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The energy conversion "flow diagram" of DC>AC (induction motor) is highly wasteful
- its like a "half wave rectifier" - loses all the "reverse current flow" energy because
effective voltage inside the motor becomes ZERO during "reverse current flow time
period". Hence no mechanical work is being produced by the motor during the
reverse current time period.
For efficient use of AC energy, the energy conversion "flow diagram" should be:
DC(solar cell)>AC(inverter for long distance power transmission)>DC (brushless dc
motor).
The same flow diagram lends itself to railway work thus:

DC(3rd rail; or "trolley wire")>AC (Inverter speed control circuits, etc.)>DC (brushless
dc motor).
The DC energy output on the right side of this energy "flow diagram" functions like a
"full wave bride rectifier" re-capturing ALL of the AC energy - including the "reverse
current flow" energy. Voltage is now always present inside the motor. Thus the motor
is always performing mechanical work:-)
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LIGHT RAIL ELECTRIFICATION
Feederless Traction Power Design Considerations for

New Streetcar Lines
MIKE COLLINS
AKIO UENO
LTK Engineering Services
T he construction of streetcar and electric trolley bus lines in urban areas poses some unique
challenges regarding the installation of overhead contact systems (OCS). These
considerations range from the aesthetics of a catenary system to costs for land procurement, high
voltage feeds required by a typical substation, and possible extensive buried conduit. An
integrated solution of both the overhead contact system and the traction power supply substations
can be used to address these issues without the need for expensive feeders along the track.
Feederless power distribution systems have been developed and implemented effectively
in both Portland and Seattle using novel solutions. The systems were designed independently but
have similarities, which can be used as a basis for the installation of electric traction systems in
other cities. Issues which were considered include
x Restriction of the OCS to a single contact wire;

x Use of existing 480 Vac supply power systems;
x Minimizing property procurement requirements;
x Minimizing the need for underground conduit;
x Minimizing stray currents and utility relocations; and
x Providing adequate power to operate electric vehicles.
Each of these issues will be described with specific examples of the how the challenges
were addressed.
INTRODUCTION
The installation of new streetcar and electric trolley bus (ETB) systems in dense urban areas
poses some design challenges which are not usually seen in rapid transit or LRT systems.
Streetcars and ETBs operate almost exclusively in dense urban areas, while rapid transit and
light rail normally operate with long open route sections and brief forays into downtown areas.
The usual strategies employed with LRT systems—namely, providing power from the fringes of
the downtown area with a low impedance distribution system and relocation of all utilities in the
affected streets—are difficult and very expensive to implement on an exclusively urban system.
In the Northwest, the Portland (Oregon) Streetcar and Seattle (Washington) Metro ETB systems
have used some innovative strategies to address these challenges.
The Portland Streetcar system design began in 1998 with an electrification system typical
of a light rail line. The system was conceptualized as a 2.5-mi (4-km) line using two or three 1
639
640 Transportation Research Circular E-C058: 9th National Light Rail Transit Conference
MW DC traction substations and a contact wire with parallel feeders to deliver power to the
vehicles and control the voltage drop in the lines. During the preliminary engineering phase the
difficulty of implementing this strategy quickly became apparent. The difficulty in siting the
substations, design prohibitions on using a catenary system instead of a single contact wire, and
stray current levels impacting utilities over the entire alignment would prove very expensive and
extremely unpopular. The task of downsizing this system without reducing capacity or
performance resulted in a number of the ideas presented in this paper.
The Seattle Metro ETB system consists of 60 route-mi (96 km) of two way traffic using
overhead contact wire and 37 traction power substations. The nominal system voltage is 700 V
DC. The original 55-mi (88-km) system was designed and constructed between 1975 and 1981
as part of the Trolley Overhead System and Substations Rehabilitation and Expansion Project.
An additional 5 mi (8 km) were added within the last 7 years. The new extensions use a
feederless system consisting of 4/0 AWG copper contact wire with 500 kW substations spaced
about 5,000 to 8,000 ft (1,500 to 2,400 m) apart.
Several techniques have been utilized to meet these challenges in both the Portland
Streetcar and Seattle Metro Trolley Bus systems. The following six areas are discussed in this
paper with examples:
x Restriction of the overhead design to a single contact wire;

x Use of existing utility power distribution systems;
x Minimization of property acquisition requirements;
x Minimization of underground conduit requirements;
x Minimization of stray currents and utility relocations; and
x Delivery of adequate power to the transit vehicles.
SINGLE CONTACT WIRE DESIGN
The single contact wire design seems to be every urban planner’s overhead contact systems
(OCS) preference. (That is, if they have to have a wire at all.) While it can be argued that the
general public will not notice the overhead conductors, the concept of a single contact wire
seems to arise in every urban area as a matter of aesthetics. From an engineering viewpoint, the
single wire design is attractive for its design simplicity and lower cost.
The main concern with using only a single contact wire is the higher impedance and
subsequent voltage drops which result from moving large amounts of current. Doing so through
a single wire over a long period of time may also result in overheating of the wire and annealing
of the copper if the sizing is not correct.
LRT systems constructed with a single contact wire generally use along-track
underground feeder cables typically sized from 500 to 750 kcmil. The other option is a full
catenary, often with a reduced system height referred to as a low profile catenary. The difference
in line resistance is significant. With a full catenary system (300 kcmil contact wire and a 500
kcmil messenger) the resulting resistance is 0.071 ohm per mi (0.044 ohm per km). The
underground feeder systems (300 kcmil contact wire with a parallel underground 750 kcmil
feeder) result in a resistance of 0.054 ohm per mi (0.034 ohm per km). By contrast, a single 300
kcmil contact wire yields a resistance of 0.188 ohm per mi (0.117 ohm per km), or three times
the line resistance of a typical LRT system.
Collins and Ueno 641
On the Portland Streetcar alignment this challenge was met by shrinking the distance
between substations to 0.5 mi (0.8 km) instead of a typical LRT spacing of 1 mi (1.6 km). This
effectively reduces the maximum distance from a substation to one half that seen on an LRT
system, approximately 1320 ft (400 m), and consequently reduces the line resistance by half.
Additionally, for the anticipated single-car operation the required current flow in the overhead
line is also reduced compared to a typical LRT two-car consist. The operational voltages on the
line are discussed further in a subsequent section.
In Seattle, 4/0 AWG overhead contact wire without parallel feeders in outlying area
results in an impedance of 0.266 ohm per mi (0.162 ohm per km), almost one and a half times
the impedance of the Portland Streetcar system. The lighter ETBs with a maximum current draw
of 500 amps allow the system to be operated with a substation spacing of 5,000 to 8,000 ft (1,500
to 2,400 m).
The key to designing for a single contact wire is knowing what the loads are going to be
and designing a system that will serve these loads within the limits of the wire.
MINIMIZING UNDERGROUND CONDUIT
Using the single wire concept instead of a parallel feeder system also greatly reduces the need for
an underground conduit system to contain the feeder system. Generally, two 4-in. (100 mm)
conduits are installed for along-track feeders with a manhole placed every 300 ft (90 m) and a
lateral feeder run to a pole base and up to the contact wire on every block.
Underground conduit can also be required for transfer tripping substations as a back-up to
the primary overcurrent protection. These wires require an additional 2-in. (50 mm) conduit. On
both Portland Streetcar and Seattle Metro ETB systems the di/dt protection with reclosure relays
is relied on to ensure an adjacent substation trips in the event of higher impedance faults where
the primary overcurrent protection does not see the fault.
The cost of installing underground conduits for the power distribution feeders and
transfer trip cables can be grossly estimated at $90/ft ($295/m), including the cost of manholes
and lateral feeders at approximately 300 ft (100 m) intervals. With the tracks separated by a
block on the Portland Streetcar system there are 5 linear track miles (8 km) to cover both tracks.
The cost of the total underground distribution system can be estimated at about $2.5 million.
An additional benefit to eliminating an underground traction power conduit system is the
avoidance of the problems that arise from trying to fit it into a street which is already crowded
with the underground services of several local utilities. Relocating utilities is a task which is wise
to avoid.
EXISTING UTILITY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Another challenge in urban areas is the supply of primary 60 Hz power to the traction power
substations. Typical LRT substations are fed from dedicated medium voltage (12 to 25 kV)
feeders run from the nearest utility substation. In dense urban areas these feeds can be very long,
and the installation under existing streets can be very difficult and costly. The Portland Streetcar
system was faced with an average cost of $25,000 per substation for the local utility to supply 13
kV power, with one location that may have approached $50,000. On the other hand, a 480 V
distribution grid was easily accessible at all locations.
Low voltage service drops, such as 480 Vac, are not normally used for traction power
substations because of the high power demands normally encountered. Typical LRT systems use
1 to 1.5 MW substations, while electrical utilities in general will not usually provide for loads
above 500 kVA without installing a medium or high voltage feed. The ampacity requirements
are too large.
It was Portland Streetcar’s decision to keep the substations below 500 kVA to make use
of the local 480 Vac distribution system. The power rating chosen was 300 kW at the output. All
substations except for one are fed with a 480 Vac supply. The exception is a substation located in
a City of Portland parking garage where the existing 208 Vac supply had sufficient capacity to
handle the substation load.
An additional positive consequence of the low voltage supplies is the ability to use a
standard industrial switchboard for the power supply instead of an incoming AC cubicle and a 15
kV AC breaker. This reduces the price of the primary power equipment by a factor of three and,
of course, the footprint of the substation building is also reduced.
MINIMIZING PROPERTY ACQUISITION
The acquisition of real estate for the siting of traction power substations in central business
districts is also a major cost element in the design of urban transit. The typical 1MW substation
with a medium voltage primary will occupy a minimum of 650 sq ft (57 sq m), with a buried
ground mat of 1,250 sq ft (116 sq m). Typical dimensions of the property acquisition are 60 ft by
30 ft (18.3 by 9.2 m).
By contrast, the smaller low voltage, low power substations used on the Portland
Streetcar alignment require only 400 sq ft (37.2 sq m) of property for a stand-alone substation
with a perimeter ground. The use of low voltage, 480 and 208 Vac, eliminates the need for large
clearances in the AC incoming cubicle. These factors allow for much greater flexibility in the
siting of the units.
Portland Streetcar took full advantage of this flexibility. Of the six substations on the line,
two are stand-alone prefabricated package units, two are installed in vaults placed under the
sidewalks, one is installed in a city parking garage, and one is installed in an unused basement
extension under the sidewalk. One of the package units is installed on the maintenance facility
property which is leased from the state of Oregon and located under a freeway overpass. The
two units installed in vaults under the sidewalks are in the city of Portland right of way. The
parking garage unit was constructed with the loss of only two parking spaces to the city of
Portland. The location in the building basement extension was donated by the building owner
and only required the installation of a fireproof door to the main basement and a personnel access
door in the sidewalk. The final substation was located in the backyard of property owned by a
major stakeholder and only required a credit on the local improvement district assessment. A
route map showing the substation locations is included as Figure 1.
Seattle Metro has also been flexible in accommodating any available area for their
substations. The majority of their 37 substations are located on properties which Seattle City
Light (SCL), the local power utility, has granted easements. Only three substations are located on
FIGURE 1 Portland Streetcar substation locations.

private, purchased properties. Three of the four newest substations were installed in Washington
Department of Transportation right of way under Interstate 5 structures. The fourth substation
was installed on SCL property. A route map showing the substation locations is included as
Figure 2.
One of the major differences is in the grounding of the substations. As mentioned above,
the Portland Streetcar substations use a perimeter ground instead of a full ground mat. A
perimeter ground consists of four 15-ft (5-m) ground rods installed 3 ft (1 m) from each side of
the substation at the four corners and electrically tied together. The ground rods are driven,
without excavation, and tested to ensure a maximum resistance of five ohms-to-earth. The utility
neutral is tied to the substation structure and the perimeter ground. This results in a considerable
cost savings over the excavation and installation of a full ground mat under a substation serviced
by medium or high voltage.
STRAY CURRENT CONTROL
The primary impact of stray current control on the construction of a transit system is the need to
move underground utilities away from the track bed. Direct current stray, or leakage, currents
will tend to corrode both underground metallic services and structures along the right-of-way.
Thus there is the requirement to relocate all metallic elements where the level of stray currents
may cause a reduced life. Needless to say, the relocation of underground utilities is an expensive
proposition.
While it is not practical to totally prevent the leakage of current from the return rails to
the earth, it is practical to control the currents to a level of about 50 mA per 1,000 ft (305 m) or
less. A detailed metal loss analysis indicated this would not impact underground services located
greater than 18 in. (457 mm) from the tracks. This is about one third of the level normally
tolerated in LRT projects. To achieve these levels three major design strategies were used:
1. The distance between substations was kept as short as economically feasible,

2. The resistance from the rails-to-earth was maximized, and
3. The magnitudes of the vehicle currents were minimized.
As described in previous sections, a substation spacing of approximately 2,500 ft (760 m)

was used. This spacing limits the maximum distance for return currents in the rails to
approximately 1,250 ft (380 m) and results in maximum rail-to-earth potentials of 5.5 V under
normal operating conditions and 8.7 V with a substation out of service. These low potentials
translated to a maximum short-term leakage current of 50 mA per 1,000 ft (305 m) of track with
soil resistivities found on the right-of-way and the rail-to-earth resistances described below.
The required rail-to-earth resistances were established by simulating the actual operation
of the network. Initially five resistance levels were used; 25, 50, 100, 200, and 500 ohms per
1,000 ft (305 m). The lower ranges approximate rails directly embedded in concrete or asphalt
and the upper values reflect rails electrically isolated from the track bed and the track bed
electrically isolated from earth. The required value developed from the simulations was a
minimum of 108 ohms per 1,000 ft (305 m) of track. This level of isolation was obtained using a
high density polymer rail boot that completely encapsulated the rail. Figure 3 shows a section of
the rail with the boot installed.
The magnitude of the vehicle current was constrained with the 66-ft (20-m) vehicles
FIGURE 2 Seattle METRO substation locations.

FIGURE 3 Cross section of rail with isolating boot.
operating only as single units. Typical acceleration currents are less than 1,000 amps. In contrast,
a two-car light rail vehicle consist will draw over twice this level of current.
While not all three of these methods can be implemented on every transit system, the use
of the applicable strategies described above can reduce stray current levels and limit the amount
of utility relocation that needs to be undertaken. The fewer relocations, the lower the cost.
ADEQUATE POWER TO VEHICLES
The last point is also the most important. The DC supply and distribution system must be capable
of supplying adequate power at an acceptable voltage to the transit vehicles at all times.
Substation sizing, spacing, and the cross-sectional area of the distribution system all have a direct
impact on the ability to operate transit vehicles, especially when operation needs to be assured
even with a substation out of service. The verification of this capacity is performed using
computer programs which model the performance of the vehicles and the power demand on the
distribution system.
The simulations focused on three elements which were judged to be controlling factors in
the design—the voltage supplied at the vehicle’s pantograph, the power required from the
substations, and the heating effects of the rms currents on the copper conductors. These elements
were evaluated during a simulated operation of the vehicles at 10-min headways, 20-s station
dwell times, and a load weight of AW2. The vehicle accelerations and decelerations were set to
the maximum rate and regeneration during braking was disabled to produce worst case
conditions. All simulations were run with the Carnegie Mellon Energy Management Model
(EMM) program.
The voltages at the pantograph were recorded during simulated runs in both directions
while maintaining the required headways. The criteria for the voltage was to keep the voltage at
the vehicle above a minimum 525 Vdc—the level at which the propulsion and auxiliary inverters
on the vehicles would shutdown. Sample plots of the line voltages with all substations
operational and with one substation (Legacy) off line are included as Figures 4 and 5. Since the
streetcar system is a starter system that may be significantly expanded in the future and also has
the maintenance facility on the route, a large margin was desired for future headways decreasing
to 5 min or less.
The RMS power delivered by the substation was also simulated with the EMM program.
Figures 6 and 7 show the RMS power demands on each substation for revenue operation. The
substation power demand is far below the sustainable levels for a 300 kW substation, and no
short-term overloads were observed. However, no significant cost savings could be anticipated
by lowering the capacity, and room for future growth of the system capacity is assured.
Heating of the copper conductors was also calculated with a 10-min headway. The
highest temperature found was 50ºC including a 40ºC ambient and a wind speed of only 0.5 ft/s
(0.15 m/s). The annealing temperature for the copper wire is 75ºC. Room for future growth is
again assured.
Central City Streetcar Voltage Profile
All Substations On Line

900
850
800
Voltage at Pantograph
750
700
650
600
550
500
450
750
1250
1750
2250
2750
3250
3750
4250
4750
Stationing (Meters)
FIGURE 4 Voltage profile with all substations on line

(normal operation at design capacity).
Central City Streetcar Voltage Profile

Legacy Substation Off Line
900
850
800
750
Voltage at Pantograph
700
650
600
550
500
450
750
1250
1750
2250
2750
3250
3750
4250
4750
Stationing (Meters)
FIGURE 5 Voltage profile with Legacy substation off line

(abnormal operation at design capacity).
Central City Streetcar Power Profile
All Substations On Line

250
200
RMS Power Demand (kW)
150
100
59 55 56
50 42
29
0
Legacy I-405 Flanders Smart Park PSU
Substations
FIGURE 6 Power profile with all substations on line

(normal operation at design capacity).
Central City Streetcar Power Profile

Legacy Substation Off Line
250
200
RMS Power Demand (kW)
150
100 88
68
49
50
37
0
0
Legacy I-405 Flanders Smart Park PSU
Substation
FIGURE 7 Power profile with Legacy substation off line

(abnormal operation at design capacity).
Seattle Metro also used simulations to verify the operation of their 60-ft articulated and
40-ft ETBs. Similar criteria for operation with all substations operational or a single outage
condition were used. The system uses a no-load voltage of 700 Vdc and both ETBs have vehicle
drop-out voltage of 450 Vdc. A minimum operational ETB voltage of 500 V is used.
The other substation spacing criteria is a minimum DC fault current of 700 A or greater.
This criterion insures that in case of a single outage condition a fault in the end of the line could
be detected and cleared by the di/dt relay.
SUMMARY
Several techniques that can be implemented to reduce construction costs of rail transit systems in
urban areas have been discussed. All or part of these can be used depending on the requirements
of the transit system. Each technique needs to be evaluated independently although there is
interaction between the different techniques and often two techniques can be used together for
one benefit. For example, both the rail-to-earth isolation and the close spacing of substations act
to reduce utility relocation costs.
Perhaps the most interesting aspect is the resiliency of the feederless systems designed.
Both have sufficient capacity for the addition of more vehicles to the line in the future. Operation
of two-car trains with peak currents of 1300 A per vehicle, typical of LRT lines, is feasible using
the concept of smaller, low-powered, closely spaced substations, and the construction cost
savings are significant.
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The Brooklyn Historic Railway Association
East River Bridges
The Construction of the East River Bridges predate the widespread adoption and the
maturation of the automobile. Their primary function was to transport people between the
boroughs by means of mass transportation. At the time of their construction rail transportation
was the predominate form of transportation and all of the bridges carried electric streetcars
and elevated subway lines by the early 20th century. The figure below* shows the carrying
capacity of the bridges peaked in the years when the bridges were still supporting a high level
of mass transit service. This indicates that removing car lanes can actually decrease traffic and
move people more quickly than the current automobile centered arrangement.
'JHVSF$PVSUFTZ4BN4DIXBSU[&OHJOFFSJOH
* "Managing the East River bridges in New York City", Proc. SPIE 4337, Health Monitoring
and Management of Civil Infrastructure Systems, 60 (August 3, 2001);
doi:10.1117/12.435629
599 East 7th Street, Suite 5A Brooklyn, NY 11218

Tel: (718) 552-7048 Email:rdiamond@brooklynrail.net
The QueensboroBridge
At its peak the Queensboro Bridge had 6 tracks for both elevated rail service and streetcar
service.
On the upper level, the 2nd Avenue elevated line spurred off second ave after the 57th street
station and was routed on the bridge to Queens Boro Plaza as seen below.
The current station at Queens Boro plaza is only half its original size. The other half of the
station was torn down after the 2nd ave elevated was demolished, although some remnants
remain visible.


Four Streetcar tracks also crossed over the bridge. One in each outer lane of the lower level
and two on the main deck of the lower level. The pedestrian walk ways which now occupy the
outer lane were originally on th upper level adjacent to the elevates subway. The tracks can be
seen in the following picture which was taken before the installation of the 2nd ave elevated.
The inner tracks on the main lower deck were serviced by streetcars of the Third Avenue
Railway (TARS). These cars ran from Jackson Avenue in Queens, across the river then down third
avenue, and finally went crosstown on 42nd street. This service ended in 1919.

On the outer roadway Steinway Lines and Manhattan & Queens Transit Companies ran lines to
the underground terminal on 59th Street and 2nd Avenue which is still extant. The terminal had
5 loops which supported 5 streetcar lines. The 5 lines that ran into the terminal from Queens
were: the Astoria Line, the Corona Line, the Flushing and College Point Line, the Queens
Boulevard Line, and the Steinway Line. Today some of these lines still exist as the
Q102,Q101,Q66/65,and Q60 buses. Below is a picture of a streetcar on the bridge.
There were actually two stations on the bridge itself, one on Vernon Blvd and the other on
Roosevelt Island. These stations were accessed via elevator. This remained one of the only
ways to access the island until the construction of a small bridge further north.

The Location of the underground terminal was marked by 5 kiosks on the Manhattan side of
which only 1 still stands.

Williamsburg Bridge
Like the Queens Borough Bridge the Williamsburg Bridge supported 6 tracks. Two for the
Broadway elevated which still exist today and carry the J,M, and Z trains and four for
streetcars.
The Streetcar tracks were on both sides of the elevated tracks. Only the outermost roadways
carried automobile traffic.
Two tracks on the South side of the bridge carried street cars from Brooklyn into an 8 loop
underground terminal in Manhattan adjacent to the Essex Street Subway Station. The terminal
can still be seen from the subway platform. The following Brooklyn lines owned by the
Brooklyn Rapid Transit crossed the bridge:Nostrand Ave, Nostrand-Prospect, Nostrand-Culver ,
Reid Ave ,Wilson Ave ,Ralph Ave , Ralph-Rockaway , Bushwick Ave, Tompkins Ave , Grand St ,
Franklin Ave , Broadway , and Sumner Ave. Some of these survive as the following bus lines :
Q24, Q59, B15, B42, B43, B44, B47,B48, B60.

The 8 loop layout can be seen below
Image of underground Terminal:

Nostrand Avenue Trolley on the Williamsburg Bridge:

The North Side tracks on the Williamsburg Bridge carried Manhattan Streetcars to an above
ground terminal in Brooklyn. This still exist as well as a bus terminal.
There were 4 loops at this aboveground terminal for 4 lines owned by the Metropolitan Street
Railway. Bus lines that follow these routes include the M8,M10, and M14.

Manhattan Trolleys at the Williamsburg Bridge Plaza Terminal:

The Manhattan Bridge

The Manhattan Bridge had 8 tracks 4 for subway service and 4 for streetcar service. The
Subway tracks are on the lower level and still extant while the streetcar tracks were located
above the subway tracks.
Only two trolley lines utilized the Manhattan Bridge the Manhattan Bridge 3 Cent line and the
the Brooklyn and North River Railroad (a joint operation with Brooklyn Rapid Transit, New York
Railways, and TARS operating streetcars over the Manhattan Bridge). Both followed similar
routes. Their goal was to connect the Desbrosses Street Ferry on Manhattans West Side to the
LIRR Atlantic Avenue Terminal.

Map of the 3 Cent Line Route:
3 Cent Trolley on Bridge:

Brooklyn Bridge
The Brooklyn Bridge had 4 tracks 2 for elevated subways and 2 for street cars. The elevated
tracks converged on the Park Row terminal in Manhattan while streetcars used loops below
the terminal. The Terminal was used by Brooklyn Manhattan Transit lines (BMT).
The terminal was the final stops on the now demolished 5th Avenue elevated, Myrtle Avenue
elevated, Fulton elevated, and Lexington elevated lines.
Park Row Elevated Terminal:

Inside view:

Elevated train heading for the Brooklyn Bridge:
The following streetcar lines operated over the Brooklyn Bridge: Graham Avenue, DeKalb
Avenue, Fulton, Erie Basin, Flushing Avenue, Seventh Ave, MacDonald-Vanderbilt Aves. Some
now survive as bus routes: B25, B38, B43, B57, B61, B67

Trolley entering the Park Row Terminal:

Streetcar on the Bridge:


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