall urinal is a type
of wash-down urinal. Blowout, siphon jet, and washout urinals all have integral traps. Stall and
wash-down urinals have an outlet to which an external trap is connected. A urinal is restricted to a
maximum water use of 1.0 gal per flush.
According to style:
 Through - Designed for simultaneous use by two or more persons

- Most often found in sports stadiums, institutions, etc.
- Flush Type: Flush or No-Flush (waterless)

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Floor Mount / Stall - These units are tall (36" - 40") and have the bowl and drain on the
floor.
- Spots and splashes on the floor are common place.
- Typically found in commercial and industrial environments only.
- Flush Type: Flush
 Wall Mounted - Range in height from 20" to 34".

- Usually installed with the rim of the bowl 24" above the floor,
or 17" with a center line
- Rim height must be determined before the piping is put in place,
and before the urinal is installed.
- Must be attached to special hangers/brackets and
mounted to a carrier or to the wall studs.
- Flush Type: Flush or No-Flush (waterless)
According to flushing action:
 Washout / Washdown Flush - provides the quietest flush of all flush models.
 Siphon-Jet flush - provides a more efficient, clean flush

 Blowout Flush - produces a powerful flush relying entirely on high water volume, with no
siphoning action.
 No-flush / Waterless - requires only a drain pipe and no water supply lines. These
fixtures are more sanitary than traditional urinals because they lack the necessary
moisture for germs to thrive to thrive. The barrier in the trap blocks sewer vapors from
being released into the bathroom, preventing odors. The replaceable and biodegradable,
liquid-sealed cartridge filters waste so liquids enter the drain and sediments are collected
for disposal when the cartridge is replaced.
The cartridge is engineered to receive waste through drain holes. Waste passes through
an layer of sealant, continues through a trap system, and flows out through a baffle to
prevent the loss of sealant. A discharge tube in the housing directs the flow of waste into
the building drain system. The cartridge is designed as a replaceable component when
its function has been exhausted.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Tests for Flushing Performance
 Ink Test - a felt tip marker is utilized to draw a line on the inside wall of the urinal. The
urinal is flushed and the remaining ink line is measured. The total length of ink line cannot
exceed 1 in., and no segment can exceed ½ in. in length.
 Dye Test - uses a colored dye to evaluate the water exchange rate in the trap. After one
flush, the trap must have a dilution ratio of 100 to 1. The dye test is performed only on
urinals with an integral trap. This includes blowout, siphon- jet, and washout urinals. It is
not possible to test stall and wash-down urinals since they have external traps.
 Water Consumption Test - determines that the urinal flushes with 1 gal of water or less.
3. LAVATORY - A lavatory is a wash basin used for personal hygiene. The standard lavatory has
three holes on the ledge for the faucet. A normal faucet hole pattern spaces the two outside holes
4 in. apart. The faucets installed in these lavatories are called 4-in. center-sets. When spread
faucets are to be installed, the spacing between the two outer holes is 8 in. The standard height
of a lavatory is 31 in. above the finished floor. A spacing of 21 in. is required in front of the
lavatory to access the fixture.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
According to style
Counter or Pullman – counter lavatories can also be classified into flush, self-rimming and
under-counter
Pedestal
Wall Hung
Vessel
4. BIDET - A low, basin-like plumbing fixture on which the user sits; used to wash the posterior
parts of the body.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Over the Rim

This model is fitted with a standard faucet. The bowl is filled with water the same way you
fill a sink. This is generally the cheapest and simplest type to install.
 Heated Rim (flushing rim)

This unit has Hot/Cold handles on top, but the water enters the bowl below the rim of the
basin.
 Spray
The more popular models are equipped with a spray, which provides a gentle shower.
There are two type of sprays:
- Vertical - has a fountain jet in the center of the bowl, and horizontal, which has
special over the rim spout that delivers a horizontal
stream of water.
- Combination - combine the heated rim and a

vertical spray option in one unit.
5. FAUCET - A water outlet valve; also called a cock
According to mounting:
 Center-set - The most common style over the years has been the two-handle center-set
style, where the spout and both valves are combined on a single base unit, and the hot
and cold valves are 4" apart, center to center. Each valve requires a separate hole in the
sink or countertop.
Single-handle faucets, common in both baths and kitchens, are also usually center-
sets, but the hot and cold water are controlled by one lever or knob that's often part of the
spout. Usually both hot and cold water feed through a single hole in the sink or top.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Widespread - each of the valves, hot and cold, as well as the spout are all mounted
separately, and each requires a separate hole in the sink or countertop. A widespread set
usually includes three separate parts that measure from 8 to 20 inches from center to
center.
A single-handle faucet can also be a widespread, but in that case the handle is a
separate unit, not mounted on the spout. Sometimes the handle is mounted away
from the spout for the sake of convenience or aesthetics; widespread faucets are
considerably more expensive than most center-set units.
 Mini-widespread - a variation of the widespread faucet is the mini-widespread. It is

similar to a widespread but with a 4 inch center to center instead of 8 or 12 inches.
 Wall Mount - These are usually widespread units with separately drilled valves and a
single spout. Wall mounted faucets generally have longer necks than conventional
faucets.
According to valve component:

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Compression Valves - these valves always have two controls and the least expensive
type. In this type of valve, turning the handle raises or lowers a stem. A rubber washer is
affixed to the bottom of the stem and seals off the flow of the water as the lowered stem
compresses against the valve seat mounted in the waterway.
The problem with this type of faucet is that the rubber washer or seal wears out by
the grinding action of the washer against the valve seat as it closes. When the washer
wears down, the faucet drips
 Washerless – these do not use washers and valve seats to control water flow, although
some do use O-rings and elastomeric seals to prevent leaking. In general, washerless
faucets offer precise, ergonomic control.
Ball faucets – these were the first type of washerless faucet. They are identifiable
by their single handle which moves over a rounded ball shaped cap right above the
base of the faucet spout. The plastic or metal ball inside the faucet body and under the ball
shaped cap has chambers or slots in it which control the flow and mixing temperature of
the water coming from the faucet. Because of the number of parts which make up this type
of faucet, ball faucets tend to leak more than other washerless faucets.
Disc faucets – these are identifiable by their single lever over a wide cylindrical body.
These faucets have a wide cartridge housing two ceramic discs which slide over each other
to control water flow and mixing temperature. These faucets are high quality, are very reliable
and do not need repair very often.
Cartridge faucets – these operates with a movable stem cartridge that moves up
and down to regulate flow. They are identifiable more by how they feel when they
operate than how they look. As opposed to a ball faucet that you push back to turn
on, a single handle cartridge faucets operate in an "up/down" motion to adjust water
volume and a "left/right" motion for temperature.
According to design:
 Gooseneck
 Vessel / High
 Hands-free / Sensor

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
6. SHOWER
Shower valves must be thermostatic mixing, pressure balancing, or a combination of thermostatic

mixing and pressure balancing. The shower valves not only control the flow and temperature of
the water, they also must control any variation in the temperature of the water. These valves
provide protection against scalding as well as sudden
changes in water temperature, which can cause slips and falls.
A pressure-balancing valve maintains a constant temperature of the shower water by constantly

adjusting the pressure of the hot and cold water supply. If there is a change in pressure on the
cold water supply, the hot water supply balances to the equivalent pressure setting. When tested,
a pressure-balancing valve cannot have a fluctuation in temperature that exceeds 3°F. If the cold
water shuts off completely, the hot water shuts off as well.
Thermostatic mixing valves adjust the temperature of the water by maintaining a constant
temperature once the water temperature is set. This is accomplished by thermally sensing
controls that modify the quantity of hot and cold water to keep the set temperature.
The difference between a thermostatic mixing valve and a pressure-balancing valve is that a
thermostatic mixing valve will adjust the temperature when there is a fluctuation in the
temperature of either the hot or cold water. With a pressure-balancing valve, when the
temperature of either the hot or cold water changes, the temperature of the shower water will
change accordingly.
The shower valve is typically located 48 to 50 in. above the floor. The installation height for a
shower head ranges from 65 to 84 in. above the floor of the shower. The standard height is 78 in.
for showers used by adult males.
Spray Types
 Showerhead
- Fixed position, usually above shoulder level (on
wall or ceiling).

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
- Water direction may be adjustable depending on product

- Usually has 2 or more adjustable spray styles.
 Handheld
- Movable, has hose connection.
- Can be mounted to shower wall with bracket or sliding bar
 Body Spray
- Fixed position, usually at and/or below shoulder level.
- Usually in groups of 2 or more
- Water direction may be adjustable depending on product
Spray Styles
Wide - soft-aerated spray
Wide strong spray - deep massage

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Wide pulse spray revitalizes your body
Full-flow - strong concentrated spray
Concentrated pulse spray - all over body massage
Mixed - wide strong, and pulsating
7. BATHRUB - A tub for bathing, usually a fixed plumbing installation designed for one person.
The standard bathtub size is 5 ft long by 30 in. wide with a depth of 14 to 16 in. The drain can be
either a left-hand (drain hole on the left side as you face the bathtub) or right-hand outlet. All
bathtubs must have an overflow drain. This is necessary since the bathtub is often filled while the
bather is not present. Porcelain enameled steel and enameled cast iron bathtubs are required to
have a slip-resistant base to prevent slips and falls. Plastic bathtubs are not required to have the
slip-resistant surface since the plastic is considered to have an inherent slip resistance. However,
slip resistance can be specified for plastic bathtub surfaces.
The two types of bathtub fill valve are the tub filler and the combination tub and shower valve. Tub
and shower valves must be pressure-balancing, thermostatic mixing, or combination pressure-
balancing and thermostatic mixing valves. The tub filler is not required to meet these
requirements, although there are pressure-balancing and thermostatic mixing tub filler valves
available. The spout of the tub filler must be properly installed to maintain a 2-in. air gap between
the outlet and the flood level rim of the bathtub. If this air gap is not maintained, then the outlet
must be protected from backflow by some other means. Certain decorative tub fillers have an
atmospheric vacuum breaker installed to protect the opening that is located below the flood level
rim.
The standard location of the bathtub fill valve is 14 in. above the top rim of the bathtub. The spout
is typically located 4 in. above the top rim of the bathtub to the centerline of the pipe connection

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
8. WHIRLPOOL - is a soaker tub fitted with piping, an electric pump and water jets. The pump
circulates the water through the pipes using an underwater suction fitting and several water jets.
Water is drawn from the bath suction by a pump which circulates it around the bath to the jets.
Each jet contains a venturi, a vented constriction near its opening that injects air into the water. In
most cases, the ratio of air to water can be adjusted at a central control, at each jet or at both
sites.
INSTANTANEOUS ELECTRIC
WATER HEATERS
Single Point / Instant Water Heater

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Multi-point Water Heater
Electric Hot Water Storage Tank
MATERIALS FOR PLUMBING
A. FITTING - A pipe part, usually standardized, such as a bend, coupling, cross, elbow, reducer,
tee, union, etc.; used for joining two or more sections of pipe together.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
1. ELBOW - A pipe, sheet metal, or conduit fitting having a bend, usually 90°; a 90° elbow is also
called an ell.
90 degree elbow, also called "90 bends or 90 ells", are manufactured as SR (Short Radius)
elbows and LR (Long Radius) elbows. SR (Short Radius) elbows have a Center-to-Face
dimension of 1.0 X diameter and are typically used in tight areas where clearances are an issue.
LR (Long Radius) elbows have a Center-to-Face dimension of 1.5 X diameter and are the more
common type and used when space is available and flow is more critical.
90° Bend 45° Bend
FITTING BENDS/SWEEPS
FRACTION DEGREES
1/4 90°
1/5 72°
1/6 60°
1/8 45°
1/12 30°
1/16 22 ½°
2. STREET ELBOW - A street elbow has a female fitting on one side and a male fitting on the
other end. The advantage of the street elbow is that it can be connected directly to another fitting
without having to use a pipe nipple.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
3. DROP ELBOW - A pipe elbow having lugs on the sides for attaching it to a support.
4. TEE -A T-shaped pipe fitting with two outlets, one at 90° to the connection to the main line.
Tee is used for connecting pipes of different diameters or for changing the direction of pipe
runs. A common type of pipe tee is the straight tee, which has a straight-through portion and a 90-
degree takeoff on one side. All three openings of the straight tee are of the same size.
Tees (branch outlets) are manufactured as “Equal” or “Reducing”. Equal tees are exactly that, all
three ends are of the same size. Reducing tees come with a combination of different outlet
sizes.
5. REDUCING TEE - It is similar to the straight tee, except that one of the threaded openings is of
a different size than the others. Reducing tee has two ends the same and one end smaller. Thus,
a tee with one branch smaller than the run openings is referred to as a reducing tee. In other
words, the runport is larger than the branch port.
To describe a reducing tee, one must locate the largest size on the run of the tee. The next size
indicated in the description of the reducing tee is the side opposite to that with the largest size on
the run of the body. The final size in any description of a reducing tee is the branch side.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
6. SANITARY TEE - A tee used as a fitting for a soil pipe; designed with a slight curve in the 90°
transition so as to channel flow from a branch line toward the direction of the main flow.
7. TAPPED TEE – A bell-end tee which has a branch that is tapped to receive a threaded pipe
fitting or a threaded pip
8. ADAPTER - Pipe adapter is a fitting that is used to connect pipes of different materials or
pipes that require different joining methods. For example, it can join a pipe that is threaded to a
pipe or tube that is not threaded, one of the most important type of pipe fittings.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Female Adapters - are used to add a female threaded pipe connection on a solvent welded pipe
(they must never be used when converting to a metallic pipe as the metal male pipe threads tend
to split the PVC fittings). Also, metal male threads should never be inserted into any female
threaded PVC fitting.
Male Adapters - are used to add a male threaded pipe connection to a solvent weld pipe section.
9. WYE - As the name implies, this fitting device is "Y" shaped. The branch runs out from the run
port at an angle other than 90 degree. It is a fitting with three openings and is used to create
branch lines. A standard wye allows one pipe to be joined to another at a 45 degree angle.
Wyes are similar to tees except that the branch line is angled to reduce friction that could hamper
the flow and that the connection is typically at a 45-degree angle rather than a 90-degree angle.
10. DOUBLE WYE

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
11. COMBINATION WYE AND 1/8 BEND
12. INVERTED/UPRIGHT WYE
13. CROSS - Cross fittings connect four pipe sections together
14. SANITARY CROSS

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
15. COUPLING/SOCKET - A short internally threaded section of pipe, used to join two pipes
or conduits.
16. SHOULDER/OPEN NIPPLE - A Pipe Nipple is a short pipe (12 inches or less), with
small opening which provides way for the liquids or gases to pass through the pipe. It has a male
thread on each end and is used for extension from a fitting.
17. CLOSED NIPPLE - A nipple having no shoulder (i.e., no unthreaded portion)
18. UNION PATENTE - A pipe fitting used to connect the ends of two pipes, neither of which
can be turned; consists of three pieces, the two end pieces (having inner threads), which are
tightened around the pipe ends to be joined, and a center piece, which draws the two end pieces
together as it is rotated, effecting a seal.
When the female and male ends are joined, the nuts then provide the necessary pressure to seal
the joint. Since the mating ends of the union are interchangeable, changing of a device can be
achieved with a minimum loss of time.
Unions are commonly used for inserting metering and regulating devices into a piping system or
for connecting piping system to vessels. There are two types of pipe unions:
 Ground Joint Union
 Flange Union

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Both types are used for joining two pipes together and are designed so that they can be
disconnected easily.
The Ground Joint Union consists of three pieces. It most commonly has a brass grounding
section between the two halves.
A Flange Union is made in two parts. An economical, practical and reliable alternative to welded
and screwed systems, a Union Flange joins plain-ended pipe to flange-ended equipment, fittings
and valves and on-site installation is simple. Union Flange is a unique solution to the problems
which can occur in the use of pro-fabricated flanged piping, such as downtime, reliance on off-site
suppliers and inaccurate dimensions. The design of the Union Flange comprises three elements:
the flange, the gasket and the restraint.
19. PLUG - threaded pipe fitting with male threads; used to close the end of a ferrule or a pipe
having female threads

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
20. CAP - A pipe cap is a fitting with a female (inside) thread. It is used like a plug, except that
the pipe cap screws on the male thread of a pipe or nipple.
21. FERRULE - A metal sleeve, esp. one which is fitted with a screwed plug; serves as an
opening on the side of a pipe providing access for inspection or cleaning the interior of the pipe.
22. BUSHING - A pipe fitting which is threaded on both the inside and the outside so that it
can be used to connect two pipes (or other fittings) of different sizes.
23. OFFSET BEND – An offset means a combination of pipes and/or fittings that brings one
section of the pipe out of line but into a line, parallel with the other section.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
24. REDUCER/INCREASER – A coupling used to connect a smaller pipe to a larger

one, vise-versa.
25. RETURN BEND - A pipe fitting or a preformed piece of tubing which provides a
180° change in direction.
26. CLOSET BEND/FLANGE - a closet flange is a pipe fitting that both mounts a toilet
to the floor and connects the toilet drain to a drain pipe.
B. PIPE – A continuous tubular conduit, generally leak-proof, for the transport of liquid
and gases.
1. CAST IRON PIPE/CAST IRON SOIL PIPE- A pipe fabricated of an iron alloy
containing carbon and silicon; usually lined with cement or coal-tar enamel and coated externally
with one of a variety of materials to reduce corrosion by soils; known technically as gray cast-
iron pipe.
CLASSES:
 SV Type – generally used for building installations

 XV Type – extra duty pipe used for underground installations
VARIETIES:
 Standard

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Single Hub
 Double Hub
 Hubless
SIZES: 2”, 3”, 4”, 5”, 6”, 8”, 10”, 12”, 15”
LENGTH: 5’ and 10’
METHODS OF JOINING CAST IRON PIPES
a. Shielded No-Hub Coupling / Stainless Steel Coupling
The shielded no-hub coupling for cast iron soil pipe and fittings is a plumbing concept that
provides a more compact arrangement without sacrificing the quality and permanence of cast
iron. The design typically uses a one-piece neoprene gasket with a shield and stainless
steel retaining clamps. The great advantage of the system is that it permits joints to be made in
limited access areas. The 300 series stainless steel often used with no-hub couplings was
selected because of its superior corrosion resistance. It is resistant to oxidation, warping, and
deformation; offers rigidity under tension with a substantial tensile strength; and yet provides
sufficient flexibility. The shield is corrugated in order to grip the gasket sleeve and give maximum
compression distribution. The stainless steel worm gear clamps compress the neoprene gasket to
seal the joint. The gasket absorbs shock and vibration, and completely eliminates galvanic action
between the cast iron soil pipe and the stainless steel shield.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
b. The Compression Joint
The compression joint uses hub and spigot pipe, as does the lead and oakum joint. The major
difference is the one-piece rubber gasket. When the spigot end of the pipe or fitting is pushed or
drawn into the gasketed hub, the joint is sealed by displacement and compression of the rubber
gasket. The resulting joint is leak-proof. It absorbs vibration and can be deflected up to 5 degrees
without leakage or failure.
c. The Lead and Oakum Joint
Cast iron soil pipe joints made with oakum fiber and molten lead are leak-proof, strong, flexible,
and root-proof. The waterproofing characteristics of oakum fiber have long been recognized by
the plumbing trades, and when molten lead is poured over the oakum in a cast iron soil pipe joint,
it completely seals and locks the joint. This is due to the fact that the hot metal fills a groove in the
bell end of the pipe, firmly anchoring the lead in place after cooling. When the lead has cooled

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
sufficiently, it is caulked into the joint with a caulking tool to form a solid metal insert. The result is
a lock-tight soil pipe joint with excellent flexural characteristics.
Major forms of cast iron pipe failure:
 Circumferential breaks, where the pipe fails by splitting across its length;
 Bell splits, which are breaks at the pipe axis due to differential thermal expansion of the
pipe and joint material
 Longitudinal splits, which may run the entire length of the pipe
 Corrosion Holes
2. ACID-RESISTANT CAST IRON PIPE - A cast-iron pipe containing between 14.25 and 15%
silicon and small amounts of manganese, sulfur, and carbon; manufactured in the same
dimensions as cast-iron pipe. It is commonly installed in chemical laboratories, industries or other
installations where acid wastes are being discharged.
3. COPPER PIPES - is almost pure copper manufactured of alloys containing a minimum of

99.9% Copper and a maximum of 0.04% Phosphorous. Copper pipe is suitable for water supply;
drain, waste, and vent (DWV); boiler feed lines; refrigeration; and similar purposes.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
TYPES:
 Regular
 Extra-Strong
SIZES: Available sizes are 8 to 12-in. diameters in regular wall thickness and 8 to 10 in. in extra
strong wall thickness. The standard length for copper pipe is 12 ft. Copper pipe dimensions are
similar to those for brass and steel pipe.
COPPER TUBES - Copper water tube is a seamless, almost pure copper material. It is
manufactured from copper alloy which has a chemical composition of a minimum of 99.9%
copper and silver combined and a maximum allowable range of phosphorous of 0.015–0.040%.
TYPES:
 Type K - having the heaviest walls, typically used for underground burial.
 Type L - used for most purposes.
 Type M - with the lightest walls, used for drainage
 Type DWV – used for drainage, waste and vent
 Type ACR
TEMPER:
 Drawn temper or rigid or hard

 Annealed temper or flexible or soft
SIZES: Available sizes are ¼ to 12 in. nominal. Types K and L are manufactured in drawn
temper (hard) ¼ to 12 in. and annealed temper (soft) coils ¼ to 2 in, while type M is manufactured
only in drawn (hard) temper ¼ to 12 in. Type DWV is furnished in drawn (hard) temper only in
sizes 1¼ to 8 inches
Seamless copper water tube of drawn temper is required to be identified with a color stripe that
contains the manufacturer’s name or trademark, the type of tube, and the nation of origin. This
color strip is green for type K, blue for type L, and red for type M. In addition to the color
stripe, the tube is incised with the type of tube and the manufacturer’s name or trademark at
intervals not in excess of 1½ ft. Annealed (soft) coils or straight lengths are not required to be
identified with a color stripe.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Type DWV is required to be identified by a yellow stripe giving the manufacturer’s name or
trademark, the nation of origin, and the letters “DWV”; it is also required to be incised with the
manufacturer’s name or trademark and the letters “DWV” at intervals no greater than 1½ ft.
LENGHTS:
Type K – 20’ (rigid);
- 60’, 98’, 197’ (flexible)
Type L – same as Type K
Type M – same as Type K except that no flexible type are made
Type DWV – 20’
Type ACR – 20’ (rigid), 50’ (flexible)
CUTTING COPPER PIPES
 Use a rotary tube cutter or a regular hacksaw (24 or 32 teeth per inch) to cut copper
pipes.
 Bending is done with a pipe bending machine or steel spring.
JOINING COPPER PIPES
The most common method of joining copper tubing systems is soldering. Such joints are
commonly used in plumbing for water lines and sanitary drainage. Brazed joints are used where
greater strength is required or where service temperature is high. Brazing is the required joining
method for refrigeration and medical gas piping. Mechanical joints involving flared tube ends are
frequently used for underground tubing, for joints where the use of heat is impractical and for
joints that may have to be disconnected from time to time.
SOLDERING COPPER PIPES
 Clean to a bright finish both ends of the pipe including the inside of the fitting with emery
cloth or sand paper.
 Apply a light coat of non-corrosive soldering paste or flux to the cleaned end of the
copper pipe and fittings. The flux ensures a firm bond between the copper and solder.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Place the copper fitting on the pipe then rotate both the pipe and the fitting to spread the
flux evenly
 Use a propane torch to sweat the copper pipe. Play the flame along the fittings and the
pipe to bring them up to soldering heat, and then concentrate the heat in the middle of
the fitting. Do not apply the heat directly to the solder or the area that has been fluxed. Do
not overheat the copper pipe.
 Remove the flame from the pipe and apply the solder to the pipe where it joins the fitting.
4. ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPE - A concrete pipe made of a mixture of Portland cement (80-
85%) and asbestos fiber (15-20%) and highly resistant to corrosion; used in drainage systems,
waterworks systems, and gas lines. The thickness of the pipe is twice as that of the standard cast
iron pipe. Asbestos pipe could be used as soil, waste or ventilation pipe.
TYPES:
A/C Pressure Pipes – used primary for the distribution of potable water, as well as for sewer
force mains and industrial effluent and process piping
A/C Non-pressure Pipes – used for sanitary and storm drainage systems
SIZES: The size range is 4–36 in. in diameter for water piping and 4–42 in. for non-pressure
piping. The 4 and 6-in. diameter is available in either 10 or 13-ft lengths and the 8–42-in. diameter
in 10 -13 ft lengths.
JOINING ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPES:
Pipe joints are made with a machined spigot end on the pipe which pushes into a coupling. Both
couplings and fitting bells are grooved, with a rubber gasket that fits between the groove and the
spigot pipe end. This makes a watertight joint. Asbestos cement pipes can also be joined by
caulking or cementing.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
5. VITIRFIED CLAY PIPE – Vitrified clay pipe is extruded from a suitable grade of shale or
clay and fired in kilns at approximately 2000°F (1100°C). Vitrification takes place at this
temperature, producing an extremely hard and dense, corrosion-resistant material. Because of its
outstanding corrosion and abrasion resistance, clay pipe is used for industrial wastes in addition
to its wide use in domestic sewer and drainage systems. It is used in a building sewer starting
outside of the building and connecting to the main sewer. Clay pipe is suitable for most gravity-
flow systems and is not intended for pressure service.
TYPES:
 Standard
 Extra-strength
SIZES: Available sizes include 3 to 48-in diameters and lengths up to 10 ft. in standard or extra
strength grades. Local manufacturers produce 2’-6” mm lengths.
JOINT: Pipe and fittings are joined with prefabricated compression seals.
6. LEAD PIPE – Pipe fabricated from 99.7 percent pig lead; various lead alloys are also available
for special applications such as drainage. It is one of the oldest plumbing material. But due to the
health hazards, lead pipes were then recommended not to be used to convey water for human
consumption. It was also used primarily in chemical waste and venting lines, for handling
corrosive materials, in laboratory drainage, for processing systems, and for radioactive wastes.
Lead piping was also used as water piping due to its malleability and can still be found in some of
the older homes.
SIZES: Internal diameter (ID) ranged from ¼ to 12in. The wall thickness varied according to the
intended use. Lead pipe in smaller sizes was sold in coils. Larger diameters were available in
standard lengths, generally 10 ft.
JOINT: Joints and fittings were molten lead with wiped joints or mechanical flange.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
7. BRASS PIPES/BRASS TUBES - Pipe manufactured from an alloy containing 85 percent

copper and 15 percent zinc. The advantages and disadvantages of brass pipe are similar to those
for copper tubing, except that brass pipe can be used in a drain pipe under pressure and that the
joints between brass pipes can be screwed or soldered. Brass pipe is moderately resistant to
many corrosive solutions and is often utilized for water supply and distribution.
Brass pipes are considered as the most expensive of all types of pipes.
TYPES
 Standard – Schedule 40
 Extra-Strong – Schedule 80
SIZES: Available sizes are 8–12-in diameters in both standard weight (Schedule 40) and extra-
strong weight (Schedule 80). Extra-strong pipe has the same outside diameter as standard
weight piping; the difference is in the wall thickness, thus reducing the inside diameter. The
standard length for (red) brass pipe is 12 ft. Brass piping dimensions are similar to those of steel
piping.
JOINING BRASS PIPES:
Joints in brass pipe can be threaded, flanged, or brazed to the fittings of the appropriate
joint configuration. Fittings in the smaller sizes, normally those below 2-in. diameter are screwed.
Fittings above 2-in. diameter are normally threaded, flanged, brazed, or—in some cases—
grooved mechanical joint fittings.
8. BITUMINOUS FIBER CEMENT PIPE – this pipe is made of combination of cellulose

and asbestos fibers impregnated with bituminous (coal tar) compound. It is manufactured with
either a homogenous wall or a multiple-ply laminated wall. The end of the pipe is tapered and
fitted together using a butt joint. It is sometimes technically called as “Orangeburg” in European
countries. This pipe is considered as the cheapest of all types of pipes and is recommended for
house sewer and for septic tank installations. This type of pipe is lightweight and could take slight
soil movement without danger of cracking or pulling out of its joint. But excessive hot water and
chemical flow may soften and damage the pipe.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
9. DUCTILE IRON WATER AND SEWER PIPE - is a high strength material and is
not as brittle as cast iron pipe. The primary uses of this pipe are in water and sewer systems and
industrial applications. Cement-lined piping is normally required for water distribution systems.
The cement lining provides a protective barrier between the potable
water supply and the ductile iron pipe to prevent impurities and contaminants form leaching into
the water supply.
TYPES: Ductile Iron Pipe is available in seven classes (50–56)
SIZES: available sizes are from 3 to 64-in. diameter. The pipe is manufactured with bell ends and
has lengths of either 18 or 20 ft.
JOINT: Standard joints for pipe and fittings are push-on, mechanical, and flanged.
10. CONCRETE PIPE - There are three commonly used processes for producing precast
concrete pipe: packerhead, dry cast, and wet cast. Packerhead and dry cast are classified as
immediate strip methods. Immediate strip is characterized by the use of no-slump concrete that is
sufficiently compacted during the pipe-making cycle to allow removal of the inner core or outer
form as soon as the pipe has been produced. Strip means the removal of the form from the pipe.
Wet casting utilizes relatively wet concrete to fill the annular space between an inner core and
outer form.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
TYPES:
 Non-reinforced – Non- reinforced concrete pipe is used for drainage and sewer lines and
for gravity-flow water supply lines if the joints are carefully made.
 Reinforced (RCP) - is made by the addition of steel wire or steel bars. Reinforced
concrete pipe is used primarily for sewage and storm drainage. RCP is also the most
commonly used drainage pipe for parking areas and roadways
SIZES: Non- reinforced concrete pipe is available in 4 to 36-in. diameters. Non-reinforced

concrete pipe is not available in all markets. Reinforced concrete pipe is available in 12 to 144-in.
diameters and 900-1000 mm lengths.
JOINTS: Joints are usually made with a cement plaster.
11. GLASS PIPE - . Glass is unique for several reasons: First, it is clear, you can see through it;
and second, it is the piping system that is least susceptible to fire. Glass will not burn; with
enough heat, it can melt. Glass pipe is made of low expansion borosilicate glass with low alkali
content. It is most commonly used for chemical waste drain lines, vent piping, and purified water
piping. Nonstandard lengths are available or it can be field cut or fabricated to special lengths.
Glass can be installed aboveground (padded or with coated hangers) or buried (with Styrofoam
blocking around the pipe). Glass pipe is also used for chemical waste-DWV systems. Fittings are
made of borosilicate glass and include a full range of sanitary and plumbing fittings
TYPES:
 Pressure Pipe
 Drainage Pipe
SIZES: Available sizes for pressure pipes are ½ to 8 in. and the drainage pipe 1½ to 6 in. it is
available in standard 5 and 10-ft lengths.
JOINT: Glass pipe is installed by cutting the pipe to the exact fixed length. It is held together with
either of two types of coupling, depending on whether it is a “bead to bead” or “bead to cut glass
end” application. Couplings consisting of 300 series stainless steel outer bands, electrometric
compression liners, and sealing members of chemically inert
tetrafluoroethylene (TFE).
12. GALVANIZED STEEL PIPE - Steel pipes are made of mild steel and may be either
seamless (extruded) or welded. The welding of steel piping is accomplished by two methods:
continuous or electric-resistance welding. Continuous welded pipe is heated and formed. Electric-

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resistance welding is cold rolled and then welded. Galvanized steel pipe is dipped and zinc
coated to produce a galvanized protective coating both inside and out.
TYPES: Schedule 10 – Schedule 160

(Schedule 40 – standard specification)
SIZES: 3/8”, ½”, ¾”, 1”, 1 ¼”, 1 ½”, 2”, 2 ½’ 3”, 3 ½”, 4”, 5”, 6”, 8”, 10”, 12”
6 ft lengths
JOINTS: Joined by threading and screwing
13. PLASTIC PIPES
TYPES:
A. Rigid:
1. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) - A water-insoluble resin thermoplastic resin that is highly resistant
to chemicals and corrosion. Polyvinyl chloride is rigid, pressure or drainage type pipe that resists
chemicals and corrosion. There are two types available: Schedule 40 and Schedule 80. PVC
water service piping is a different material than PVC drainage pipe. PVC is used for water
distribution, irrigation, storm drainage, and sewage. The joints are solvent welded or threaded.
Schedule 40 PVC cannot be threaded and it can be used only with socket fittings. Schedule 80
can be threaded through the 4-in. size and used with either socket or threaded fittings. However,
it can also be installed with mechanical grooved couplings or bell and gasket (underground only
and thrust blocked). The maximum temperature rating for PVC is 140°F (60°C).

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2. Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC) – CPVC is widely used in water and sanitary
systems for hot and cold water distribution. It is a thermoplastic produced by polymerization of
vinyl chloride, with additional chlorination. It offers much better resistance to corrosion and has a
high tolerance to acids. It is fire resistant. CPVC is lightweight, non-toxic and odorless, and
reduces growth of fungi, algae and bacteria. It is designed to withstand continuous operating
pressure of 600 kPa at a temperature of 95 ˚C. This piping material comes in Schedule 40 or
Schedule 80. CPVC has an upper maximum temperature limit of 200°F. It is commonly used and
is code accepted where residential water would quickly deteriorate copper pipe or where
corrosion may be a problem. CPVC may also be used in fire protection systems. Pipe sizes for
fire protection systems are ¾ to 3 in. CPVC exhibits comparatively high impact and tensile
strength and is non-toxic. In pressurized systems, it can be used with fluids up to 80°C and higher
in low-pressure systems. Joining methods are solvent welding, threads, flanges, compression
fittings, O-rings, transition fittings, bell-rings, and rubber gaskets.
3. Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (UPVC) – PVC pipe without plasticizers

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4. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) - ABS is derived from acrylonitrile, butadiene,

and styrene. The advantage of ABS is that this material combines the strength and rigidity of the
acrylonitrile and styrene polymers with the toughness of the polybutadiene rubber. ABS are
manufactured in Schedules 40 and 80 and in special dimensions for main sewers and utility
conduits. It is commonly used for DWV plumbing, main sanitary and storm sewers, underground
electrical conduits, and applications in the chemical and petroleum industries. The joints are
solvent welded for Schedule 40 and welded or threaded for Schedule 80. The piping sizes are
1½, 2, 3, 4, and 6 in. with the appropriate fittings.
5. Polypropylene (PP) - PP is manufactured in a wide variety of systems. The DWV systems

are for chemical, special waste, or acid waste systems, both buried and aboveground
applications. Pipe is available in Schedule 40 or Schedule 80 black (underground) or flame
retardant (FR) for aboveground installation.
Polypropylene acid waste (AW) pipe systems come either with mechanical joints— sizes 1½, 2, 3,
4, and 6 in.—or with an internal wire heat fused—sizes 1½, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18
in.— molded—sizes 1½ to 6 in.—and fabricated—sizes 8 to 18 in. Fittings are made in both
pressure type and DWV configurations. PP is used for a wide range of industrial liquids, salt
water disposal, and corrosive waste systems. It is available in sizes of ½ to 24 in. Pipe is
available in 10 and 20 ft lengths. The joints cannot be solvent welded. Joints are made
mechanically or by heat fusion (electric coil or socket fusion).
Polypropylene comes in a variety of pressure systems. It can be natural in color for high-purity
systems or it may be black or beige with the added color pigment. Polypropylene pipe is available
in both metric and IPS sizes. Typically, polypropylene is joined by heat fusion, whether small
diameter—½ to 4 in—by socket fusion, or larger diameter— 2 to 24 in.—by butt fusion. Smaller
diameter—½ to 2 in. polypropylene may be joined by threading with a greatly reduced pressure
rating, or certain manufacturers have molded fittings with stainless steel rings to restrain or help
strengthen the threads for full pressure ratings.

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6. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) - PVDF is a strong, tough, abrasion-resistant

fluorocarbon material, manufactured in Schedule 40 and 80. It has widely used in high purity
electronic or medical grade water or chemical piping systems that need to remain pure but
function at higher temperature. Other uses include a wide range of industrial liquids, salt water
disposal, and corrosive waste systems, again where high-temperature performance is required. It
is also often used for corrosive waste applications in return air plenum spaces. PVDF offers
excellent flame and smoke-resistant characteristics. Pipe is available in 10 ft lengths. The joints
cannot be solvent welded. Joints are made mechanically or by heat fusion.
7. Styrene Rubber Plastic (SR)
B. Flexible:
1. Polyethylene (PE) - Polyethylene is an inert polyolefin material, meaning that it is chemically

resistant. Polyethylene pipe cannot be solvent cemented like other plastic piping systems. The
joints are made with an inserts and clamps and by heat fusion. This type of piping is normally
supplied in blue or black for water applications. Orange-colored polyethylene piping is typically
used for gas pipe installations while the perforated type is used as a corrugated drainage pipe for
foundation drainage.

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 High-density PE (HDPE) is available in a post-manufactured stress-relieved state

(best-practice PE), or as extruded product with no treatment. It is used mainly for
drainage applications where it can withstand higher temperature discharges than PVC.
To avoid ovality and installation problems when laying to grade the pipe is best used in
straight lengths, normally up to 6 meters long. Jointing is achieved by electro-fusion or
butt-fusion welding or with compression-type joints for smaller diameter pipes and fittings.
 Medium-density PE (MDPE) is more flexible than the high-density pipe. It has a

slightly thinner wall thickness and is capable of withstanding higher internal pressure. It is
the preferred material for long-distance drinking-water piping. Because of the application
and the robust nature of the material it is generally available in coils of up to 650 ft. (200
meters) length, depending upon the diameter. The method of jointing is the same as for
high-density PE pipe. In colder climates coiled polyethylene piping can be very difficult to
use and may be impractical.
 Low-density PE (LDPE) is suitable for the irrigation industry, where operating

pressures are very low and a high degree of flexibility and low cost is required. Low-
density PE pipe and fittings are not acceptable for use for connection to the water mains
in many countries because of the low pressure rating of the material and its high leakage
rate.
2. Polybutylene (PB) - Polybutylene is a flexible thermoplastic that was manufactured to pipe

and tubing specifications. Polybutylene is an inert polyolefin material, meaning that it is
chemically resistant. That is why polybutylene pipe cannot be solvent cemented like other plastic
piping systems.
Polybutylene pipe is one of the most flexible piping materials acceptable for potable water. It is
typically blue or gray in color. Its applications included fire sprinklers systems, hot and cold water
distribution. Joints were made by mechanical, flared, heat fusion methods.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
3. Crossed-linked polyethylene (PEX) – Crossed-linked polyethylene tubing has been

extensively used in Europe for many years for hot and cold potable water distribution systems. A
specially controlled chemical reaction takes place during the manufacturing of the polyethylene
pipe to form crossed-linked polyethylene. Cross-linked molecular structuring gives the pipe
greater resistance to rupture over a wider range of temperatures and pressures than other
polyolefin piping (PB, PE, and PP). Because of PEX pipe’s unique molecular structure and heat
resistance, heat fusion is not permitted as a joining method.
Being a member of the polyolefin plastic family, PEX is resistant to solvents and cannot be joined
by solvent cementing. Mechanical connectors and fittings for PEX piping systems are proprietary
in nature and must be used only with the pipe for which they have been designed. A number of
mechanical fastening techniques have been developed for joining PEX pipe; manufacturer’s
installation instructions are to be consulted for properly identifying the authorized fittings for the
intended system use. PEX pipe is flexible, allowing it to be bent. It is bent by two methods: hot
and cold bending. The tubing can be bent to a minimum radius of six times the outside diameter
for cold bending and a minimum of two and one-half times the outside diameter for hot bending.
The material is available in sizes nominal pipe size (NPS) ¼ through 2 in. (6.4 through 51 mm)
PIPE SUPPORTS ANG HANGERS

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WATER DISTRIBUTION / WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

WATER – is a clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid, and the most widely used of all
solvents. Freezing point 0°C (32°F); boiling point 100°C (212°F); specific gravity (4°C) 1.0000;
weight per gallon (15°C) 8.338 pounds (3.782 kilograms).
Water is a combination of two substances hydrogen and oxygen. It appears in its natural state
as:
Liquid – 830 times heavier than air
Solid – Ice
Gas – vapor or steam; 133 times lighter than air
SOURCES OF WATER
Ground Water – water, near the surface of the ground, which passes through the subsoil
Surface Water - rainfall which runs over the surface of the ground
ACCESS TO WATER SUPPLY FACILITIES
LEVEL 1 – farthest user is not more than 250 meters from point of source
LEVEL 2 – not more than 25 meters from communal faucet system
LEVEL 3 – house service connection from the system
RATE OF CONSSUMPTION
LEVEL 1 – at least 20 liters/capita/day

LEVELS OF SERVICE
LEVEL 1 (Point of Source) – a protected well or a developed spring with an outlet but without a
distribution system, generally adaptable for rural areas.
LEVEL 2 (Communal Faucet System) – composed of a source, a reservoir, a piped distribution

network and communal faucets
LEVEL 3 (Individual House Connection) – a system with a source, a reservoir, a piped distribution
network and household taps

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
DEFINITIONS:
Pure water – colorless and odorless; contains no impurities
Purified Water – water that undergoes a process where the pollutants are removed or
rendered harmless
Polluted Water – water that contains one or more impurities that make the water unsuitable
for a desired use
Gray Water – water drained from lavatories, sinks, laundry trays and showers; contains minor
pollutants
Black Water – water drained from water closets and urinals; carries body wastes and
contains major pollutants
Storm Water – rainwater drained from roof gutters and downspouts
Distilled Water – water that has all of its impurities removed through distillation
Distillation – involves boiling the water and re-condensing the steam into a clean container,
leaving solid contaminants behind
Desalination – involves the removal of salt and other minerals from water
Reverse Osmosis – is a separation process that uses pressure to force a solvent through a
membrane that retains the solute on one side and allows the pure solvent to pass the other
side.
Hard Water - Water containing solutions of mineral salts (sulfates of calcium and magnesium,
carbonates, and bicarbonates).
Soft Water - water that containing few or no calcium or magnesium ions.
DEMANDS FOR WATER
DEMAND REQUIREMENT
Drinking, cooking, Must be pure and protected from contamination; supplies taken
dishwashing from mains or from storage
Personal washing and Similar but moderated to allow cold and hot supplies to be drawn
domestic cleaning from main storage tank or cistern via distribution network
Laundry Generally clean, soft and free from iron and manganese staining
Swimming Clean, filtered with free chlorine residue for post-sterilization; can
be re-circulated
Fire Fighting High pressure, connection must not permit contamination of

water mains
Irrigation No special requirement, except reasonably free from solids and

silt (result in blocked pipes and nozzle) and un-decomposed
material (pollution)

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND THEIR CORRECTION
PROBLEM CAUSE EFFECT CORRECTION
Acidity Contains carbon Corrosion of non- Passing the water through a bed
dioxide ferrous pipes, rusting of crushed marble or limestone
and clogging of steel to achieve alkalinity or adding
pipes sodium silicate
Hardness Presence of Clogging of pipes, Introduction of water softeners

magnesium and impaired laundering made up of zeolite ( a greenish
calcium and food preparation granular material)
Turbidity Silt or suspended Discoloration and bad Filtration

matters picked up in taste
surface or near surface
flow
Color Presence of iron and Discoloration of Precipitation by filtration through

manganese fixtures and laundry manganese zeolite (oxidizing
filter)
Pollution Contamination by disease chlorination

organic matter or
sewage
METHODS OF WATER PURIFICATION
Aeration – water is sprayed into the air to release any trapped gases and absorb additional
oxygen for better taste
Coagulation and Flocculation – this is the process by which small sediment particles which do
not settle well combine together to form larger particles which can be removed by sedimentation.
This process includes physical and chemical process:
Coagulation – is the chemical process in which the coagulant (aluminum sulfate)

reacts with the sediment to make it capable of combining into larger particles.
Flocculation – is the physical process in which the sediment particles collide with
each other and stick together
Sedimentation – this is the process by which suspended solids are removed from the
water by gravity settling and deposition. This process usually follows coagulation-flocculation. The
objective of this process is to remove most of the suspended solids, reducing the loads on
the filters.
Filtration – this is the passage of fluid through a porous medium suspended matter which did not
settle by gravity. In water purification, matter to be removes includes suspended silt, clay and

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
microorganisms including algae, bacteria and viruses. A filter bed consists of a granular non-
porous material held in place by the force of gravity or by direction of flow.
Disinfection/Chlorination – method of introducing a controlled amount of chlorine to the water in

order to attain a desired degree of disinfection.
WATER WELLS
Dug Wells – these are well 600 mm or more in diameter dug through the soft upper soil. The
sides may be of masonry or concrete to prevent from caving-in. It is necessary that the well
should be impervious to a depth of at least 3 meters. This is the cheapest but least desirable
type. It yields too little water and must be built at a low point in the terrain; and it is subject to
contamination from the surface filth and subsurface drainage.
Bored Wells – these are constructed using either hand or power driven earth auger. A well
casing is lowered to the bottom of the hole. After the boring is complete, cement grout is poured
to fill the gap between the bored hole and the well casing. This is to prevent contamination.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Driven Wells – like the dug well, this is classified as a shallow well. It is sunk by hammering a
well point into the earth. The well point is a hollow, perforated tube with a steel point (driven point)
at its tip. When this tube is almost all the way into the ground; which is 60- to 90 centimeter long,
a second length of driving pipe is attached to it and is likewise hammered into the earth. More
sections are added and driven down until a water-bearing level is reached. But if the well point
hits rock before it reaches water, the entire operation must be started over again at a new
location. This type of well varies from 32 mm diameter at a depth of 3 to 12 meters.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Drilled Wells – a drilled well is the only kind to have wherever there is no constant supply of
water near the surface. A drilled well is a deep well and may extend down through many layers of
rock. It must be drilled by a professional driller with special equipment. A driven well goes down
merely far enough to reach water, but a drilled well goes deeper and thus ensures a more
consistent supply.
A drilling rig is used to drill the well hole and then a casing or tubular pipe is forced down the hole
to prevent it from caving-in. When a water-bearing stratum of sufficient capacity is found, a well
screen is set in place to permit the water to flow into the casing and to hold back the fine material.
The depth of this well is limited only by the distance one must dig to obtain an adequate supply of
fresh water, even down to 450 meters. A pump cylinder is installed near the bottom of the well. It
contains a plunger and valves, and the well pipe, from 1" to 2 1/2" in diameter, runs from it to the
surface of the ground

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
WATER PUMPS
CLASSIFIFCATION OF PUMPS
A. Reciprocating Pump – a pump which operates with a to-and-fro motion
1. Lift Pump – the simplest of reciprocating pumps and consists of a piston moving up and down
in a cylinder or barrel. A lift pump cannot be used to raise water above 7.50 to 8.50 meter at a
normal atmospheric pressure (101 KPa).
2. Piston or Plunger Pump – is a positive displacement reciprocating pump in which a plunger is

driven backwards and forwards or up and down by a mechanical working head.
3. Deep-well Piston Pump – when water is more than 7.50 meters below the ground, it is
visually necessary to place the pump in or near the water in the well and pump from there. Water
is forced up the drop pipe and out into the delivery pipe.
B. Centrifugal Pump – a pump with vanes or impellers that rotate inside a close-fitting case
draw-in liquid at the center and by virtue of centrifugal force, throw liquid out through an opening
in the periphery of the case. Unlike the reciprocating pump, a centrifugal pump will not operate
unless the casing is full of water.
1. Submersible Pump – is basically a centrifugal pump complete with electric motors which are
positioned under water in a suitable bored hole that delivers the water to the surface.
C. Deep-well Jet Pump – a pump consisting of a revolving impeller in the pump housing which
forces water down a pressure line to an ejector assembly below water level.
D. Hydraulic Ram or Ram Pump – a pump in which the power generated from flowing in an
enclosed pipe is used to raise part of the water to a height above that from which the flow began
WELL PUMP SELECTION
DEPTH OF
PUMP WELL
CAPACITY
0 to 8 m 8 to 18 m 18 to 27 m 27 to 46 m > 46 m
300 -600
GPH Submersible Submersible Submersible Submersible Submersible
Pump Pump Pump Pump Pump
Jet Pump Jet Pump Jet Pump Jet Pump Jet Pump
Piston Pump Deep Well Deep Well Deep Well Deep Well
Reciprocating Reciprocating Reciprocating Reciprocating
Pump Pump Pump Pump
600-1200
GPH Submersible Submersible Submersible Submersible Submersible
Jet Pump Jet Pump Jet Pump Jet Pump
Plunger Pump

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
> 1200 GPH Submersible Submersible Submersible Submersible Submersible

Jet Pump Jet Pump Jet Pump
VALVES
Valves serve the purpose of controlling the fluids in building service piping. They come in many shapes,
sizes, design types, and materials to accommodate different fluids, piping, pressure ranges, and types of
service. Proper selection is important to ensure the most efficient, cost-effective, and long-lasting systems.
No single valve is best for all services.
FUNCTIONS:
Valves are designed to perform four principal functions:

 Starting and stopping flow
 Regulating (throttling) flow
 Preventing the reversal of flow
 Regulating or relieving the flow pressure
TYPES:
A. GATE VALVE/ FULLWAY VALVE -A valve that is used to open or close off the flow of fluid through a
pipe. It is so named because of the wedge (gate) that is either raised out of or lowered into a double-seated
sluice to permit full flow or completely shut off flow. The passageway through a gate valve is straight
through, uninterrupted, and is the full size of the pipeline into which the valve is installed.
With starting and stopping flow its prime function, the gate valve is intended to operate either fully open or
fully closed. When fully open, it has the least resistance to flow of all the valve types. A gate-like disc,
actuated by a stem screw and hand wheel, moves up and down at right angles to the path of flow and seats
against two faces to shut off flow. As the disc of the gate valve presents a flat surface to the oncoming flow,
this valve is not suited for regulating or throttling flow. Flow through a partially open gate valve creates
vibration and chattering and subjects the disc and seat to inordinate wear. Gate discs can be classified as
solid-wedge discs, double discs or split-wedge discs. In the solid-wedge design, a single tapered disc, thin at
the bottom and thicker at the top, is forced into a similarly shaped seat. In the double and split-wedge disc
designs, two discs are employed back to back, with a spreading device between them. As the valve wheel is
turned, the gate drops into its seat (as with any other gate valve), but on the final turns of the wheel, the
spreader forces the discs outward against the seats, effecting tighter closure.
Gate valves are classified as either rising-stem or non-rising-stem valves. In the non-rising stem design, the
stem is stationary and the gate rises on a spindle. As the handwheel on the stem is rotated, the gate travels
up or down the stem on the threads while the stem remains vertically stationary. This type of valve will
almost always have a pointer indicator threaded onto the upper end of the stem to indicate the position of
the gate.
In a rising stem design the gate is affixed to the stem and the stem itself rises along with the gate. Valves
with rising stems are used when it is important to know at a glance whether the valve is open or closed and
when the stem and gate could become damaged by fluid contaminants if exposed to the fluid. In this type of
valve, the stem rises out of the valve when the valve is opened.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Rising stem Non-rising stem
B. GLOBE VALVE - The globe valve (which is named for the shape of its body) is much more
resistant to flow than the gate valve. Its main advantages over the gate valve are its use as a
throttling valve to regulate flow and its ease of repair. Because all contact between seat and disc
ends when flow begins, the effects of wire drawing (seat erosion) are minimized. The valve can
operate just barely open or fully open with little change in wear. Also, because the disc of the
globe valve travels a relatively short distance between fully open and fully closed, with fewer turns
of the wheel required, an operator can gauge the rate of flow by the number of turns of the wheel.
As with the gate valve, there are a number of disc and seat arrangements. These are classified
as conventional disc, plug type, and composition disc.
 Conventional disc - is relatively flat, with beveled edges. On closure it is pushed down
into a beveled, circular seat.
 Plug type disc - differ only in that they are far more tapered, thereby increasing the
contact surface between disc and seat. This characteristic has the effect of increasing
their resistance to the cutting effects of dirt, scale, and other foreign matter.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Composition disc differs from the others in that it does not fit into the seat opening but
over it, much as a bottle cap fits over the bottle opening. This seat adapts the valve to
many services, including use with hard-to-hold substances such as compressed air, and
makes it easy to repair
C. ANGLE VALVE - the angle valve can cut down on piping installation time, labor, and
materials by serving as both valve and 90° elbow. It is less resistant to flow than the globe valve,
as flow must change direction twice instead of three times. It is also available with conventional,
plug type, or composition discs.
D. BALL VALVE - A valve consisting of a single drilled ball that is operated by a handle
attached to the vertical axis of the ball, which permits fluid flow in a straight-through direction. The
ball within the valve body may be rotated fully opened or fully closed by one quarter turn of the
handle. Its advantages are its straight-through flow, minimum turbulence, low torque, tight

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
closure, and compactness. Also, a quarter turn of the handle makes it a quick-closing or -opening
valve. Reliability, ease of maintenance, and durability has made the ball valve also popular in
industrial, chemical, and gas
transmission applications.
E. BUTTERFLY VALVE - A type of valve consisting of a single disc that is operated by a

handle attached to the disc, which permits fluid flow in a straight through direction. The valve is
bidirectional. The disc within the valve body may be rotated fully open or fully closed by one
quarter turn of the handle. This valve is most commonly used in place of a gate valve in cases
where absolute, bubble-free shut-off is required. In addition to its tight closing, one of the valve’s
advantages is that it can be placed into a very small several types of operator, motorized and
manual, and a variety of component material combinations.
F. CHECK VALVE - Swing checks and lift checks are the most common forms of check valve.
Both are designed to prevent reversal of flow in a pipe. The swing check permits straight-through
flow when open and is, therefore, less resistant to flow than the lift check. The lift check is
primarily for use with gases or compressed air or in fluid systems where pressure drop is not
critical.
Lift check Swing check

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Vertical check Horizontal check
G. PLUG VALVE - The plug valve is the oldest of the valves. Plug valves have been in use
for over 2000 years. The plug valve is basically and on-off valve based on a plug with a
rectangular hole through which the fluid flows. The plug is either tapered or cylindrical and is
located in the valve body and can be rotated through a quarter turn to line the hole up with the
pipe when open or across the pipe when closed. The plugs have one or more hollow
passageways going sideways through the plug, so that fluid can flow through the plug when the
valve is open. Plug valves are simple and often economical.
H. NEEDLE VALVE - The needle valve is used specifically for accurately controlling the flow
of fluids at low flows. The valve is basically a globe valve without the disc.
I. PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE (PRV) – device for reducing the input pressure of a
gas or liquid to a predetermined output pressure. Domestic water PRV's are generally found
between the mains water supply and a sealed water heating system, typically a space heating
system or a sealed hot water system. Gas Pressure Reducing Valves are found in the connection
to all domestic gas cylinders; this is essential as the liquefied petroleum gas cylinder is at a very
high pressure.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
J. SAFETY VALVE - are valves which usually open at a pre-set critical pressure or
temperature which is higher than permitted by the system, and they allow the gas or liquid to
escape, usually to the atmosphere. Some safety valves, for example on an oil boiler, will shut off
the oil supply in the event of a rise above a certain temperature, for example if a fire was to occur.
Most safety valves are factory pre-set and normally should not be tampered with.
K. FOOT VALVE - A valve in the bottom of the suction pipe of a pump which prevents
backward flow of water.
L. FLOAT VALVE - A valve whose on-off action is controlled directly by the fall or rise of a
float concurrent with the fall or rise of liquid level in a liquid-containing vessel.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
M. BALL COCK - A self-regulating device controlling the supply of water in a tank, cistern, or
toilet by means of a float connected to a valve that opens or closes with a change in water level.
N. BOILER DRAINS - Boiler drains are horizontal faucets with male or female threads on the
inlet side, and with male hose threads at the outlet spout angled approximately perpendicular to
the bottom. These valves are also typically used in a laundry tub for hookups to a washing
machine. Versions of these valves are used in recessed washing machine outlet boxes.
VALVE COMPONENTS
A. BONNETS - The part of the valve housing through which the stem extends. It provides
support and protection to the stem and houses the stem packing. It may be screwed or bolted to
the body. In choosing valves, the service characteristics of the bonnet joint should not be
overlooked. Bonnets and bonnet joints must provide a leak-proof closure for the body. There are
many modifications, but the three most common types are screwed-in bonnet, screwed union-ring
bonnet, and bolted bonnet.
 Screwed-in bonnet -This is the simplest and least expensive construction, frequently
used on bronze gate, globe, and angle valves and recommended where frequent
dismantling is not needed. When properly designed with running threads and carefully

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
assembled, the screwed-in bonnet makes a durable, pressure-tight seal that is suited for
many services.
 Screwed union-ring bonnet - This construction is convenient where valves need

frequent inspection or cleaning—also for quick renewal or changeover of the disc in
composition disc valves. A separate union ring applies a direct load on the bonnet to hold
the pressure-tight joint with the body. The turning motion used to tighten the ring is split
between the shoulders of the ring and bonnet. Hence, the point of seal contact between
the bonnet and the body is less subject to wear from frequent opening of the joint.
Contact faces are less likely to be damaged in handling. The union ring gives the body
added strength and rigidity against internal pressure and distortion. While ideal on smaller
valves, the screwed, union-ring bonnet is impractical on large sizes.
 Bolted bonnet joint - A practical and commonly used joint for larger size valves or for
higher pressure applications, the bolted bonnet joint has multiple bolting with smaller
diameter bolts that permit equalized sealing pressure without the excessive torque
needed to make large threaded joints. Only small wrenches are needed.
 Outside screw and yoke - A type of bonnet so constructed that the operating threads of
the stem are outside the valve housing, where they may be easily lubricated and do not
come into contact with the fluid flowing through the valve.
B. BODY - That part of the valve that attaches to the pipeline or equipment—with screwed
ends, flanged ends, or soldered/welded joint ends— and encloses the working parts of the valve.
C. CAP - The top part of the housing of a check valve (equivalent to the bonnet of a gate or
globe valve), which may be either screwed or bolted onto the main body.
D. CLAPPER - A common term that is used to describe the disc of a swing type, check valve.
E. DISK - The disc-shaped device that is attached to the bottom of the stem and that is brought
into contact with or lifted off the seating surfaces to close or open a globe valve or butterfly valve.
F. HAND WHEEL -The wheel-shaped turning device by which the stem is rotated, thus lifting or
lowering the disc or wedge.
G. PACKING - A general term describing any yielding material used to affect a tight joint. Valve
packing is generally “jam packing”; it is pushed into a stuffing box and adjusted from time to time
by tightening down a packing gland or packing nut.
H. PACKING GLAND - A device that holds and compresses the packing and provides for
additional compression by manual adjustment of the gland as wear of the packing occurs. A
packing gland may be screwed or bolted in place.
I. PACKING NUT - A nut that is screwed into place and presses down upon a gland bushing,
which transmits the force exerted by the packing nut to the packing. It serves the same purpose
as the packing gland.
J. SEAT - The valve seat is the interior surface in the body which contacts or could contact the
disc to form a seal which should be leak-tight, particularly when the valve is shut.
K. STEM - The usually threaded shaft to which is attached the hand wheel at the top and the disc
or wedge at the lower end. The stem may also be called the “spindle. Stem designs fall into four

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
basic categories: rising stem with outside screw, rising stem with inside screw, non-rising stem
with inside screw, and sliding stem.
 Rising stem with outside screw - This design is ideal where the valve is infrequently
used and the possibility of sticking would constitute a hazard, such as in a fire-protection
system. In this arrangement, the screws are not subject to corrosion or elements in the
line fluid that might cause damage because they are outside the valve body. Also, being
outside, they can easily be lubricated. As with any other rising stem valve, sufficient
clearance must be allowed to enable a full opening the simplest and most common stem
design for gate, globe, and angle valves. The position of the hand wheel indicates the
position of the disc, opened or closed.
 Rising stem with inside screw - This design is the simplest and most common stem
design for gate, globe, and angle valves. The position of the hand wheel indicates the
position of the disc, opened or closed.
 Non-rising stem - These are ideal where headroom is limited. They are generally limited
to use with gate valves. In this type, the screw does not raise the stem but rather raises
and lowers the disc. As the stem only rotates and does not rise, wear on packings is
slightly lessened.
 Sliding stem - These are applied where quick opening and closing are required. A lever
replaces the hand wheel, and stem threads are eliminated.
L. SOLID WEDGE - A wedge consisting of one solid piece into which the valve stem is attached,
so it seals against the valve seating surfaces to ensure a tight seal when the valve is closed.
M. SPLIT WEDGE - A wedge consisting of two pieces into which the valve stem is screwed, so it
expands the two pieces against the valve seating surfaces to ensure a tight seal when the valve
is closed.
N. WEDGE - The wedge-shaped device that fits into the seating surfaces of a gate valve and that
is drawn out of contact with the seating surfaces to permit flow or is pushed down into contact
with the seating surfaces to close off flow with the valve.
WATER METER
The primary function of a water meter is to measure and display the amount of water passing
through it.
 Displacement – this is used for water service lines to most residence up to (2) two
inches in size. Commercial services as large as (6) six inches in size. This type of meter
works by measuring and registering the number of times the meter chamber, whose
volume is known, is filled and emptied.
 Compound - used where the water demand varies widely.
 Proportional - relatively accurate but difficult to maintain.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 Venturi - accurate for a large range of flows and has very little friction loss.
 Turbine - used for large flows; inaccurate for small flows.

 Propeller - not to be used in low flows or stop and go operations.
 Orifice - this type of metering is often used by water utilities to locate leaks and to
measure the flow from fire hydrants.
 Rotometers - narrow range of accuracy; mainly used in industrial plants.
 Magnetic - electric current is measured and converted to a measure of water flow.
 Sonic - these meters contain sensors (transducers) attached to the sides of a pipe.
SYSTEM TESTING
Water test
Close all openings down to the lower end of the house drain and fill the pipes through the highest
opening (this is usually above the roof) until the entire system is filled with water. If an
examination of the waste and vent piping reveals no leaks, the system will pass inspection and
the fixtures may be safely installed. One objection to the water test, however, is the fact that the
pressure exerted by the water is not uniform throughout the system.
The pressure is great at the bottom of the system but relatively insignificant at the top. It is also
dangerous to make the water test in freezing weather since there is a real possibility that the
oakum in leaded joints will become saturated and freeze. As a result the joints may be forced out
of their hubs.
Air test
Air tests are applied by closing openings and pumping air into the system until a uniform pressure
of five pounds registers on a gauge. The system is kept at the same pressure for time and then
tested again. Any drop in the pressure indicates a leak in the system. The air test has two
principal advantages.
It can be made in freezing weather, and it subjects the entire system to a uniform pressure. On
the other hand, it does not indicate location of the leak. Consequently, unless the leak is a big
one, it may be difficult to find. A soapy lather applied to all joints with a brush will reveal leaks by
forming bubbles wherever air is escaping.
Peppermint test
The final test, with fixtures in place, can be made with either smoke or peppermint. To make the
peppermint test, seal all traps with water and all openings with caps or plugs. All windows and
doors should be closed tightly in order to aid in the detection of leaks. The system is partly filled

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
through its highest point with a solution of hot water and oil of peppermint. The tester should
avoid getting oil of peppermint on his hands or clothes.
To detect the leaks, he will have to be entirely free of its odor. After solution is added, the system
is capped and allowed to stand for a short time. Then the tester goes over every joint, fixture
connection, and trap. Wherever he detects the odor of peppermint, there is a leak. Note that the
system needs to be only partially filled with the oil and hot water mixture as it vaporizes and so
reaches all points.
Smoke test
The smoke test requires the use of a smoke machine. All lower openings in the system are
sealed, but the roof openings are left uncapped. Smoke is then pumped into the system until a
considerable volume of it is seen issuing from the roof openings. Then they are capped. The
machine continues to force smoke into the piping until a pressure equivalent to a rise of one inch
in a water column gauge is reached. At this point, check all connections for signs of smoke. The
principal objection to the smoke test is the possible damage it might do to interiors in the case of
a line break.
Make either the peppermint or the smoke test on old piping. The peppermint test is preferred
because it can be detected in places, such as underground piping, where smoke cannot. As
these tests are usually made in the presence of a local building or public health inspector, you
should pre-test all connections before calling him in. You should also remember that excessive
pressure in either the smoke or the air test will blow out your trap seals, defeating the entire
purpose of the test. To avoid this, take care to use only recommended pressures.
PLUMBING TOOLS
STRAIGHT PIPE WRENCH - A hand tool having one jaw movable and the other relatively
fixed, the two being shaped so as to tighten when placed on a pipe and rotated in one direction.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Size of Pipe Size of Wrench

1/8" to 1/4" 6"
3/8" to 1/2" 10"
3/4" 14"
1" to 1 1/4" 18"
1 1/2" to 2" 24"
Over 2" 36" or chain tongs
MONKEY WRENCH – a wrench having one jaw fixed and the other jaw (which is adjusted by a
screw) movable.
CHAIN TONG/CHAIN WRENCH - A wrench for turning a pipe, consisting of a lever arm which
has sharp teeth that engage the pipe and a short, adjustable chain which is wrapped around the
pipe and holds the pipe securely.
SMOOTH JAW/SPUD WRENCH - Smooth, toothless jaws ideal for square or rectangular stock
RAP WRENCH - A deeper and broader hook jaw housing provides a smooth, flat surface that is
ideal for occasional use as a hammer

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
INTERNAL WRENCH - Holds closet spuds and bath, basin and sink strainers through 2". Use to
install or extract 1" through 2" nipples; Jaws expand by eccentric action and are reversible for
various sizes
VALVE PACKING WRENCH - combination tools help maintain valves without stripping the nuts
or gouging the rims.
BASIN WRENCH – Basin wrenches are designed for use under sinks and in other tight quarters.
STRAP WRENCH – provides gripping power without scratching or deforming plastic or polished
metal pipes
CRESCENT/ADJUSTABLE WRENCH – a wrench with one jaw which is fixed and another which
is adjustable; the size is adjusted by a knurled screw.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
TORQUE WRENCH – provide recommended torque on no-hub soil pipe connections/fitting

clamps
RATCHET WRENCH – are designed for tightening or loosening nuts on long threaded bolts of
service saddles, repair clamps, flanges, mechanical couplings, etc.
VALVE WHEEL WRENCH - are designed to grip the rims of hand valve wheels securely and
provide leverage for opening and closing. Each wrench fits a variety of sizes and shapes of valve
wheels.
END-PIPE WRENCH - Assures a fast and easy grip for pipe working in restricted spaces or close
to a wall; provides a faster, easier way to get a grip and long handle swing

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
OFFSET WRENCH -features a jaw opening parallel to the handle and a narrower hook jaw head,
provides easy entry into tight spots.
COMPOUND LEVERAGE WRENCH - unique design multiplies the turning force applied to a
pipe; Ideal for freeing locked couplings and joints frozen by age or damage
RAPID GRIP WRENCH - The spring-loaded jaw design provides rapid ratcheting action; quick
one-handed operation makes your jobs move faster
HEX WRENCH
MINI TUBING CUTTER - for use in extremely tight places, these tubing cutters require minimal
swing around the tubing.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
PIPE REAMER - Reamers are used to remove from the inside of pipe any burrs left by
cutting. Reaming makes a smooth bore, prevents possible stoppages, and permits unimpeded
flow of water and waste.
ROTARY PIPE CUTTER - cut large diameter steel, most stainless steel, ductile, and cast
iron pipe in close quarters; needs only 4” clearance for up to 16” pipe diameter, and only 8”
clearance for pipe diameters above 16”on the RC models.
UNIVERSAL PIPE CUTTER - are available to cut 6” - 48” (150-1300mm) outside diameter
ductile iron, cast iron, clay, concrete, PVC, or PE pipe. The cutters are pneumatic or hydraulic
powered.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
PIPE DESCALER - remove corrosion and other obstructions from the pipe surface to allow
more effective cutting, joining, gasket or valve seating, or other operations.
YOKE AND VISE FLARING TOOL - used when preparing copper tubing for a flared
fitting.
HAMMER TYPE FLARING TOOL

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
RATCHET FLARING TOOL
HACK SAW
PIPE WRENCH PLIERS
WATER PUMP PLIERS
TONGUE AND GROOVE PLIERS

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
SMOOTH JAW TONGUE AND GROOVE PLIERS
LONG NOSE PLIERS
LONG NOSE WITH SIDE CUTTER
STRAIGHT JAW LOCKING PLIERS
DIAGONAL CUTTING PLIERS

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
END-CUTTING NIPPER PLIERS
LINESMEN PLIERS
TUBING BENDER
DEBURRING TOOLS
INTERNAL PIPE CUTTER

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
LARGE DIAMETER PIPE CUTTER
BEVELER
PIPE REAMER
YOKE VISE

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
COMINATION BENCH AND PIPE VISE
FIELD PIPE VISE
PORTABLE CHAIN AND YOKE VISE
BENCH YOKE VISE

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
FLANGE PIPE WELDING VISE
TOP SCREW BENCH WELDING VISE
STAND CHAIN VISE
ANGLE PIPE WELDING VISE

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
ELBOW PIPE WELDING VISE
STRAIGHT PIPE WELDING VISE
QUICK GRIP PIPE CLAMP
DROPHEAD DIES

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
UNVIERSAL DIE HEAD RECEDING GEARED THREADER
ENCLOSED RATCHET THREADER
EXPOSED RATCHET THREADER
THREE-WAY PIPE THREADER
SEWER TAPE

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
CLOSET AUGER
BALL PEIN HAMMER
CURVED CLAW HAMMER
RIP CLAW HAMMER
MASON’S HAMMER

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
CROSS PEEN HAMMER
SLEDGE HAMMER
PLUNGER
DRAIN CLEANERS

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
DROP HEAD AUGER
FUNNEL AUGER
BULB AUGER
RETRIEVING AUGER
GREASE – C CUTTER
SPADE CUTTER

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

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PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN PLUMBING

June – July 2009 1

WATER SUPPLY DRAINAGE

HOT COLD SANITARY STORM

PLUMBING APPLIANCE – A class of plumbing fixtures intended to perform a special function;

PLUMBING APPURTENANCE - A manufactured device or assembly of prefabricated

June – July 2009 2

According to flush tank type:

June – July 2009 3

June – July 2009 4

According to flushing action:

June – July 2009 5

According to amount of water used per flush:

 Standard Efficiency Toilets - maximum of 1.6gpf/6.0-lpf

 High-Efficiency Toilets (HETs) - maximum of 1.3gpf/4.8-lpf

 Dual Flush Toilets - (0.8 - 1.1gpf / 1.6gpf - 3.0-4.0-lpf/6.0-lpf)

June – July 2009 6

Tests for Flushing Performance

June – July 2009 7

 Through - Designed for simultaneous use by two or more persons

June – July 2009 8

 Wall Mounted - Range in height from 20" to 34".

According to flushing action:

 Siphon-Jet flush - provides a more efficient, clean flush

June – July 2009 9

Tests for Flushing Performance

June – July 2009 10

June – July 2009 11

 Over the Rim

 Heated Rim (flushing rim)

- Combination - combine the heated rim and a

5. FAUCET - A water outlet valve; also called a cock

June – July 2009 12

 Mini-widespread - a variation of the widespread faucet is the mini-widespread. It is

According to valve component:

June – July 2009 13

June – July 2009 14

Shower valves must be thermostatic mixing, pressure balancing, or a combination of thermostatic

A pressure-balancing valve maintains a constant temperature of the shower water by constantly

June – July 2009 15

- Water direction may be adjustable depending on product

Wide - soft-aerated spray

Wide strong spray - deep massage

June – July 2009 16

Wide pulse spray revitalizes your body

Full-flow - strong concentrated spray

Concentrated pulse spray - all over body massage

Mixed - wide strong, and pulsating

June – July 2009 17

Single Point / Instant Water Heater

June – July 2009 18

Multi-point Water Heater

Electric Hot Water Storage Tank

MATERIALS FOR PLUMBING

June – July 2009 19

90° Bend 45° Bend

June – July 2009 20

June – July 2009 21

June – July 2009 22

10. DOUBLE WYE

June – July 2009 23

11. COMBINATION WYE AND 1/8 BEND

12. INVERTED/UPRIGHT WYE