Lecture 3

Composites and
Phase Diagrams

Jayant Jain
Assistant Professor,
Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
IIT Delhi, Hauz Khas, 110016
Part-I: Introduction to Composites

Part-II: Phase diagrams

 Textbooks
Fundamentals of Metal matrix Composites, S. Suresh,
A. Mortensen and A. Needleman, Butterworth and
Heinemann, 1993.

Metal Matrix Composites, N. Chawla and K. K. Chawla,

Springer, 2006.

Metal Matrix Composites custom made materials for

automotive and aerospace engineering, Edited by
K. U. Kainer, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, 2006.
 Composites
What are composites??

Composites are man-made materials: These are combination

of two or more dissimilar materials

Unlike normal interface bonding where atoms

diffuse here only adhesion takes place at the
interface

The goodness of composites depends

on how good the adhesion at the
interface
 Classification of Composites

Traditional composites: Composite material that occur in

nature or have been produced by civilization for many years

Examples: wood, concrete, asphalt

Synthetic composites: Modern material systems normally

associated with the manufacturing industries, in which the
components are first produced separately and then combined
in a controlled way to achieve the desired structure,
properties and part geometry
Classification based on reinforcement
 Classification based on Matrix

PMC: Polymer Matrix composites

MMC: Metal Matrix composites

CMC: Ceramic Matrix Composites

 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
 Metal matrix composites (MMCs), like all composites, consist of at
least two chemically and physically distinct phases, suitably
distributed to provide properties not obtainable with either of the
individual phases.

 Generally, there are two phases, e.g., a fibrous or particulate phase,

distributed in a metallic matrix.

 Examples include continuous A1203 fiber reinforced A1 matrix

composites used in power transmission lines;

 Nb-Ti filaments in a copper matrix for superconducting magnets;

tungsten carbide (WC)/cobalt (Co) particulate composites used as
cutting tool and oil drilling inserts

 SiC particle reinforced Al matrix composites used in aerospace,

automotive, and thermal management applications.
 Why metal matrix composites?

Advantages with respect to unreinforced metals

Major weight savings due to higher strength-to-weight

ratio

Exceptional dimensional stability

Higher elevated temperature stability, i.e., creep

resistance

Significantly improved cyclic fatigue characteristics

 Why metal matrix composites?
Advantages with respect to other composites such as
polymer matrix composites (PMCs)

Higher strength and stiffness

Higher service temperatures

Higher electrical conductivity (grounding, space charging)

Higher thermal conductivity

Radiation survivability (laser, UV, nuclear, etc.)

Little or no contamination (no out-gassing or moisture

absorption problems)
 TYPES OF MMCs

Three kinds of MMCs:

(i) Particle reinforced MMCs

(ii) Short fiber or whisker reinforced

MMCs

(iii) Continuous fiber or sheet

reinforced MMCs

Fiber reinforced composites will be

more anisotropic than others
 Function of Matrix Materials

Protect phases from environment

Transfer stresses to phases

When a load is applied, the matrix shares the load with

the secondary phase, in some cases deforming so that
the stress is essentially born by the reinforcing agent
 Common Matrix Material
Al and Al alloys

Mg and Mg alloys

Ti and Ti alloys

Co, Cu, Ag and Ni

These are preferred because of low density and high strength

Properties can be varied significantly with processing

 Few facts about reinforcements

Usually reinforcements are the elements from the first

two rows of the periodic table: Low density values

In general reinforcement is covalently bonded: high

strength and stiffness

Fibers have anisotropic properties

Typical reinforcements in MMCs
 Fiber reinforcement
One can transform practically any material (polymers,
metals, or ceramics) into fibrous form

A fiber can be defined as an elongated material having a

more or less uniform diameter or thickness of less than
250 µm and an aspect ratio of more than 100.
 Whisker reinforcement

Whiskers are monocrystalline, short fibers with extremely

high strength

Typically, whiskers have a diameter of a few µm and a

length of a few mm.

The variability in properties is extremely large

Handling and alignment of whiskers in a matrix to produce

a composite are other problems
 Particulate reinforcement
Angular

Silicon carbide in particulate

form has been available for a
long time. SiC

It is quite cheap and commonly

used for abrasive, refractory,
and chemical purposes.

Rounded
 Composites types

Aligned Fiber Short fiber aligned Randomly aligned Particulate

composite composite short fiber composite composite

Strong, anisotropic Less strong, isotropic

Composites cylinder
 Cermets
MMC with ceramic contained in a metallic matrix

The ceramic often dominates the mixture, sometimes up to

96% by volume

Bonding can be enhanced by slight solubility between

phases at elevated temperatures used in processing
 Cemented carbides
One or more carbide compounds bonded in a metallic matrix

The term cermet is not used for all of these materials, even
though it is technically correct

Common cemented carbides are based on tungsten carbide

(WC), titanium carbide (TiC), and chromium carbide (Cr3C2)

Tantalum carbide (TaC) and others are less common

Metallic binder: usually cobalt (Co) or nickel (Ni)

 Applications

Concrete: Cement (matrix) + sand/gravel (particulate)

particles

Mud (people use in villages to make huts)+ husk: A good

material for huts

Aerospace
 Applications

Cylinder liner
Drive shaft

Brake drums and brake rotors Connecting rod

Automotive
 Applications

Composite foam for Ferrari car

6061/Al2O3 22p Sic particle reinforced A1 matrix composites

 Possible Applications in
Automotives

• Pultruded Driveshafts
• RTM Panel
• Fiber Glass/Epoxy Springs for Heavy Trucks and
Trailers
• Rocker Arm Covers, Suspension Arms, Wheels and
Engine Shrouds
• Filament-Wound Fuel Tanks
• Electrical Vehicle Body Components and Assembly Units
• Valve Guides
• Automotive Racing Brakes & Train Brakes
• Clutch Plates
Phase Diagrams
 Introduction
 Phase diagram is an important tool in the armory of a
materials scientist: phase evolution at a given
temperature and pressure

 Thorough understanding of phase diagrams is a must for

all materials scientists

 Phase diagrams are also referred to as “EQUILIBRIUM

PHASE DIAGRAMS”. This usage requires special
attention: though the term used is “Equilibrium”, in
practical terms the equilibrium is NOT GLOBAL
EQUILIBRIUM
 Introduction
 Map demarcating regions of stability of various phases.

or

 Map that gives relationship between phases in

equilibrium in a system as a function of T, P and
composition

In single component systems (unary systems) the usual

variables are T & P

In phase diagrams used in materials science the usual

variables are T & %B
 Introduction
The following are the key terms in the
understanding of the phase diagram:

1. Microstructure

2. Phase

3. Components
 Microstructure

Aggregates of
Crystals: Polycrystal

Crystal

Section, polish and then observed

Atom Structure under microscope

Microstructure
 Microstructure
Microstructure is the small scale structure
of a material, defined as the structure of a
prepared surface of material observed at
high magnifications.

The distribution of phases and defects in

a material Image source: Wikipedia
 Why study Microstructure??
Quantitative analysis of various features
of microstructure is important

The microstructure of a material (such as

metals, polymers, ceramics or composites)
can strongly influence physical properties
such as strength, toughness, ductility,
hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low
temperature behavior or wear resistance.
 Introduction
The following are the key terms in the
understanding of the phase diagram:

1. Microstructure

2. Phase

3. Components
 Phase
Physically distinct, chemically homogenous
and mechanically separable region of a
system

Chemically homogenous: water

Chemically inhomogenous: oil in water,

Physically distinct: sugar in water (syrup as

one phase and sugar crystals as second
phase)

Mechanically separable
 Phase
A phase, therefore is that aggregate of the
material wherein the mixing of components
occurs at the atomic or molecular level.

Gases:
Gaseous state always a single phase → mixed at atomic or
molecular level

Liquids:
Liquid solution is a single phase → e.g. NaCl in H2O
Liquid mixture consists of two or more phases
→ e.g. Oil in water (no mixing at the atomic/molecular level)
 Phase
Solids: In general due to several compositions and crystals
structures many phases are possible

 For the same composition different crystal structures

represent different phases.
E.g. Fe (BCC) and Fe (FCC) are different phases

 For the same crystal structure different compositions

represent different phases.
E.g. in Au-Cu alloy 70%Au-30%Cu & 30%Au-70%Cu are
different phases
 Introduction
The following are the key terms in the
understanding of the phase diagram:

1. Microstructure

2. Phase

3. Components
 Components
Constituents like elements, ions or
compounds-amounts of which in the
material can be varied independent of
other constituents that may be present in
the material
 Components
Independent chemical species which comprise
the system: these could be: Elements, Ions,
Compounds. E.g.

 Au-Cu system : Components → Au, Cu (elements)

 Sugar water system: Components→molecules of sugar

and water

 Ice-water system : Component → H2O (compound)

 Al2O3 – Cr2O3 system : Components → Al2O3, Cr2O3

 Fe Unary diagram
 The effect of P on the phase stability of various phases

Phase fields of non-close

Gas packed structures shrink
under higher pressure
Liquid
Temperature (ºC) →

Phase fields of close packed

 (BCC)
structures expand under
higher pressure
 (FCC)
These lines slope downward
 (HCP)
as: Under higher pressure the
 (BCC)
phase with higher packing
fraction (lower volume) is
Pressure (GPa) →
preferred
Courtesy: A. Subramanium
Binary Phase Diagrams
 Binary Phase Diagram
Composition: finite axis

Temperature: Semi-infinite axis

Pressure: Semi-infinite axis

3D diagrams

Binary diagrams can be:

Isobaric diagram

Isothermal diagram
 Binary Phase Diagram
Binary phase diagrams can be classified as:

Complete Solubility in both liquid & solid

states
 Complete Solubility in liquid state, but
limited solubility in the solid state
Limited Solubility in both liquid & solid
states.
Convention in representation of phases

Liquid: L

Solid: α, β (Greek letters) are solid

solutions
 ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEM

A and B must satisfy Hume-Rothery rules for the

formation of ‘extended’ solid solution.

Examples of systems forming isomorphous

systems: Cu-Ni, Ag-Au, Ge-Si, Al2O3-Cr2O3.

Note the liquidus (the line separting L & L+S

regions) and solidus (the line separating L+S and S
regions) lines in the figure.
 ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEM

2200
Liquidus
L+S
T (ºC) →

2100

S
2000 Solidus
Note that the components in
this case are compounds

Al2O3 10 30 50 70 90 Cr2O3
%Cr2O3 →

Liquidus, Solidus Courtesy: A. Subramanium

Microstructural changes in
Isomorphous system
Courtesy: A. Subramanium
Lever Rule
 Tie line and Lever Rule
Given a temperature and composition- how do we find the fraction of the
phases present along with the composition?
 Say the composition C0 is cooled slowly (equilibrium)
 At T0 there is L + S equilibrium
 Solid (crystal) of composition C1 coexists with liquid of composition C2

 We draw a horizontal line (called the

Tie Line) at the temperature of
interest (say T0).
 Tie line is XY.
 Note that tie lines can be drawn only in
the two phase coexistence regions
(fields). Though they may be extended to mark the
temperature.
 To find the fractions of solid and liquid
we use the lever rule.
Courtesy: A. Subramanium
  We draw a horizontal line (called the Tie Line) at the
temperature of interest (say T0).
 The portion of the horizontal line in the two phase region is
akin to a ‘lever’ with the fulcrum at the nominal composition
(C0).
 The opposite arms of the lever are proportional to the fraction
of the solid and liquid phases present (this is the lever rule).
Cooling
Arm of the lever At T0
proportional to Arm of the lever L  The fraction of liquid (fl) is  (C0  C1)
the liquid proportional to  The fraction of solid (fs) is  (C2  C0)
the solid
C0  C1 C2  C0
fliquid atT0  f solid 
T0 C2  C1 atT0
C2  C1
L+S
Fulcrum of the lever
Tie line
T →

Note that tie line is drawn within the two phase

region and is horizontal.
S
A C1 C0 C2 B
%B → Courtesy: A. Subramanium
 Summary: Tie line and Lever Rule
At T0
 The fraction of liquid (fl) is proportional to (C0  C1) → AC
 The fraction of solid (fs) is proportional to (C2  C0) → CB

Arm of the lever

proportional to Arm of the lever
the liquid proportional to
the solid
C
Extended tie line AC C0  C1
fliquid  
T0 AB C2  C1
A B
CB C2  C0
Fulcrum of the lever f solid  
AB C2  C1

C1 C0 C2

Courtesy: A. Subramanium
In two phase regime:

Tie line: gives you composition of phases

Lever rule: gives you relative amounts of

phases
 100

% of Solid or Liquid
80

60 Fraction of Liquid (%)

Fractionof Solid (%)
40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Courtesy: A. Subramanium Temperature Label
 Type-II Phase Diagrams
The diagrams that show complete solubility in
liquid state but limited solubility in solid state

Four kinds:

 Eutectic diagrams

 Eutectoid diagrams

 Peritectic diagrams

 Peritectoid diagrams
Eutectic diagrams
 Eutectic systems
The term EUTECTIC means Easy Melting → The alloy of
eutectic composition freezes at a lower temperature
than the melting points of the constituent components.

 This has important implications→ e.g. the Pb-Sn*

eutectic alloy melts at 183C, which is lower than the
melting points of both Pb (327C) and Sn (232C)  can
be used for soldering purposes (as we want to input
least amount of heat to solder two materials).
 327C Liquidus
L

T (ºC) →
300 Eutectic reaction
L→+
Solidus 232C

200 +L L+
D E 183C F 
Teutectic = TE

TE 100 Solvus +

18% 97%
62%
Pb 10 30 50 70 90 Sn
%Sn →
CE Ceutectic = CE CE
Eutectic reaction (the proper L Cool  

way of writing the reaction) 62%Sn 183C 18% Sn 97% Sn
CE CE CE
Note that Pb is CCP, while Sn at RT is Tetragonal (tI4, I41amd) → therefore complete solid solubility across compositions
is ruled out!!
 Eutectic Diagram (Pb-Sn)
T(°C)

3 00
L (liquid)
Phase boundaries
 L+ 
2 00 183 °C L+ 
18.3 61.9 97.8 3 phase equilibrium:
150 α, β & L
1 00   
Eutectic reaction
Invariant reaction
0 20 40 60 80 10 0
C o , wt% Sn
Microstructure evolution
 Solidification of Eutectic
alloy (Pb-Sn)
o Co = CE
o Eutectic microstructure
• alternating layers of a and b crystals.

Pb-Sn system