CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY:

Studies have shown that there remain only few landscapes on the earth which are still
in their natural state. Due to wide spread, diverse, anthropogenic activities, the earth surface
is being significantly altered in some manner. Man‟s presence on the earth and his use of land
has a profound effect upon the natural environment thus resulting into an observable pattern
in the land use/land cover over time. Land use / Land cover (LU/LC) change detection based
on remote sensing (RS) data has been established as an indispensible tool for providing
suitable and wide-ranging information to various decision support systems for natural
resources management and sustainable development. There is manifold change detection
techniques developed over decades, in practice; it is difficult to develop a suitable method
due to several impacts of complex factors.

The land use/land cover change detection of a region is an outcome of natural and
socio-economic factors cultural or man-made features and their utilization by man in time
and space. Land is becoming a scarce resource due to immense agricultural and demographic
pressure. Hence, information on land use/land cover and possibilities for their optimal use is
essential for the selection, planning and implementation of land use schemes to meet the
increasing demands for basic human needs and welfare. This information also assists in
monitoring the dynamics of land use resulting out of changing demands of increasing
population.

Land use and land cover change has become a central component in current strategies
for managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes. The advancement in
the concept of vegetation mapping has greatly increased research on land use land cover
change thus providing an accurate evaluation of the spread and health of the world‟s forest,
agricultural resources has become an important priority.

Viewing the earth from space is now crucial to the understanding of the influence of
man‟s activities on his natural resource base over time. In situations of rapid and often
unrecorded land use change, observation of the earth from space provides objective
information of human utilization of the landscape. Over the past years, data from earth

1
remote sensing satellites has become vital in mapping of the earth‟s features and
infrastructures, managing natural resources and studying environmental change.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

After independence, due to rapidly increasing population, the land use/ land cover
pattern changed rapidly, which has its own effect on local and global environment and
climate. This has therefore resulted in increased land consumption and modification and
alterations in the status of the land use land cover. India supports approximately 16% of the
world‟s human population and 20% world‟s livestock population on merely 2.4% of the
world‟s geographical area. The steady growths of human as well as livestock population, the
widespread incidence of poverty, and the current phases of economic and trade liberalisation,
are exerting heavy pressures on India‟s limited land resources for competing uses in forestry,
agriculture, pastures, human settlements and industries. This has led to very significant land
degradation.

According to the latest estimates (Sehgal and Abrol, 1994), about 187.8 mha (57%
approximately) out of total land area of India (328.73 mha) has been degraded in one way or
the other. The study area under toposheet no 73 N/5 occupying about 770 sq km, covers the
some parts of Bankura and West Medinipur districts of West Bengal. The area was under
dense forest cover of mainly Sal and other deciduous trees as the toposheet of the year 1968
reveals. But forest cover has been hugely bared and deforestation had a drastic bad impact on
the environment of that region.

1.3 OBJECTIVES:

The objectives of the study are

 Supervised classification of two consecutive satellite images of 18 years‟ time

interval.

 Identify the LU/LC changes in the study area during the time periods of 2000 to 2018.

 To create a land use/land cover change detection to determine the trend, nature, and
magnitude.

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1.4 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS:

(i) Remote Sensing

Remote Sensing is the technique of deriving information about objects on the surface
of the surface of the earth without physically coming into contact with them (NRSA, 1995).
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing are the art, science, and technology of
obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the environment, through the
process of recording and interpreting imagery and digital representations of energy patterns
derived from noncontact sensor systems. (Colwell, 1997)
Remote Sensing is the acquiring of data about an object without touching it. (Maximal
Definition, Jenson, 2000)
Remote Sensing is the noncontact recording of information from the ultraviolet,
visible, infrared, and microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum by means of
instruments such as cameras, scanners, lasers, linear arrays, and/or area arrays located on
platforms such as aircraft or spacecraft, and the analysis of acquired information by means of
visual and digital image processing. (Minimal Definition, Jenson, 2000)
Remote Sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiringinformation about
the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and
recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that
information (CCRS).
(ii) Geographic Information System:
GIS is a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming
and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes (Burrough,
1986).
GIS is any computer based set up producers used to store and
manipulategeographically referenced data (Arinof, 1989).
Geographic Information System is a systematic integration of computer hardware,
software, and spatial data, for capturing, storing, displaying, updating, manipulating, and
analyzing, in order to solve complex management problems. (Bhatta, 2011)
(iii) Land Use:
Land-use refers to activities on land or classification of land according to how it being
used. (Bhatta, 2011).

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(iv) Land Cover:
Land cover refers to features of land surfac ,which may be natural,semi natural,
managed or manmade and they are directly observable by a remote sensor.(Bhatta, 2011)
(v) Change detection
Change detection is the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or
phenomenon by observing it at different times (Singh, 1989).

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 CHAPTER 2

THE STUDY AREA

2.1 LOCATION

The location of the study area covers the Survey of India toposheet no 73 N/5 which
denotes the western region of the state of West Bengal. The small part of district of Bankura
and part of West Medinipur of West Bengal comes under this toposheet. The latitudinal
extent of the study area is 22045‟ N to 230 N and longitudinal extent is 87015‟ E to 87030‟ E.
The major portion of toposheet covers northern region of the district of west Medinipur
whereas only a small southern portion of Bankura district is shown in the northern part of the
toposheet. The toposheet covers an area about 770 sq km. In north the area is boundary by
Bankura district while rest of three direction (east, west, south) is boundary by other parts of
West Medinipur district.

2.2 PHYSIOGRAPHY:

In a broad category the western uplands is the part of the Chotonagpur Plateau.
Chotonagpur virtually consists of a series of plateaus standing at different levels of elevation
about 1,100 m being in the mid-western portion known as Patlands. From here, the land
descends in all directions in a series of steps particularly towards the east until it merges
gradually with the Lower Ganga Plain (R. L. Singh, 1989). The study area is situated between
these two major physiographical regions of India. It has the nature of plateau with its
undulating surface and has also the nature of plains as there are vast agricultural lands
situated on plains. Average height of the area lies between 40-60 m AMSL approximately.
Benchmark of Garhbeta Railway Station as observed is 51 m AMSL. Direction of the slope is
from North-West towards South-East and the slope gradually decreases with moving towards
east.

2.3 GEOLOGY:

This part of Bengal is continuous with Dhalbham (Eastern Singhbhum) and contains
gneisses and schists similar to those found in the latter. The gneissic rocks are of the type
formerly known as the Bengal Gneiss, akin to the Peninsular Gneiss of South India (M. S.

5
Location Map

6
Krishnan, 1943). The regionaround the study area (proceeding further east from 87015‟E and
south of 230),have thick mantle of laterite occupying the high along the bank of river Silai.

They are believed to be of Pleistocene age. The bed rocks of the area are concealed
under a blanket of laterite and lateritic soil. Laterites regarded as the uppermost geological
formation, encountered in this area, consists of gravel, yellow to brown sand, ferruginous

Table 1: Lithostratigraphy of the Study Area

Age Lithostratigraphy

Kasai formation
Upper Holocene Bamandiha formation
Daintikri formation

------------------------- Unconformity -------------------------

Lower Holocene Sijna formation Sandy loam with burrows

------------------------- Unconformity -------------------------

Upper to Middle Upper Lalgarh formation Secondary laterite with pebbles and
Pleistocene Vertebrate fossils

Lower Pleistocene Lower Lalgarh formation Laterised boulder Conglomerate with

(?) petrified wood

------------------------- Unconformity -------------------------

Mio-Pliocene (?) Upper Bhairob Banki formation Gritty sandstone, claystone with leaf
impressions, grit, local conglomerate, Bedded white shale and Brownish
white sandstone

------------------------- Unconformity -------------------------

Pre-Tertiary to Phulkusma formation

Early Tertiary (?)
------------------------- Unconformity -------------------------

Pre-Cambrian Archaean Basement Complex

Source: Ghosh, R & Majumder, N 1981

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concretions, brown silt, yellow and mottled clay, and massive laterites. It has been separated
from the underlying formation by the marked change in colour of sand and clay.

Over the flat topped surface of the Archeaen basement, estuarine to deltaic sediments
of fluvial origin were deposited during late Tertiary period, which have been grouped as
Bhairab Banki formation. This was followed by a laterisation process which gave rise to the
development of Lalgarh formation. The Lalgarh formation consists of laterised boulder
conglomerate, reworked sedimentary laterite and laterised grit. The general height of this
table land ranges from 30m – 75m AMSL. The laterite upland is frequently capped with
brownish red residual soil (latosol) ranking in thickness from 1m to 3m based on the
vertebrate fossil assemblage. The boulder conglomerate horizon (lower lalgarh formation)
has been assigned Lower Pleistocene age.

Over the eroded surface of the Lalgarh formation lies the old alluvial fill of Sijua
formation. Sijua formation, the oldest member of the alluvial sediments covers major portions
of the western and central part of the area and has an unconformable with Lalgarh formation.
In the central part, the formation attains a thickness of more than 20m. In the upper reaches of
the rivers the formation is mainly composed of sand and sandy loam which changes gradually
to silt and silty clay in the lower reaches.

2.4 CLIMATE:

The climate of the study area has been identified as Sub-Humid Monsoon type. Hot
and Dry summer season, wet South-Western monsoon season and dry-cold winter season are
the three important season that covers most of the time of the year. During summer the
maximum temperature increases to 450 C or more. The bare and deep coloured laterite surface
produces maximum radiation of heat energy during this time. The area also receives an
average annual rainfall of 140cm/year. Most of the precipitation occurs during the south west
monsoon months. Significant dry and cool retreating monsoon or winter season lasts about
three months of a year when minimum temperature goes down to below 90C.

8
Table 2: Monthly Rainfall variation in the West Medinipur District (2016)

Month Rainfall (mm)

January 6.0
February 48.0
March 27.4
April 12.0
May 133.5
June 161.1
July 359.2
August 371.7
September 192.2
October 71.6
November 8.6
December 0.0
Source: http://hydro.imd.gov.in/hydrometweb

MONTHLY RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION (2016)

400
350
300
Rainfall (mm)

250
200
150
100 Rainfall (mm)

50
0

Months

Figure 2

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2.5 DRAINAGE:

The main drainage in the study area is Shilabati River (also known as Silai)originates
in the terrain of the Chotonagpur plateau in the Purulia district of the state of West Bengal in
eastern India (figure 7). It flows in an almost south-easterly direction through the district of
Bankura and West Medinipur. The Shilabati joins the Dwarakeswar river near Ghatalan
afterwards is known as as Rupnarayan which finally joins the Hoogly river. Almost every
year Shilabati causes flooding.There is a small reservoir on the Silabati near Khatra known as
Kadam Deuli Dam, where a canal from Mukutmanipur Kangsabati Dam meets. The Shilabati
river is a rainfed stream and it carries the combined water of a number of small tributaries.

During the survey it reveals that the river itself (Shilabati) is perennial with about a
depth of 0.5 m to 1 m of water. The river has meandering courses throughout the region.

2.6 SOIL:

Red and laterite occupy more than a fifth of the total geographical area of India and
are associated with tropical and subtropical climates with conditions of high temperature and
humidity. Like other areas West Bengal has also, laterite soils, found in association with red
soils. Laterite or lateritic soils occur in the district of Bankura and West Medinipur districts.
Here the land is undulating with tiny rivulets and the soils are highly eroded. The soil
nutrients mainly organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and potash are very low possibly due to
the fact that these soils are derived from both basic and acidic igneous rocks and also from
sand stones and other sedimentary rocks.
The northern and central parts of Medinipur district of West Bengal are covered with
what is termed in popular nomenclature approximation classification of U.S.D.A. (1960).
These soils have developed on Tertiary gravelly sediments (Niyogi et al, 1968). Studies on
laterites have shown that, where rocks are of suitable composition, climate and drainage play
important role in bringing out the characteristic laterite morphology.
A complete lateritic soil profile is displayed in the catchment of Silai River near
Garhbeta. All the three zones, i.e. hard crust, mottled clay and pallid zone are clearly visible.
The hard crust in the area in general a nodular hardpan in which ferruginous are concentrated.

10
2.7 VEGETATION:

The study area once covered with dense forest. However due to cultivation and
habitation most of the vegetation of the low lying lands have been removed. Forest still exists
in the uplands and the adjoining areas, particularly in the northern part of the region. The
forest consists of dense mixed deciduous species like Sal, Neem, Sirish, Kendu, Khair etc.
This area is covered predominantly with Sal and the rest is covered with plantation, scrub and
bushes etc.

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 CHAPTER 3

DATA AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 DATA USED

In this chapter, a general sketch of the methodology adopted has been described. The
present work is a framework of digital image processing using a case study to meet the
expected result in order to solve the specified problems. Towards this approach, information
extraction using digital image processing using remote sensing (RS) data has been adopted.
Several techniques exist for improved information extraction from various sources of RS
from simple visual interpretation of aerial photographs to complex automatic digital
interpretation using various developed classification procedures.

Table 3: General Description of Landsat ETM+

ATTRIBUTE CHARACTERISTICS
Name of the Satellite Landsat 7
Landsat scene ID LE71390442000089SGS00
Sensor ETM+
Path 139
Row 044
Output GEOTIFF
Data Acquired 2000-02-22
No of Band 8
Sun Elevation 57.7198448
Map Projection UTM
Datum WGS84
Ellipsoid WGS84
UTM zone 45
Source: https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov

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Table 4: Bands of Landsat 7 ETM+

Band Description Wavelength Resolution

(micrometre) (metre)
Band 1 Blue 0.441-0.514 30
Band 2 Green 0.519-0.601 30
Band 3 Red 0.631-0.692 30
Band 4 NIR 0.772-0.898 30
Band 5 SWIR-1 1.547-1.749 30
Band 6 TIR 10.31-12.36 60
Band 7 SWIR-2 2.064-2.345 30
Band 8 Pan 0.515-0.896 15
Source: https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov

Table 5: General Description of Landsat 8 OLI-TIRS

ATTRIBUTE CHARACTERISTICS
Name of the Satellite Landsat 8
Landsat scene ID LC81390442018066LGN00
Sensor OLI-TIRS
Path 139
Row 044
Output GEOTIFF
Data Acquired 2018-02-19
No of Band 11
Sun Elevation 51.72759534
Map Projection UTM
Datum WGS84
Ellipsoid WGS84
UTM zone 45
Source: https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov

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Table 6: Bands of Landsat 8 OLI-TIRS

Band Description Wavelength Resolution

(micrometre) (metre)
Band 1 Coastal aerosol 0.43-0.45 30
Band 2 Blue 0.45-0.51 30
Band 3 Green 0.53-0.59 30
Band 4 Red 0.64-0.67 30
Band 5 NIR 0.85-0.88 30
Band 6 SWIR-1 1.57-1.65 30
Band 7 SWIR-2 2.11-2.29 30
Band 8 Pan 0.50-0.68 15
Band 9 Cirrus 1.36-1.38 30
Band 10 TIR-1 10.60-11.39 100
Band 11 TIR-2 11.50-12.51 100
Source: https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov

Workflow Diagram of Processed Methodology

INPUT DATA
(Landsat ETM+ 2000 and Landsat OLI-TIRS
2018)

ENHANCEMENT

SUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION

OUTPUT DATA
(Landsat ETM+ 2000 and Landsat OLI-TIRS
2018 Results)

Comparison, Analysis and Interpretation

Figure 3: Flowchart of Methodology

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3.2 IMAGE ACQUISITION:

The Landsat data are freely available on the USGS Earth Explorer Website. Both the
data of Landsat ETM+ 2000 and Landsat OLI-TIRS 2018 was downloaded from the USGS
Earth Explorer Website.

3.3IMAGE ENHANCEMENT:

Image enhancement involves the technique to increase the visual distinction of the
features or aerial photographs to complex automatic digital interpretation using various
developed classification procedures. These techniques are directly influenced by several
technical factors – resolution and type of the image, target information to be extracted,
objective the study and accuracy requirements are worthy mentioned. The choice of
enhancement technique depends upon the features to be used for extracting from the image.
The most commonly used one is the simple contrast stretching which has been adopted in this
study. This step has been considered and proved to increase effectively the overall contrast of
the image. At first, Landsat ETM+ (multispectral) has been chosen for enhancement. First the
image has been imported and changed into the .img format. Although the contrast of the
image improved, it was not visibly distinguishable. After finishing the contrast enhancement
of the Landsat ETM+ image, the same method was followed for Landsat OLI-TIRS.

3.4IMAGE CLASSIFICATION:

Image classification is the most widely used technique in various remote sensing
applications for extraction of target thematic information. In the context of present study, the
land use / land cover (LU/LC) is the main theme which is to be extracted using a suitable
classification method for LU/LC change detection. Basically, image classification is a
mapping process to generalize the image pixels into meaningful groups each resembling
different land category (Jensen, 1995). The process requires anoptimum and specifically
designed classification algorithm for precise application purpose because it largely varies
depending upon the type and objective of the work. Typical method for RS image
classification is so called pixel based method in which the classifier considers different pixel
values and group them into classes solely based on their spectral properties. This practice is

15
based on conventional statistical techniques such as supervised and unsupervised
classification where the classes are supervised by analyst and are not supervised (i.e. fully
automatic based on spectral values) respectively. The expediency of traditional pixel based
image classification often proves very effective especially in case of low and medium
resolution satellite images, e.g.- Landsat MSS, IRS WiFS etc. The CORINE programme of
European LU/LC database is good example where visual interpretation technique has been
adopted instead of traditional pixel based method to obtain accurate result. But with
increasing availability of various high resolution (both spatial and spectral) data (e.g. -
Quickbird, IKONOS, Cartosat etc.), but here with the help of image pixel value, supervised
classification is adopted.

3.5CLASSIFICATION OF LANDSAT 7 ETM+:

The classification of the Landsat 7ETM+ (multispectral) image was performed by

supervised method. The same workflow used for all the images. The satellite image of
February, 2000 has been selected due to find agricultural practices, dense forest, built-up
land, water body and most importantly, the image was completely cloud free. The image has
eight bands in total. All channels could be used for classification – this is not obligatory and
sometime confuses analyser to differentiate classes. Some of them have been used for input
channels for classification after consulting with the statistical reports. In 7 band of imagery 3
bands (4,3,2) are used.

3.6CLASSIFICATION OF LANDSAT 8 OLI-TIRS:

The classification of the Landsat OLI-TIRS (multispectral) image was performed by

supervised method. The satellite image was taken on February, 2018, which is an optimum
period for LULC classification. In this classification 12 classes are taken and after
classification nine class are recoded. The classification is totally based on pixel value and
then for accuracy of the map here Google Earth is used, with the help of Google Earth some
classes of 2018 are created. In 11 band of imagery 3 bands (5,4,3) are used.

3.7CHANGE DETECTION ANALYSIS:

The classified LU/LC maps are employed for change detection analysis. Change
detection matrix tool in ERDAS IMAGINE 2014 is used to estimate the transition of each of
the classes to another class (from-to) for two LU/LC maps prepared at decadal interval.

16
Finally, dynamics in LU/LC classes are assessed at the given area. For the estimation of
LU/LC conversion, a confusion matrix is prepared in MS Excel and net conversion (gain or
loss) of each land cover from/to other classes is estimated. Change in each LU/LC class is
estimated and expressed as per cent of corresponding land cover area that existed in earlier
period. For example, change in dense forest cover from 2000 to 2018 is computed based on
the net changes in the cover as per cent total area of dense forest in 2000.

3.8SOFTWARE USED:

Basically, five software were used for this project;

(a) ERDAS Imagine 2014 has been used to carry out different digital image processing,
enhancement, and classification.

(b) ArcGIS 10.5 - This was also used to compliment the display and processing of the data

(c) Microsoft word - was used basically for the presentation of the research.

(d) Microsoft Excel- was used in producing the bar graph.

3.9 STEPS IN SOFTWARE:

Importing the File:

Download Landsat imagery from USGS Earth explorer→ (earthexplorer.usgs.go) → extract

all the files from TIFF to img file → import all the bands → output file name → Ok

Projection Correction:

Open Arc Map 10.5 → add the map → open arc toolbox → data management tools →
projection & transformation → feature → project→ Input feature class → input coordinate
system → output feature class → output coordinate system → import → input file of any
original imagery select → add coordinate system → property → ok

Subset, Layer Stacking and Band Combination:

Open Arc Map 10.5→ import data and shape file → arc tool box → extraction by mask →
input raster and input mask → output location → ok

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Open Erdas Imagine 14 → open the subset imagery → multispectral → layer stack → select
all bands → output name → ok → open layer stack image → raster → multispectral →
change band in 3,2,1

Supervised Classification:

Start→ All Program→ Erdas Imagine14→click „file‟→ open raster layer→ select the data→
ok→ Raster→ Supervised→ signature Editor → drawing→ polygon select→ after editing all
signatures → file→ save the signatures→ Raster→ supervised→ supervised classification→
After classification open the data → Right click on the data→ open attribute table→ change
color→ Raster→ thematic→ Recode→ given output name→ ok→ set up recode→ save→
open recoded data→ attribute table→ change color→ Home→ thematic→ recode→ open
table→ drawing→ polygon→ select the area which we want to change, and given new
value→ change selected rows→ apply.

Map Composition:

Open Arc Map 10.5 → add data → input→ supervised image → layout view → add data→
input shape file →change colour→(hollow) → insert → title, legend, northline, scale bar→
wright click in the image → properties → grid→ graticule → next → next → finish → apply
→ ok

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 CHAPTER 4

LANDUSE/LANDCOVER MAPPING APPROACHES

4.1. INTRODUCTION

The terms “land cover (LC)” and “land use (LU)” are sometimes used
interchangeably, they are actually different. Simply put, land cover is what covers the surface
of the earth and land use describes how the land is used. Examples of land cover classes
include: water, snow, grassland, deciduous forest, and bare soil. Land use examples include:
wildlife management area, agricultural land, urban, recreation area etc. Two land parcels may
have similar land cover, but different land use. For instance, A golf course and an office
building are both commercial land uses. The former would have a land cover of grass, while
the latter would be considered built up.

4.2. LANDUSE/LANDCOVER MAPPING

4.2.1 Conventional Approach:

Compilation from revenue records by the Directorate/Bureau of Economic and

Statistics (DES/BES) of respective states has been the conventional approach of collecting
LULC information in the country. The land use information “derived” from the agricultural
inventory carried out at individual plot level is available in a nine-fold classification system.
Thesedata are available in the form of statistical records without any reference to the spatial
locations. Topographical maps from Survey of India that represent very broad land use
categories mapped using mainly ground information on 1:50,000 to 1:25,000 scale is another
source of LU/LC information. However, this land use information does not represent current
situation of land use and also does not reflect changes. Land use maps generated by Soil
Survey organizations that are based on soil mapping units forms another source, from which
land use information can be deciphered. However, such maps are generated and available for
only specific project areas. For most part, they have worked independently and without
coordination with other agencies. Too often this has meant duplication of effort, or it has
been found that data collected for a specific purpose were of little or no value for a similar
purpose only a short time later.

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4.2.2 Remote Sensing Based Approach:

Land cover mapping is a product of the development of remote sensing, initially

through aerial photography. Remote sensing technology, becauseof the benefits it offers
(wide area coverage, frequent revisits, multispectral, multisource, and storage in digital
format to facilitate subsequent updating and compatibility with GIS technology) proved very
practical and economical means for an accurate classification of land cover.

Purpose: Land cover information is obtained for numerous scientific, policy, planning or
management purposes. Within each of these areas, a wide range of needs exists. For example,
land use inventories, forest inventories, planning as well as other biophysical resource
inventories require land cover information.

4.2.3 Historical Perspective of LU/LC Mapping Projects Using Remote Sensing in India:

The Indian experience on use of satellite data for LU/LC analysis is mentioned in the Manual
on National land Use Mapping at 1:250000 scale using IRS-P6 AWiFS data (NRSA, 2004).
The work was carried out by National Remote Sensing Centre (erstwhile NRSA), Department
of Space, Government of India, in collaboration with various central and state government
organizations. Realizing the need for an up-to-date nationwide LU/LC maps by several
departments in the country, as a prelude, a LU/LC classification system with 24 categories up
to Level- II, suitable for mapping on 1:250,000 scale, was developed by NRSC by taking into
consideration the existing land use classification adopted by NATMO, CAZRI, Ministry of
Agriculture, Revenue Department, AIS & LUS,etc., andthe details obtainable from satellite
imagery. After discussions with nearly 40 user departments / institutions in the country a 22
fold classification system was finalized and adopted for Nationwide LU/LC Analysis.

4.2.4 Digital Classification

Numerical techniques for satellite image classification have a long tradition, dating back to at
least the early 70s; two types of approaches have evolved and, in spite of recent
developments, have remained as the basic options.

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(i) Supervised Classification:

In supervised classification, a prior knowledge of all cover types to be mapped within

the classified scene is assumed. This knowledge is used to define signatures of the classes of
interest, to be applied to the entire scene.

(ii) Unsupervised Classification:

In case of unsupervised classification no prior information about the land cover types
or their distribution is required. Unsupervised classification methods divide the scene into
more or less pure spectral clusters, typically constrained by pre-defined parameters
characterizing the statistical properties of these clusters and the relationships among adjacent
clusters. The assignment of land cover labels to individual spectral clusters is made
subsequently on the basis of ground information, obtained in the locations indicated by the
resulting clusters.

4.2.4 Manual Classification:

Manual, or visual, classification of remotely sensed data is an effective method of

classifying land cover especially when the analyst is familiar with the area being classified.
This method uses skills that were originally developed for interpreting aerial photographs. It
relies on the interpreter to employ visual cues such as tone, texture, shape, pattern, and
relationship to other objects to identify the different land cover classes. The downside of
manual interpretation is that it tends to be tedious and slow when compared with automated
classification and because it relies solely on a human interpreter it is more subjective.

4.2.5Other Methods of Classification in Vogue:

A wide variety of methods exist to derive measures of vegetation cover from remotely
sensed data. Arguably the most widely used of these techniques is the Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI), It is a simple operation, needing little time, expertise, or
processing capacity, which uses two bands of data to generate an index of relative vegetation
abundance. Spectral Mixture Analysis (SMA) is a more sophisticated approach, using all
bands of data in an image to generate percent cover of various specified ground covers within
each pixel. Unfortunately field data was not available to assess the absolute accuracy of either
of these techniques. However, a good evaluation is possible based on data comparisons,

21
detailed image interpretation, reviews of possible error sources, and reviews of the wealth of
literature on both these techniques.

4.3Land Use &Land Cover Change Detection with Remote Sensing Data:

An increasingly common application of remotely sensed data is for change detection.

Change detection is the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or
phenomenon by observing it at different times (Singh, 1989). Change detection is an
important process in monitoring and managing natural resources and urban development
because it provides quantitative analysis of the spatial distribution of the population of
interest. Change detection is useful in such diverse applications as land use change analysis,
monitoring shifting cultivation, assessment of deforestation, study of changes in vegetation
phenology, seasonal changes in pasture production, damage assessment, crop stress detection,
disaster monitoring, day/night analysis of thermal characteristics as well as other
environmental changes.

There are list four aspects of change detection which are important when monitoring
natural resources:

• Detecting that changes have occurred

• Identifying the nature of the change

• Measuring the areal extent of the change

• Assessing the spatial pattern of the change

The basic premise in using remote sensing data for change detection is that changes in land
cover result in changes in radiance values which can be remotely sensed. Techniques to
perform change detection with satellite imagery have become numerous as a result of
increasing versatility in manipulating digital data and increasing computing power.

22
 CHAPTER 5

LAND USE LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM AND

INTERPRETATION KEYS

5.1 INTRODUCTION:

Land use/land cover classification system is necessary to produce a comparable result

based on a system which is being followed by majority of users .There is no one ideal
classification of land use/land cover, and it is unlikely that one could ever be developed.
There are different perspectives in the classification process, and the process itself tends to be
subjective, even when an objective numerical approach is used. There is, in fact, no logical
reason to expect that one detailed inventory should be adequate for more than a short time,
since land use and land cover patterns change in keeping with demands for natural resources.
Each classification is made to suit the needs of the user, and few users will be satisfied with
an inventory that meets most of their needs. In an attempt to develop a framework to satisfy
the needs of the majority of users, certain guidelines and criteria for analyser need to be
developed evaluation must first be established.

5.2 CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA:

A land use/land cover classification system which can effectively employ orbital and
high-altitude remote sensor data should meet the following criteria (Anderson, 1971):

1. The minimum level of interpretation accuracy in the identification of land use and land
cover categories from remote sensor data should be at least 85 percent.

2. The accuracy of interpretation for the several categories should be about equal.

3. Repeatable or repetitive results should be obtainable from one interpreter to another and
from one time of sensing to another.

4. The classification system should be applicable over extensive areas.

5. The categorization should permit vegetation and other types of land cover to be used to
different times of the year.

23
6. The classification system should be suitable for use with remote sensor data obtained at
different times of the year.

7. Effective use of subcategories that can be obtained from ground surveys or from the use of
larger scale or enhanced remote sensor data should be possible.

8. Aggregation of categories must be possible

9. Comparison with future land use data should be possible.

10. Multiple uses of land should be recognized when possible.

Some of these criteria apply to land use and land cover classification in general, but
while some apply primarily to land use and land cover interpreted from remote sensor data. It
is hoped that, at the more generalized first and second levels, an accuracy in interpretation
can be attained that will make the land use land cover data comparable in quality to those
obtained in other ways.

Table 7: USGS Land Use/Land Cover Classification System for Use with Remote Sensor Data

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2
1 Urban or built-up land 11 Residential
12 Commercial and service
13 Industrial
14 Transportation, communications, and utilities
15 Industrial and commercial complexes
16 Mixed urban or built-up land
17 Other urban or built-up land
2 Agricultural land 21 Cropland and pasture
22 Orchards, groves, vineyards, nurseries, and
ornamental horticultural areas
23 Confined feeding operations
24 Other agricultural land
3 Rangeland 31 Herbaceous rangeland
32 Shrub and brush rangeland
33 Mixed rangeland
4 Forest land 41 Deciduous forest land

24
 42 Evergreen forest land
43 Mixed forest land
5 Water 51 Streams and canals
52 Lakes
53 Reservoirs
54 Bays and estuaries
6 Wetland 61 Forested wetland
62 Nonforested wetland
7 Barren land 71 Dry salt flats
72 Beaches
73 Sandy areas other than beaches
74 Bare exposed rock
75 Strip mines, quarries, and gravel pits
76 Transitional areas
77 Mixed barren land
8 Tundra 81 Shrub and brush tundra
82 Herbaceous tundra
83 Bare ground tundra
84 Wet tundra
85 Mixed tundra
9 Perennial snow or ice 91 Perennial snowfields
92 Glaciers
Source: Lillesand, T. M., Kiefer, R. W. and Chipman, J. W., 2004

Table 8: Land Use and Land Cover Classification System by NRSC

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

Built-up Urban Residential, mixed built-up,
public/semipublic/communication,
public utilities/facility,
commercial, Transportation,
reclaimed land vegetated areas,
recreational, industrial, industrial/
mine dump, ash/ cooling pond

25
 Rural Rural
Mining Mine/quarry, abandoned mine pit,
land fill area
Agriculture Crop land Kharif, rabi, zaid, two cropped ,
more than two cropped
Plantation Plantation-agricultural,
horticulture, agro horticulture
Fallow Current and long fallow
Current shifting cultivation Current shifting cultivation
Forest Evergreen/semi evergreen Dense/closed & open category of
evergreen / semi evergreen
Deciduous Dense /closed and open category
of deciduous and tree clad area
Forest plantation Forest plantation
Scrub forest Scrub forest, forest blank, current
& abandoned shifting cultivation
Swamp Mangroves Dense/ closed & open mangrove
Grass/Grazing Grass/Grazing Grassland: alpine/ sub-alpine,
temperate/sub-tropical
,tropical/deserted
Barren/uncultivable/ Salt affected land Slight, moderate& strong salt
Wetlands affected land
Gullied or ravenous land Gullied, shallow ravine & deep
ravine area
Scrub land Dense / closed and open category
of scrub land
Sandy area Desertic, coastal. Riverine study
area
Barren rocky Barren rocky
Rann Rann
Wetlands/ water bodies Inland wetland Inland natural and inland
manmade wetland
Coastland wetland Coastal natural and coastal

26
 manmade wetland
River/stream/canals Perennial & dry river/ stream and
line & unlined canal/drain
Water bodies Perennial, dry, kharif, rabi & zaid
extent of lake/pond and reservoir
and tanks
Snow and glacier Seasonal and permanent snow
Source: Natural Resource Census – Land Use Land Cover Database, NRSC, 2012

5.3 LADUSE/LANDCOVER CLASSES:

(i) Built-up Land:

It is an area of human habitation developed due to non-agricultural use and that has a
cover of buildings, transport and communication, utilities in association with water,
vegetation and vacant lands. Web LU/LC map consists of 3 classes under built-up viz., urban,
rural and mining.

(ii) Agricultural Land:

These are the lands primarily used for farming and for production of food, fibre, and
other commercial and horticultural crops.Cropped areas appear in bright red to red in colour
with varying shape and size in a contiguous to non-contiguous pattern. Plantaton and Fallow
have lighter tones.

(iii) Forest:

The term forest is used to refer to land with a tree canopy cover of more than 10 per
cent and area of more than 0.5 hectares. Forest is determined both by the presence of trees
and the absence of other predominant land uses. The trees should be able to reach a minimum
height of 5 m. Denser the forest darker will be the tone appeared. Plantation has pinkish tone
and scrub has redish brown.

(iv)Grass/Grazing Land:

These are the areas of natural grass along with other vegetation, predominantly grass
like plant(Monocots) and non-grass like herbs(except lantana species which are to be

27
classified as curb).It include natural/semi natural grass/grazing land of Alpine/Sub Alpine or
temperate or sub-tropical or tropical zones, deserted areas and manmade grassland.

(v) Wasteland:

Wasteland described as degraded land which can be brought under vegetative cover
with reasonable effort and which is currently under-utilized and which is deteriorating for
lack of appropriate water and soil management or on account of natural causes. All types of
Waste land have lighter tone like salt affected area, gullied area, scrub land, sandy area,
barren land and Rann area.

(vi) Wetland/Water Bodies:

All submerged or water-saturated lands, natural or man-made, inland or coastal,

permanent or temporary, static or dynamic, vegetated or non-vegetated which necessarily
have a land-water interface, are defined as wetlands. It can be river or pond or any other
natural or manmade water carried area.

(vii) Snow and Glaciers:

These are the areas under snow cover confined to the Himalaya region. They are
mostly located in mountain peaks and steep slopes/high relief areas. These are the areas
which remain under snow either on temporary or permanent basis. These are the areas under
perpetual snow cover throughout the year. They are the origins of most Himalayan river
systems.

5.4 ELEMENTS OF IMAGE INTERPRETATION:

While interpreting imagery, there are a number of characteristics that enable the
viewer to detect, recognize, or even identify objects from imagery. These recognition
elements are: shape, size, pattern, shadow, tone or colour, texture, association and site.

5.4.1 Interpretation Keys:

The criteria of identification of an object with interpretation elements are called

interpretation keys. Image interpretation is a complex process consisting of physical
investigation as well as human skill application. The reference material required for a
particular theme forms an interpretationkey, which serve a useful laid for the interpreter while
interpreting a satellite image or aerial photograph. An image interpretation key helps the
28
interpreter to organize the information present in an image form and guides to correct
identification of unknown objects. Image interpretation key are categorized into five groups:

1. Item Key: Concerned with the identification of an individual object or condition.

2. Subject Key: Collection of object keys concerned with the identification of principle
object or condition with a given subject category.

3. Regional Key: Compilation of item or subject keys dealing with the identification of
objects or condition, characteristics of a particular region.

4. Analogous Area Key: A subject or regional key which has been prepared for an accessible
area and used of interpretation object or condition in inaccessible areas which exhibit similar
condition.

5. Selective Key/Elimination Key: It is basically photo interpretation key which depending

on the way and method of interpretation characteristics presentation, the photo interpretation
keys can be divided into selective/elimination keys.

29
 CHAPTER 6

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

The analysis and interpretation is the most important part of any research. The term
analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among data-groups. Interpretation refers to the task of drawing
inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study. In fact, it is
a search for broader meaning of research findings.

The general land use of an area depicts an idea of overall areal utilization of
resources, natural or cultural. In this chapter, changes in the land use and land cover of the
area under toposheet no 73N/5 are evaluated from the differences between eighteen years of
the period 2000-2018

6.1 LAND USE/LAND COVER PATTERN: 2000 SCENARIO:

In 2000 dense forest was dominating the study area followed by agricultural land,
scrub, moderately dense forest and built up area.The brief description of individual land
use/land cover category is given below:

Dense Forest: The area in the year 2000 was full of dense forest, mainly species of
Sal were found in abundance. The amount of forest in northern part the area was greater than
the southern part. A big patch of dense forest has been found in the northern part of the area
and some patches of dense forest also have been noticed just north of the river in western side
of the map. Dense forest in the south of the river is lower in amount than northern part and
mainly concentrated in south-western part of the region. 264.206 km2 area came under the
dense forest in 2000 which occupied 34.19% of the total area.

Moderately Dense Forest: The amount of moderately dense forest in 2000 is lower
than dense forest. This type of forest covered 83.068 km2 area of total land which occupied
10.75% of the total area. This type of forest mainly located in the eastern side of the area,
where elevation is lower than the western part.

Water Body: The main river of the area is Shilabati which flows from west to
eastward on this area. Water body covers an area of 7.327 km2 which occupied 0.95% of the

30
Figure 4: Landsat 7 ETM+ 2000

31
Figure 5: Landuse/Landcover of 2000

32
total area. Here mainly two types of water bodies have been located, those are small tiny
ponds and Shilabati river.

Point bar: Due to meandering course of Shilabati point bars have been formed in the
area where river takes turn. Point bar covers an area of 2.213 km2 which occupied 0.29% of
the total area. Agricultural practices near point bar and upon the point bar area had been
started long ago.

Agricultural Land: Most of the land along the river was used for agricultural
practices in the year 2000. Other parts of the area was also used for agricultural purposes, a
clear view of linear patches of agricultural land have been seen in northern part of the river
where it clearly depicts the picture how in early days forest cover had been removed and
agricultural land was created. A large agricultural patch has also been seen in south-eastern
part of the area. Agricultural land covers 197.082 km2area which occupied 25.50% of the
total area. The amout of land used in agricultural purposes clearly state that large portion of
land is used in cultivation after dense forest in this particular area.River and surface
impoundments are the main source of irrigation.

Fallow Land: The amount of fallow land in this region is quite low. Fallow land
covered 26.705 km2 of land which was 3.45% of the total area. The concentration of fallow
land near centre of the area has been noticed clearly. Most of the fallows were associated
with agricultural land and few were with forested area.

Built up Land:Built up land consists of all kinds of man-made set up, construction
incorporating settlements (residential, commercial, institutional etc). In south of the river part
settlements has been developed well. Along the abandoned meandering river channel and on
fertile river valley agglomerated or compact rural settlement has been evolved.Over all built
up land covered 72.776 km2 area which occupied 9.417% of the total area. The concentration
of built up land has been found near river and a large patch has been noticed in the north-east
part of the area.

Scrub Land: Scrub was a significant land cover comes under the category of barren
land. Scrub land covered 118.662 km2 area which occupied 15.35% of the total area. Most of
the scrub land found along with the forested area means these scrub lands are the result of
deforestation. The most concentration of the scrub land was found near river side where
percentage of forest was low and built up and cultivated land occupied most of the area.

33
 Badland: Gullied land covered 0.755 km2 area which occupied 0.097% of the total
area. A small badland has been noticed in middle of the area where the river takes a big
meander.

Table 9: Area of Landuse/ Landcover Classes in 2000

LU/LC Classes Area (km2) in 2000

Dense Forest 264.206
Moderately Dense Forest 83.068
Water Body 7.327
Point bar 2.213
Agricultural Land 197.082
Fallow Land 26.705
Built Up Land 72.776
Scrub Land 118.662
Badland 0.755

Area Under Different LU/LC Classes in

2000
0.09% Dense Forest
15% Moderately Dense Forest
34% Water Body
9%
Sand Bar
4%
Agricultural Land
Fallow Land
26% 11%
Built Up Land
Scrub Land
Badland
0.29% 1%

Figure 6: Area Under Different LU/LC Classes in 2000

34
6.2 LAND USE/ LAND COVER PATTERN: 2018 SCENARIO

In 2018 agricultural land is dominating the study area followed by scrub, built up area
and forest.The brief description of individual land use/land cover category is given below:

Dense Forest: Dense forested area in the year 2018 has been changed drastically.
Now total area covers by the dense forest is 84.635 km2 which occupies only 10.95% of the
total area. In 2018 only in northern part of the area has some patches of dense forest and
some small scattered patches of dense forest has been noticed in north-eastern and south-
western part of the area.

Moderately Dense Forest: The amount of moderately dense forest in 2018 is 82.137
2
km which covers 10.63 % of the total area. Moderately dense forest has been noticed in both
sides of the river. Four patches of moderately dense forest are located in western part in north
of the river, where a linear patch is also noticed along with the river in eastern part.

Water Body: Water body covers an area of 5.989 km2 which occupied 0.77% of the
total area. In 2018 many small ponds are occupied by other landuse by replacing them. The
amount of water in Shilabati river is also decrease.

Point bar: Due to meandering course and sediment deposition of Shilabati the
amount of point bars increasing slightly. Point bar covers an area of 3.045 km2 which
occupied 0.39% of the total area. Agricultural practices on point bar have also increased.

Agricultural Land: Most of the land along the river is used for agricultural practices
in the year 2018. Linear patches of agricultural land have been seen in northern part of the
river where it clearly depicts the picture how forest cover has been removed and agricultural
land is created. The linear patches which had been seen in 2000 now increasing far in the area
of dense forest.. Agricultural land covers 246.184 km2area which occupied 31.86% of the
total area. The amount of land used in agricultural practices clearly shows that in 2018
cultivated land occupies most the area.

Fallow Land: The amount of fallow land in this region is quite low still in 2018.
Fallow land covered 19.317 km2 of land which was 2.49% of the total area. Most of the
fallows were associated with agricultural land in north of the river where intensive agriculture
is in practice.
35
Figure 7: Landsat 8 OLI-TIRS 2018

36
Figure 8: Landuse/Landcover Map of 2018

37
 Built Up Land:Built up land consists of all kinds of man-made set up, construction
incorporating settlements, educational buildings, Government offices, commercial area etc.
Over all built up land covered 162.368 km2 area which occupied 21.01% of the total area.
The concentration of built up land has been found near river (just south of the river in eastern
part) and a large patch has been noticed in the north-east part of the area.

Scrub Land: Scrub land covered 168.346 km2 area which occupied 21.78% of the
total area. Most of the scrub land found along with the forested area which depicts the picture
of deforestation in the area. The most concentration of the scrub land is found southern and
north-western part of the region.

Badland: Gullied land covered 0.774 km2 area which occupied 0.1% of the total area.
The settlements are now very closer to the badland which signifies how the huge amount of
land is now being occupied by human.

Table 10: Area of Landuse/ Landcover classes in 2018

LU/LC Classes Area (km2) in 2018

Dense Forest 129.636
Moderately Dense Forest 82.137
Water Body 5.989
Point bar 3.045
Agricultural Land 246.1838
Fallow Land 19.317
Built Up Land 162.368
Scrub Land 123.346
Badland 0.774

38
 Area Under Different LU/LC Classes in
2018
0.39% Dense Forest
16% 17% Moderately Dense Forest
Water Body
11%
21% Sand Bar

1% Agricultural Land
0.1% Fallow Land
32%
Built Up Land
2% Scrub Land
Badland

Figure 9: Area Under Different LU/LC Classes in 2018

6.3 CHANGES IN LANDSCAPE (2000-2018):

The satellite imageries of two specific point of time i.e. 2000 and 2018 exhibit two
sharp different pictures of the same area. The area has witnessed a tremendous change in last
18 years.

Table 11: Area of LU/LC Classes, 2000 and 2018

LU/LC classes Area (km2) in 2000 Area (km2) in 2018

Dense Forest 264.206 129.636
Moderately Dense Forest 83.068 82.137
Water Body 7.327 5.989
Point bar 2.213 3.045
Agricultural Land 197.082 246.1838
Fallow Land 26.705 19.317
Built Up Land 72.776 162.368
Scrub Land 118.662 123.346
Badland 0.755 0.774

39
 Area Under Different LU/LC Classes in
2000 & 2018
300

250

200
Area (km2)

150

100

50 2000
0 2018

LU/LC classes

Figure 10: Area of Landuse/Landcover Classes, 2000 and 2018

Dense Forest:From the above graph it is clearly seen that 264.206 sq km area was under the
dense forest cover of mostly sal and other deciduous forest in the lap of chhotonagpur plateau
region in the year of 2000. But that area has drastically lowered down due to high rate of
deforestation along with rise of settlement thus 129.363 sq km area comes under dense forest
in the recent map of 2018. The amount of loss of forest cover is 134.843 sq km . The loss of
total area under dense forest cover has been distributed into agricultural land, built up area,
moderately dense forest and fallow land along with scrub 16.82% , 21.05%, 21.002%, 0.46%
and 10.22% respectively. The highest amount of loss of dense forested area is now under
scrub land due to purely alarming rate of deforestation.

Moderately Dense Forest: The rate of decrease of moderately dense forest is little lower
than the rate of decrease of dense forest. But the total amount of area under moderately dense
forest has not been changed in a in between 2000 and 2018 as the decrease and re distribution
of land from moderate forest and towards moderate forest is almost equal. The net amount of
change is 0.931 sq km. the land cover of moderately forest cover has been redistributed in 3

40
types of land use i.e scrub, built up area and agricultural land 50.88 %, 39.32 % and 9.79%
respectively. the amount gained in the moderately dense forest id 38.714 sq km from the
dense forest cover.

Water Body: the amount of loss of land under water body is 1.337 sq km. this scenario
shows a contrasting picture of the land use--though the agricultural land is on a high amount
of rising but still the amount of water body is decreasing. This is due to the main source of
irrigation in agricultural land is supplied by pipe lines, but another point is to be noted that
the land under river bed has also been decreased. In the year of 2006 a concrete dam has been
constructed in the upper course of Shilabati river. So the flow of water is controlled and thus
the amount of land under water has been decreased. A little number of water body as ponds
and tanks has been filled up to be used as built up area.

Point bar: the net amount of land under point bar is showing a little increase between 2000
and 2018, 0.832 sq km. As the amount of water flow of Shilabati river is controlled by the
dam the point bars has been emerged in the lap of river. But a minute amount of land 0.506
sq km from the point bar has been changed into agricultural land due to rising demand.

Table 12: Changes in Area, 2000-2018

LU/LC Classes Changes in area (km2) 2000- Relative change in area (%)
2018
Dense Forest -134.57 -50.93
Moderately Dense -0.931 -1.121
Forest
Water Body -1.3371 -18.25
Point bar 0.832 37.59
Agricultural Land 49.103 24.91
Fallow Land -7.388 -27.67
Built Up Land 89.57 123.07
Scrub Land 4.684 3.95
Badland 0.019 2.52

Agricultural Land: Agricultural land has shown a amelioration of 49.103 sq km during the
18 years. The net change is ranked 3rd among the LU/LC Classes. Agricultural land has
gained the input of land mostly from dense forest and from scrub land, moderately dense

41
forest, fallow land and point bar as well. The amount of land gain is from different land use is
61.53%, 23.13 %, 7.9%, 6.39% and 1.03 % respectively. only 4.13 sq km area of agricultural
land has been converted to fallow land. This scenario clearifies the rising amount of
population and their demand for food is alarming high which leads to drastic deforestation of
dense forest to gain agricultural land.

Changes in Area (sq km)

100

50

0
Changes in Area (sq km)

-50

-100

-150

Figure 11: Changes in LU/LC classes between 2000 and 2018

Fallow Land: The net decrease of land under fallow is 7.388 sq km. the major source of
decrease is demand for agricultural land as well as settlement. 55.88 % land has been
converted into agricultural land where as 41.12 % has been encroached for built up area. This
statistics also support the aforesaid statements of rising demand of food and land as the
fallow landsare being converted into agricultural land and built up.

Built up Land: After drastically changing scenario of land under dense forest the built up
land also shows the same. But difference is forested area has been decreased whereas the
built up has been increased. The net amount gained in built up is 89.57 sq km. this the the one
and only land use which shows only increasing in the net amount of land. The highest amount
has been encroached from dense forest 42.19 %. The scrub has paid 34.74% of land,
moderately dense forest 7.40% whereas fallow land has paid 5.67 % of land. At time of

42
 ground checking it was observed that built up land has been increased in different sectors
mainly in settlement and commercial land use. As the area is being used as a tourist spot
several new hotels are being constructed along the forested lands. Other built up includes
educational, administrative as well as some medical facility centre.

Table 13: Change Matrix of different classes in sq km (2000-2018)

2018
Dense Moderately Water Sandbar Agri. Fallow Built Scrub Badland
Forest Dense Body Land Up

Dense Forest 0 38.714 0 0 30.214 0.829 37.800 27.011 0

Moderately -38.714 0 0 0 3.883 0 15.589 20.173 0
Dense
Water Body 0 0 0 1.337 0 0 0 0 0

2 Point bar 0 0 - 0 0.5058 0 0 0 0

1.337
0 Agri. Land -30.214 -3.883 0 -0.5058 0 -3.139 0 - 0
0 11.360
Fallow -0.829 0 0 0 3.139 0 5.079 0 0
0
Built Up -37.800 -15.589 0 0 0 -5.079 0 - 0
31.121
Scrub -27.011 -20.173 0 0 11.360 0 31.121 0 0.019
Badland 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.019 0
Note: “0” indicates No Change

Scrub: The anthropological activities have compelled the land under scrub to ameliorate. The
net has been 4.684 sq km. it is quite obvious that the land under dense forest as well as
moderately dense forest has been converted to scrub land, 20.07 % and 21.88 % respectively.
scrub land has also been put to use in some other land use practices such built up 73.22% and
agricultural land 26.73 %. As the area surrounding badland is under scrub the encroachment
of badland takes up 0.04 % of the scrub lands.

Badland: The area under badland is in a very slow rate of increasing and encroaching the
surround area. Only 19 sq m has been increased in prolonged 18 years.

43
44
45
46
47
 CONCLUSION

Comparing the two land use / land cover map prepared from LANDSAT imagery of year
2000 and 2018 it can be concludes in a few words that the natural world has been concretized
at an alarming rate. From the above discussion it is clearly depicted that the greenery has
been converted into deserted yellow. But this prevailing situation cannot be remain
uncontrolled. The local,state as well as central government should take some remedial
measures to check the natural plunder. Due to loss of natural habitat of the native animal like
elephant, the incident of animal attack into human residence has beena very common
incident. Amlagora forest range covers the patches of remaining dense forest area. Though
state government of West Bengal has established a “central nursery” for plantation of natural
tress and conservation of forest this measure should be taken at a large level to make up the
dues. Many trees such as Sal, Mehagini, Amla and Neem plantation with some other native
species shows a good progress of conservation of forest. But to revive the lost land under
dense forest, moderately dense forest and scrub land should be taken under the range for
plantation purpose.

Another point to be considered about the loss of land under ponds. All the closed water
bodies are filled to be used for constructing built up land which causes ecological imbalances.
High range of extraction of ground water for agricultural as well as domestic purpose is due
to lack of surface water bodies. So built up land should be limited within a percentage of
boundary to restrict the incident of filling up ponds. The sand extraction from the river bed on
a regular manner by legal mining is an important activity to maintain the river depth and to
check flood for the storm raining incident of monsoon.

The huge and intensive agricultural practice leads to loss of fertility in the agricultural field,
to meet the demand of food the agricultural land always remain under cropped. Though
mulching is being practiced in a very small scale this practice and other process of scientific
agricultural should be put to use in large scale.

Badland has been an unique feature of land cover in this area. Though the rate is slow but it it
encroaching the productive land. To check this several measures should be taken most
effectively among them is plantation.

48
49