Multiple Access Techniques

Multiple access techniques facilitate communications between multiple users and or links. There are
three broad categories of multiple access protocols the random access protocols, the controlled access
protocols and the channelization protocols. These schemes define rules for which multiple users may
utilize the channel (medium) effectively. In channelization protocol, the bandwidth of a link is shared
among users in terms of frequency, time and codes, or combination of other techniques. Selection of
the appropriate multiple access scheme or schemes is mostly up to the systems’ designer.

There are three types of multiple access techniques under channelization namely, Frequency Division
Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA). In FDMA, the total bandwidth of the link is shared among users similar to frequency division
multiplexing. In TDMA, the total bandwidth is not divided among users, however, the users are given
specific time slot to transmit similar to time division multiplexing. In CDMA, the users can use the entire
bandwidth (not shared) while transmitting all at the same time (no time slot sharing). Users are given a
code that distinguishes them from other users. Although FDMA and TDMA are similar to FDM and TDM,
respectively, they differ in such a way that multiplexing is part of the physical layer of the OSI Layers
while multiple-access is part of the data link layer (OSI Layers). In FDM, the signals from users are first
modulated in their corresponding frequency slots, then modulating them all together prior to
transmission. On the other hand, the data link layer instructs the physical layer to make a bandpass
signal from the data passed to it (FDMA) or use the allocated time slot (TDMA). For both cases, there is
no physical multiplexer in the physical layer.

To completely understand multiple access techniques, it is also important to know the different types of
multiuser communications systems. In the first scheme, a number of users share a common
communication channel to transmit information to a receiver. An example is cellular telephony, where a
number of subscribers send to a base station.

Mulitple users transmitting on a

common receiver

Another type of multiuser communication is broadcasting, where information is sent to users from a
transmitter. This is the most common multiuser systems. Examples include TV and radio broadcast
stations and satellite communications.
 A hub broadcasts information sent by a user in
the network to all users connected to it.

The third multiuser communications is called store-and-forward network, where information received
from a user or users are forwarded to another link for reception of intended recipient.

The Cellular Systems

Cellular system provides a better view of what is a multiuser communication. Several issues in cellular
system can be generalized in a multiuser communications system. Cellular systems can be operated at
either in a licensed or unlicensed spectrum. Regulatory bodies like the FCC and NTC set standards in the
usage of licensed spectrum so interference among users and other cellular systems are kept at a very
minimum level and spectral efficiency is maximized. On the other hand, spectral efficiency in the
unlicensed spectra is low because of the interferences among users of this band and consequently,
there is relatively much restriction in transmit power among users in order to minimize these
interferences.

Multiple access and interference management are another issues within its coverage area, called a cell.
Within its coverage area, a cellular network must be able to efficiently address how resources such as
frequency, time and space are shared among its subscribers (users). Also, interference from adjacent
cells is considered.

Another issue is on how resources are allocated between the uplink (mobile stations to the base station)
and the downlink (base station to the mobile stations). To address this, a cellular network can use either
a Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) or a Time Division Duplex (TDD). In FDD, frequency bands for
transmit is separated from the bands used for the received. For example, 890MHz to 915MHz are used
by the GSM network for the uplink while 935MHz to 960MHz are used for the downlink. Unlike in FDD
where transmit and receive can be done simultaneously, transmit and receive are separated in time for
TDD. Most commercial cellular networks are using FDD instead of TDD.

FDMA
In FDMA, the total channel bandwidth W is divided into narrow subchannels Bn. Users are allocated a
particular frequency slot, where they can simultaneously and continuously transmit information. The
slot is not necessarily being permanent for a particular user. RF filtering is needed to separate users and
avoid inter-user interference. Guard bands are also used to separate adjacent subchannels to avoid
possible interference from adjacent channels.

Channel Bandwidth W,
50MHz

1 2 3 4 49 50

1 MHz
Guard Band
Frequency Division Multiple Access with 50 users on a
50MHz channel bandwidth

The capacity of each subchannel decreases as more divisions are created, however can be increased by
improving the energy-per-bit to noise density ratio (Eb/No). This is in connection to Shannon’s limit on
information capacity. The information capacity for a given K number of users can be computed using
the equation:

[ ( )]
Inherently for narrowband systems, each subchannel has almost flat characteristics, thus, inter-symbol
interference (ISI) is kept at the minimum as possible. Also, a small number of bits are necessary to keep
the synchronization during transmission due to FDMA’s continuous transmission scheme. The sum of
the individual channels arriving at the receiver is amplified by a power amplifier. Due to the high Peak-
to-Average Power Ratio (PARP) of the aggregated signal, this power amplifier has to be highly linear.

FDMA came to be known as the first multiple access technique and has stayed long in the industry
before technology allowed a new scheme to be developed. It was used in the first generation mobile
communications particularly in AMPS. At the present, FDMA is used in conjunction with other multiple
access techniques in order to improve flexibility in terms of accommodating a number of users. For
example, the GSM network that uses FDMA and TDMA at the same time.

TDMA
In Time Division Multiple Access no subdivision of bandwidth is needed among users. Instead, users are
given a short duration of time (time sharing) to exclusively use the entire bandwidth to transmit
information. This is done in a cyclic and periodic sequence for each user. Also, only one user is allowed
to transmit for a given time slot. It should be noted that all users are transmitting on the same carrier
frequency.

USER 1 USER 2 USER3 USER 4 USER5 USER6

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

TIME SLOT

Due to the very short time slots for every user, TDMA needs a much higher bandwidth than FDMA. Data
is also comes in bursts, so transmission is strictly digital. Guard periods are used to take accounts
possible time misalignments as results in the poor synchronization in the terminals (users). Large
overheads are required for synchronization for slots and frames.
The channel capacity for TDMA is computed by the equation:

( )

TDMA can be implemented either by frequency division duplex FDD or time division duplex TDD, while
FDMA only use FDD. With TDD implementation, the guard periods are also used as time allotted to
switch between receive and transmit modes. Duplexer is also not necessary for each user since receive
and transmit do not take place at the same time. However in TDMA with FDD, duplexer may also be
needed.

TDMA is widely used in wired and wireless digital transmission. It is used in the second generation
cellular technology known as the GSM along with FDMA.

The GSM Network

Global Systems for Mobile was developed in Europe in 1980’s with voice application as its basic service.
It uses FDD with 890MHz-915MHz (25MHz) band and 935MHz-960MHz (25MHz) band for uplink and
downlink, respectively. The uplink and the downlink bands are divided into 200 kHz sub-channels and
each subchannel is shared by 8 subscribers using TDMA. Each time slot has duration of 577
microseconds. Over each time slot, users simultaneously transmitting may introduce co-channel
interference. This is resolved by properly choosing the operating frequency of each adjacent cell, such
that no neighbouring cells are transmitting on adjacent channels. However, inter-sector interference is
experienced by a mobile user near the edge of the sector.

CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access system design is based on Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS).
Users can transmit using the bandwidth simultaneously without a need to divide time of transmission
among other users. Users can be identified by its code commonly referred to as the pseudorandom
noise.

The design philosophy of CDMA is as follows:

1. The interference seen by any user is made similar to white Gaussian noise as possible
2. Code bits are modulated onto a long pseudorandom noise sequence
3. Received power is kept at a minimum level that is needed for demodulation. This is achieved by
a tight power control among users. Transmissions from users near the base station are
controlled so that they do not overcome signals coming from users at a distance (near-far
problem).
4. Link reliability is increased by averaging the interference of many geographically distributed
users in nearby cells. It reduces randomness of the interference level due to varying locations of
the interference.
5. Each uses sees a point-to-point wideband fading channel with additive Gaussian Noise.
 6. CDMA systems are interference-limited but not degree of freedom limited.

Compared to the narrow band systems, CDMA can provide the following advantages.

1. Universal Frequency reuse

2. CDMA can take advantage of the source variability of users. The link is improved (total
interference goes down) when one user stop transmitting.
3. There is no explicit re-assignment of time or frequency slots.
4. CDMA provides soft capacity that is there is no definite limit in the capacity of the system as
long as the interference caused by all users in the coverage area is within acceptable levels. In
contrast with narrow band systems, no additional users can be accommodated once all slots are
occupied (hard capacity).
5. It is possible for cells at the edge of the sector to receive or transmit signals between the two
adjacent cells to improve reception. This is also known as soft handoff.

The performance of CDMA depends largely on accurate power control. This would require frequent
feedback of power control information. In narrowband systems, tight power control is not necessary
and power control is used mainly for reducing battery consumption rather than managing interference.

The capacity of a CDMA can exceed those of FDMA and TDMA if each user is cooperating with each
other.

The figure above shows the procedure in CDMA transmission. In this figure, the information bearing
signal is divided into the I and the Q channels and then each are multiplied with a unique signature code
that are distinct to every user. Each of the product s is added linearly. The summation at the end
illustrates that signals from each users can mix up at the channel, which later on may appear in form of a
Gaussian white noise at the receive side, unless a valid code is used to filter out the message. The code
is multiplied at the receiver to extract the original message. It is necessary to know the code that a
transmitting station is using in order to extract the message correctly.
The codes assigned to users are also known as chips. Each chips are orthogonal sequences which are
carefully chosen bearing the following properties:

1. The number of bits in a chip correspond the number of users.

2. Multiplication of a sequence is by scalar, which means if the sequence is multiplied by a number
N, each element in the sequence is multiplied by the number N.
3. If the sequence is multiplied by the same sequence and the results are added, the sum is equal
to the number of elements in the sequence, this is called the inner product.
4. If the sequence is multiplied by another sequence, and added afterwards, the result is equal to
zero.

The sequences can be generated by using the Walsh Table. It is a square matrix, in which each rows
corresponds to a chip. The general rule applied to the Walsh Table is illustrated in the following
matrices.

[ ] [ ]

Notice that the fourth element is the complement of the others. The two codes are [+1 +1] and [+1 -1].
For a 4x4 matrix

[ ]

The chip or codes are [+1 +1 +1 +1], [+1 -1 +1 -1], [+1 +1 -1 -1], and [+1 -1 -1 +1]. The number of
sequences should be in a power of 2.