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To the rishis, the hymns of the Rigveda and other Vedic hymns
divinely revealed and they were rather "hearers", of divine
revelation. (shrauta means "what is heard").
The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (fire),
and Soma. Other deities were Varuna, Surya (the Sun), Mitra,
Vayu (the wind). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi
(the Earth) and Aditi. Rivers, especially Sarasvati, were also
considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful.
The relationship between the devotee and the deity was one of
transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of
messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-
Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the
fire ritual also preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha
(horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo
culture, in India allegedly continued until the 4th century AD.
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Vegetarianism, the practice now thought by many to be so
characteristic of Hinduism, arose only in late or post-Vedic times,
possibly already at the time of Panini: The root-compound goghan
"slaying cattle", in RV 7.56.17 used parallel to nrhan "slaying men"
in reference to the referring to the weapon vadha of the Maruts,
17c aaré gohaá nRhaá vadháH vaH astu "far be your cow-
slaying, men-slaying weapon!"
Post-Vedic religions
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Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta,
a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas.
The Vedic pantheon was interpreted as a unitary view of the
universe with God seen as immanent and transcendent in the
forms of Ishvara and Brahman, projected into various deities in
the human mind.
Buddhism
Hinduism
Jainism
Sikhism
See also
Vedic priesthood
Vedic civilization
Rig Veda
The Rig Veda ऋग्ववेद (Sanskrit ṛgveda from ṛc "praise" + veda
"knowledge") is a collection of hymns counted among the four
Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas, and contains the
oldest texts preserved in any Indo-Iranian language. It was first
orally passed down in India & then later on finally was
documented. It consists of 1,017 hymns (1,028 including the
apocryphal valakhilya hymns 8.49-8.59) composed in Vedic
Sanskrit, many of which are intended for various sacrifical
rituals. These are contained in 10 books, known as Mandalas. This
long collection of short hymns is mostly devoted to the praise of
the gods. However, it also contains fragmentary references to
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historical events, notably the struggle between the early Vedic
people (known as Vedic Aryans, a subgroup of the Indo-Aryans)
and their enemies, the Dasa.
The chief gods of the Rig-Veda are Agni, the sacrificial fire,
Indra, a heroic god that is praised for having slain his enemy
Vrtra, and Soma, the sacred potion, or the plant it is made from.
Other prominent gods are Mitra, Varuna and Ushas (the dawn).
Also invoked are Savitar, Vishnu, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati,
Brahmanaspati, Dyaus Pita (the sky), Prithivi (the earth), Surya
(the sun), Vac (the word), Vayu (the wind), the Maruts, the
Asvins, the Adityas, the Rbhus, the Vishvadevas (the all-gods) as
well as various further minor gods, persons, concepts, phenomena
and items.
The Text
Hermann Grassmann has numbered the hymns 1 through to 1028,
putting the valakhilya at the end. The more common numbering
scheme is by book, hymn and verse (and pada (foot) a, b, c ..., if
required). E. g. the first pada is
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10.191.4d yáthāḥ vaḥ súsahā́sati "for your being in good
company"
From the time of its compilation, the text has been handed down
in two versions: The Samhitapatha has all Sanskrit rules of
Sandhi applied and is the text used for recitation. The Padapatha
has each word isolated in its pausa form and is used for
memorization. The Padapatha is, as it were, a commentary to the
Samhitapatha, but the two seem to be about co-eval. The
'original' text as reconstructed on metrical grounds lies
somewhere between the two, but closer to the Samhitapatha
('original' in the sense that it aims to recover the hymns in the
form of their composition by the poets, known as Rishis).
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43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra chiefly attributed to
the Rishi gṛtsamda shaunohotra.
Book 3
Book 4
Book 5
Book 6
Book 7
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Vayu (the wind), two each to Sarasvati and Vishnu, and to
others.
Book 8
Book 9
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Associated to Shakala is the Aitareya-Brahmana. The Bashakala
includes the Khilani and has the Kausitaki-Brahmana associated to
it.
Internal Evidence
The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text
preserved. For this reason, it has been the in the center of
attention of western scholarship from the times of Max Müller.
The Rigveda records an early stage of Vedic religion, still closely
tied to the pre-Zoroastrian Persian religion. It is thought that
Zoroastrianism and Vedic Hinduism evolved from an earlier
common religious Indo-Iranian culture.
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cities of the Indus Valley civilization or whether they hark back
to clashes between the early Indo-Aryans with the BMAC
(Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex) culture centuries
earlier, in what is now northern Afghanistan and southern
Turkmenistan (separated from the upper Indus by the Hindu Kush
mountain range, and some 400 km distant). In any case, while it is
highly likely that the bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the
Punjab, even if based on earlier poetic traditions, there is no
mention of either tigers or rice in the Rigveda (as opposed to the
later Vedas), suggesting that Vedic culture only penetrated into
the plains of India after its completion. Similarly, there is no
mention of iron. The Iron Age in northern India begins in the
12th century BC with the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture.
This is a widely accepted timeframe for the beginning
codification of the Rigveda (i.e. the arrangement of the individual
hymns in books, and the fixing of the samhitapatha (by applying
Sandhi) and the padapatha (by dissolving Sandhi) out of the
earlier metrical text), and the composition of the younger Vedas.
This time probably coincides with the early Kuru kingdom,
shifting the center of Vedic culture east from the Punjab into
what is now Uttar Pradesh.
Hindu Tradition
According to Indian tradition, the Rig-Vedic hymns were
collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyāsa, who formed the
Rig-Veda Samhita as we know it. According to the Shatapatha
Brahmana, the number of syllables in the Rigveda is 432,000,
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equalling the number of muhurtas (1 day = 30 muhurtas) in forty
years. This statement stresses the underlying philosophy of the
Vedic books that there is a connection (bandhu) between the
astronomical, the physiological, and the spiritual.
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together with Vedic Sanskrit originated in the Indus Valley
Civilisation, a topic of great significance in Hindu nationalism,
addressed for example by Amal Kiran and Shrikant G. Talageri.
Subhash Kak has claimed that there is an astronomical code in
the organization of the hymns. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, based on
alleged astronomical alignments in the Rig-Veda, even went as far
as to claim that the Aryans originated on the North Pole (Arctic
Home in the Vedas, 1903). D. B. Kasar compares the Indus script
to Germanic runes and claims that IVC inscriptions contain
Rigvedic hymns.
References
Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from
inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2
(December) [1].
Notes
Nilotpal Sinha, December, 7, 2005.
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Bibliography
Commentary
Western philology
Historical
Frawley David: The Rig Veda and the History of India, 2001.
(Aditya Prakashan), ISBN 81-7742-039-9
Talageri, Shrikant: The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis,
ISBN 81-7742-010-0
Archaeoastronomy etc.
External links
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Text
Sama Veda
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In these compiled hymns there are frequent variations, of more
or less importance, from the text of the Rigveda as we now
possess it which variations, although in some cases they are
apparently explanatory, seem in others to be older and more
original than the readings of the Rigveda. In singing, the verses
are still further altered by prolongation, repetition and insertion
of syllables, and various modulations, rests, and other
modifications prescribed, for the guidance of the officiating
priests, in the Ganas or Song-books. Two of these manuals, the
Gramageyagdna, or Congregational, and the Aranyagana or Forest
Song-Book, follow the order of the verses of part I, of the
Sanhita, and two others, the Uhagana, the Uhyagana, of Part II.
This part is less disjointed than part I, and is generally arranged
in triplets whose first verse is often the repetition of a verse
that has occurred in part I.
See also
Hinduism
Vedas
Vedic religion
External links
Hymns of the Sama-veda
Yajur Veda
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The Yajur Veda (Sanskrit yajurveda (Devanagari यजजररदद) from
yajus "sacrifice" + veda "knowledge") is one of the four Hindu
Vedas; it contains religious texts focussing on liturgy and ritual.
The Yajur Veda was written sometime during the Vedic period
between 1500 BC and 500 BC, along with the other Vedas. (see
Vedas)
Versions
There are two primary versions of the Yajurveda: Shukla (white)
and Krishna (black). The Shukla Yajurveda consists of vedic
hymns, while the Krishna Yajurveda includes all the text also in
the Shukla Yajurveda, and has additional prose commentary.
Shukla Yajurveda
Krishna Yajurveda
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caraka-katha saṃhita (KS)
kapiṣṭhala-katha saṃhita (KapS)
Large numbers
The Yajur Veda documents the earliest known use of numbers up
to a trillion (parardha). It even discusses the concept of numeric
infinity (purna "fullness"), stating that if you subtract purna from
purna, you are still left with purna. [1]
Literature
Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith, The Texts of the White
Yajurveda. Translated with a Popular Commentary (1899).
Devi Chand, The Yajurveda. Sanskrit text with English
translation. Third thoroughly revised and enlarged edition
(1980).
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The Sanhitâ of the Black Yajur Veda with the Commentary
of Mâdhava ‘Achârya, Calcutta (Bibl. Indica, 10 volumes,
1854-1899)
Kumar, Pushpendra, Taittiriya Brahmanam (Krsnam
Yajurveda), 3 vols., Delhi (1998).
External links
www.sanskritweb.net/yajurveda Freely downloadable
carefully edited Sanskrit texts of Taittiriya-Samhita,
Taittiriya-Brahmana, Taittiriya-Aranyaka, Ekagni-Kanda etc.
as well as English translations of the Taittiriya-Samhita etc.
The Yajur Veda
Status
The Atharvaveda, while undoubtedly belonging to the core Vedic
corpus, in some ways represents an independent parallel tradition
to that of the Rigveda and Yajurveda.
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The Jaina and Bauddha texts are considerably more hostile to
the AV (they call it Aggvana or Ahavana Veda) than they are to
the other Hindu texts. They even call it a non-Aryan Veda
concocted by Paippalada for human sacrifices. The Hindu texts
too have taken a less than charitable view and have on occasions
omitted the reference to the "Atharvan" text in the context of
Vedic literature, though some attribute this to the fact that the
Atharva Veda was a later addition chronologically. The Atharvan
ParishishhThas themselves state that specific priests of the
mauda and jalada schools should be avoided. It is even stated
that women associated with atharvAns may suffer from
abortions.
Recensions
Traditionally 9 schools of the Atharvan literature are supposed
to have existed. One can reconstruct their names using the
charaNavyUhas as below:
1. paippalAda
2. stauda
3. mauda
4. shaunakIya
5. jAjala
6. jalada
7. brahmavada
8. devadarsha
9. chAraNavidyA
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version. Often, the two recensions in corresponding hymns have a
different verse order, or either has additional verses missing
from the other.
These are:
sumantu
kabandha
kumuda
shaulkAyana
babhravya
munjakesha
saindhavAyana
nakshatrakalpa
shAntikalpa
saMhitavidhi
At least some of these may have evolved into the other schools
mentioned in the list of the charaNavyUhas. saMhitavidhi,
shAntikalpa and nakshatrakalpa are the 5 kalpa texts adduced to
the shaunakiya tradition and not separate schools of their own.
vyAsa pArAsharya
|
sumantu
|
kabandha AtharvaN-a~Ngirasa
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|
-------------------------------------
| |
pathya____ devadarsha
/ | | / | | \
kumuda jAjala shaunakiya mauda | | |
| / | paippalAda | brahmavada
| babhravya saindhavAyana | | \
|(?) | |(?) shaulkAyana |(?)
jalada munjakesha stauda chAraNavidyA
Issues of note
The AV is the first Indian text dealing with medicine. It
identifies the causes of disease as living causative agents
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such as the yatudhAnya, the kimIdi, the kR^imi and the
durNama. The atharvANs seek to kill them with a variety of
drugs in order to counter the disease( see XIX.34.9). This
approach to disease is surprisingly advanced compared to
the trihumoral theory developed in the pauraNic era.
Remnants of the original atharvanic thought did persist in
the paurANic era as can be seen in sushruta's medical
treatise (garuDa purANa, karma kANDa chapter 164). Here
following the atharvAN theory the pauRANic text suggests
germs as a cause for leprosy. In the same chapter sushruta
also expands on the role of helminths in disease. These two
can be directly traced back to the AV saMhita. The hymn
AV I.2 describes the disease leprosy and recommends the
rajanI oshadhi for it treatment. From the description of
the oshadhi as black branching entity with dusky patches it
is very likely that is a lichen with antibiotic properties. Thus
the AV can stake the claim for being one of the earliest
texts to record uses of the antibiotic agents.
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Several regular and special rituals of the Aryans are a
major concern of the AV just as the 3 other vedas. The
major regular rituals covered by the atharva veda are
marriage in kANDa XIV and the funeral in kANDa XVIII.
There are also a range of hymns that are specific to rituals
of the bhR^igu-a~ngirasas, vR^Atyas and kshatriyas. One of
the most important of these rites is the VishhAsahi Vrata
that it is performed to invoke the indra and vishNu with the
mantras of the XVIIth kANDa. The vR^Atya rituals were
performed by individuals who took on a nomadic ascetic way
of living and were generally sent into neighboring states by
the ruler of a particular state. They appear to have served a
role in reconnaissance and negotiations with neighboring
states (compare with Arjuna's Vratya like journey into the
yadu principality to woo Subhadra). Finally, there are some
rituals aimed at the destruction of the enemies
(Abhicharika hymns and rites) particularly using the closing
mantras of the XVIth Kanda. While these are a factor for
traditional negative views on the AV it should be noted that
in content they are mirrored by several other hymns from
the Rig as well as the Yajushes. Moreover, Abhicharika rites
were an integral part of the vedic as amply attested in the
brAhmaNa literature (see the tale of YavakrdDa in the
Jaiminiya brAhmaNa). Thus the AV as such began fully
within the classic vedic fold though it was more specific to
certain clans of fire priests. The development of the
abhichArika rites to their more 'modern' form was seen
only in the vidhAna literature and in fact began within the
Rigvedic tradition in the form of the RigvidhAna. The author
of the RigvidhAna provides passing reference to the
development of similar rites in the AV tradition (the
references to the Angirasa KrityAs). These rites reached
their culmination in the Kaushika and Vaitana Sutra and in
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some of the Parishishhthas (appendices) of the Atharvan
literature. However, these are far removed from the actual
hymns themselves suggesting that they represent an
encrustation on the atharvanic practice rather than its
original form. While in its most extreme form Atharvanic
Abhicharika faded away it did seed the mainstream Hindu
culture resulting in the origin of the Pauranic form of the
fire ritual (yaga-s). It also provided the launching pad for
the worship of late evolving popular deities like Kumara and
Ganapati to capture the mainstream Hindu ritual.
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various interpretations that abounded in later Hindu
philosophies and can be considered one of the most
fundamental expression of Vedic thought.
Dating
From alleged internal astronomical references (AVS XI.7) it has
been surmised that the Atharvanic period included the time when
the Pleiades occupied the spring equinox (roughly 2200 BC).
Further, tradition suggests that Pippalada, one of the early
collators, and Vaidharbi, one of the late contributors associated
with the Atharvanic text, lived during the reign of prince
Hiranyanabha of the Ikshvaku dynasty, interpreted to mean that
the core AV composition was at least complete by 1500 BC.
During its oral tradition, however, the text has been corrupted by
later additions considerably more than the other Vedas, and it is
only from comparative philology of the two surviving recensions
that the original reading may hoped to be approximated.
Editions
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The Shaunakiya text was edited 1960–62 by Vishva Bandhu,
Hoshiarpur.
The bulk of the Paippalada text was edited by Leray Carr Barret
from 1905 to 1940 (book 6 by Edgerton, 1915) from a single
Kashmirian Sharada manuscript (now in Tübingen). This edition is
outdated, since various other manuscripts were discovered in
Bihar, Bengal and Orissa since. Some manuscripts are in the
Orissa State Museum, bu many manuscripts are in private
possession, and are kept hidden by their owners. Many
manuscripts were collected by Durgamohan Bhattacharya by
deceiving their owners, as told by his son Dipak (1968), who
describes the theft as valiant daredevilry (see Zehnder (1999), p.
19):
References
Maurice Bloomfield, Hymns of the Atharva-veda, Sacred
Books of the East, v. 42 (1897)
Alexander Lubotsky, Atharvaveda-Paippalada, Kanda Five
Harvard College, (2002)
Thomas Zehnder, Atharvaveda-Paippalada, Buch 2 Idstein
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Brahmanas (Sanskrit बब्राह्मण, Brahmin Books) are part of the
Hindu Shruti; They are composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and the
period of their composition is sometimes referred to as the
Brahmanic period or age (approximately between 900 BC and 500
BC). They are essentially commentaries of the Vedas, explaining
Vedic ritual. The earliest Brahmanas may have been written
several centuries earlier, contemporary to the Black Yajurveda
commentary prose, but they have only survived in fragments.
Rigveda
o Shakala shaka: Aitareya Brahmana (AB)
o Bashakala shaka: Kaushitaki Brahmana (KS)
Samaveda
o Kauthuma: PB, SadvB
o Jayminiya: Jayminiya Brahmana (JB)
Yajurveda
o Krishna: the Brahmanas are integrated into the
samhitas:
Maitrayani (MS)
Carakakatha (CS)
Kapisthalakatha (KS)
Taittiriya (TS). The Taittiriya school has an
additional Taittiriya Brahmana (TB)
o Shukla
Vajasaneyi Madhyandina: Shatapatha Brahmana,
Madhyadina recension (ShB)
Kanva: Shatapatha Brahmana, Kanva recension
(ShBK)
Atharvaveda
o Paippalada: GopB
o Shaunakiya: (or 'Vulgate'): unknown
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See also
Brahmin
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Mahakavyas (the Epics; they include Mahabharata and the
Ramayana)
Puranas (the fables or writings)
Sutras (proverbs or aphorisms)
Agamas (the philosophies; including Mantras, Tantras, and
Yantras)
Dyasanas (the philosophies; including the Vedanta)
Main Smritis
There are eighteen main Smritis, being:
Manu Smriti
Yajnavalkya Smriti
Parasara Smriti
Vishnu Smriti
Daksha Smriti
Samvarta Smriti
Vyasa Smriti
Harita Smriti
Satatapa Smriti
Vasishtha Smriti
Yama Smriti
Apastamba Smriti
Gautama Smriti
Devala Smriti
Sankha-Likhita Smriti
Usana Smriti
Atri Smriti
Saunaka Smriti
See also
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Shruti
External links
Arsha Vidya Gurukulam
Sanskrit site with comprehensive library of texts
See also
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Smriti
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end of Dvapara Yuga, while modern scholarship dates them to the
latter half of the first millennium AD. The eighteen Puranas are
divided into three groups of six according to gunas of people they
are primarily meant for. Thus rajasika Puranas eulogize Brahma of
Hindu Trinity, sattvika Puranas Vishnu and tamasika Puranas Shiva
and Shakti, God's Power personified. Perhaps the best known
Purana is the Bhagavata Purana.
List of Puranas
Brahma Purānās
1. Brahma purana
2. Brahmānda purana
3. Brahma Vaivarta purana
4. Mārkandeya purana (includes Devi Mahatmyam, an
important text for Shaktas.)
5. Bhavishya purana
6. Vāmana purana
Vishnu Purānās
1. Vishnu purana
2. Bhagavata purana
3. Nāradeya purana
4. Garuda purana
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5. Padma purana
6. Varāha
Shiva Purānās
1. Vāyu purana
2. Linga purana
3. Skanda purana
4. Agni purana
5. Matsya purana
6. Kūrma purana
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attaining moksha, and the Vaikuntha, the realm of Vishnu, from
where there is no return to material worlds.
External links
S'rîmad Bhâgavatam (bhâgavata purâna), The Story of the
Fortunate One (complete).
Bhagavata.net: Bhâgavata the Lord, Bhâgavata the book,
Bhâgavata the devotee
Lexicon of Names, Essential Terms and Sanskrit Words to
the S'rîmad Bhâgavatam en de Bhagavad Gîtâ
Vedabase.net vaishnava literatures with word for word
translations from Sanskrit to English.
Contents of 18 Puranas and a list of Upapuranas (lesser
Puranas) (a Java applet)
Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam) online in Sanskrit
and English (with other books) at Krishna.com (cantos 1-10).
Synopsis of Puranas at Urday.com
Samsara - tour of this universe and beyond
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In Buddhism, the term "sutra" refers generally to canonical
scriptures that are regarded as records of the oral teachings of
Gautama Buddha. These teachings are assembled in the second
part of the Tripitaka which is called Sutra Pitaka. There are also
some Buddhist texts, such as the Platform Sutra, that are called
sutras despite being attributed to much later authors.
The Pali form of the word sutra is sutta, and is used exclusively
to refer to Buddhist scriptures, particularly those of the Pali
Canon.
See also
List of sutras
Smriti
Gamasutra – Video game industry website
References
Monier-Williams, Monier. (1899) A Sanskrit-English Dictionary.
Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass. p. 1241
External links
Ida B. Wells Memorial Sutra Library
Chinese repository of Buddhist Sutras translated into
English. Also has other texts.
Sacred-texts.com
Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with userID "guest")
A Modern Sutra
Ashtavakra Gita
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The Ashtavakra Gita (Song of Ashtavakra) also known by the
name Ashtavakra Samhita is an influential nondualist Hindu text
traditionally said to have been written by the Sage Ashtavakra,
though its authorship is not known with certainty.
External links
Ashtavakra Gita Online Translation by John Richards
The book was written in 15th century C.E.. The work is derived
from older Sanskrit texts and Swami Swatamarama's own yogic
experiences. It includes information about asanas, pranayama,
chakras, kundalini, bandhas, kriyas, shakti, nadis and mudras
among other topics.
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The book lists in great detail all the main asanas, pranayama,
mudras and bandhas that are familiar to today's yoga student. It
runs in the line of Hindu yoga (to distinguish from Buddhist and
Jain yoga) and is dedicated to Lord Adinath, a name for Lord
Shiva (the Hindu god of destruction and renewal), who is alleged
to have imparted the secret of Hatha Yoga to his divine consort
Parvati.
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In the West, Hatha Yoga has become wildly popular as a purely
physical exercise regimen divorced of its original purpose.
Currently, it is estimated that about 30 million Americans
practice hatha yoga. But it is still followed in a manner consistent
with tradition throughout the Indian subcontinent. The
traditional guru-disciple relationship that exists without sanction
from organized institutions, and which gave rise to all the great
yogins who made way into international consciousness in the 20th
century, has been maintained in Indian, Nepalese and some
Tibetan circles.
See also
Wikisource - Hatha Yoga Pradipika
External links
Hatha Yoga Pradipika in PDF format (A free sample
containing the introduction and 10% of the text.)
Vedanta
Dictionary
Ve·dan·ta (vĭ-dän'tə, -dăn'-)
n. Hinduism.
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Ve·dan'tic adj.
Ve·dan'tism n.
Wikipedia
Vedanta
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Mimamsa, also called as Vedanta, which explicates the esoteric
teachings of the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The school of
Vedanta is further divided into six main sub-schools.
Sub-schools of Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta — this is the most influential of all and
many philosopers, both Indian and Western, have been
influenced by it. It was propounded by Adi Sankara, a great
Hindu reformer. According to this, Brahman is the only
ultimate reality and the world is an illusion. An illusionary
power of Brahman called Māyā causes this complication.
When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due
to the influence of Maya, Brahman becomes God. Ignorance
is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true
knowlegde of Brahman can liberation be attained. Upon
liberation, there is no difference between the individual
soul jīvātman (see Atman) and Brahman. See Advaita
Vedanta.
Vishishtadvaita — it was propounded by Ramanuja and says
that the jivatman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar,
but not identical. It also propounds Bhakti or devotional
form of worship of God visualized as Vishnu. Maya is seen as
the creative power of God. See Vishishtadvaita.
Dvaita — it was propounded by Madhva and in some ways is
similar to Christianity. It identifies God with Brahman
completely, and in turn with Vishnu or his incarnation
Krishna. It regards individual soul as separate from
Brahman and also advocated Bhakti. There is no concept of
Maya. See Dvaita.
Dvaitādvaita — by Nimbarka. According to this, Brahman -
jiva relation maybe regarded as dvaita from one point of
view and advaita from another.
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Shuddhadvaita — by Vallabha.
Achintya Bhedābheda — by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
Roots of Vedanta
All forms of Vedanta are drawn primarily from the Upanishads, a
set of philosophical and instructive Vedic scriptures which deal
mainly with forms of meditation. "The Upanishads are
commentaries on the Vedas, their putative end and essence, and
thus known as Vedānta = 'End of the Veda'. They are considered
the fundamental essence of all the Vedas and although they form
the backbone of Vedanta, portions of Vedantic thought are also
derived from some of the earlier Aranyakas.
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develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely
known outside of India.
Formalization
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The systematization of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise
was undertaken by Badarayana in the Vedanta Sutra, or Brahma
Sutra. The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a
variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous
Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and
producing its own sub-commentaries claiming to be faithful to the
original. Consistent throughout Vedanta, however, is the
exhortation that ritual be eschewed in favor of the individual's
quest for truth through meditation governed by a loving morality,
secure in the knowledge that infinite bliss awaits the seeker.
Near all existing sects of Hinduism are directly or indirectly
influenced by the thought systems developed by Vedantic
thinkers. Hinduism to a great extent owes its survival to the
formation of the coherent and logically advanced systems of
Vedanta.
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Taoism. Unfortunately, such writings by western authors often
run the risk of oversimplifying and ignoring important differences
between Eastern religions. For instance, pre-modern Vedantins
argued for the existence of an eternal self, or atman, while
Buddhists have denied this possibility. However, in recent times,
the availability of an increasing number of accurate translations
of Vedantic works, commentaries by Western scientists like
Schrödinger and Capra, and easier access to original texts have
made it possible for modern students of Vedanta and Physics to
overcome the semantic gap arising due to cultural differences and
approach their study in a more informed manner.
Adi Shankara
Bhaskara
Vallabha
Caitanya
Nimbarka
Baladeva Vidyabhushana
Vacaspati Misra
Suresvara
Vijnanabhiksu
Badarayana
Modern Vedantins:
Ramakrishna Paramahansa
Swami Vivekananda
Ramana Maharshi
Nisargadatta Maharaj
Sri Aurobindo
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Swami Sivananda
Swami Chinmayananda
Paramahansa Yogananda
Swami Parthasarathy
See also
Brahman
Monism
Panentheism
Pantheism
External links
Brahma sutras (Vedanta sutras) online
Advaita Vedanta homepage
Vedanta Society of Southern California
Vedanta Society of Northern California
Vedanta's influence
From the Unreal to the Real
NeoVedanta
"Vedanta in America"
Nikola Tesla and Swami Vivekananda
A lecture about Vedanta by Swami Vivekananda
Swami Dayananda Saraswati
Additional References
For non-western sources a good starting point is Modern Physics
and Vedanta by Swami Jitatmananda, a monk of the Ramakrishna
Order. In the preceding title Amaury de Reincourt's The Eye of
Shiva (New York, William Morrow & Co. 1981), is often cited along
with The Dancing Wu Li Masters, by Gary Zukav; The
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Philosophical Impact of Contemporary Physics by Milic Capek;
Mysticism and the New Physics, Michael Talbot; The Cosmic Code,
Quantum Physics as the Language of Nature, by Heinz R Pagels;
Philosophical Aspects of Modern Science, by C.E.M. Joad; The
Holographic Paradigm; David Bohm's Causality and Chance in
Modern Physics; Huston Smith's Forgotten Truth: The Primordial
Tradition. More scholarly treatments include Theology After
Vedanta, by Francis X. Clooney, Sankara and Indian Philosophy, by
Natalia Isayeva, A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy, by
Hajime Nakamura, and volume III of Karl Potter and Sibajiban
Bhattacharya's Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies.
Topics in Yoga
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