CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Materials

2.1.1 Lightweight Concrete

The use of Lightweight concrete (LWC) has been a feature in the construction industry for

centuries, but like other material the expectations of the performance have raised and now we are

expecting a consistent, reliable material and predictable characteristics.

Structural LWC has an in-place density (unit weight) on the order of 90 to 115 lb / ft³ (1440 to

1840 kg/m³) compared to normal weight concrete a density in the range of 140 to 150 lb/ft³

(2240 to 2400 kg/m³). For structural applications the concrete strength should be greater than

2500 psi (17.0 MPa).

The concrete mixture is made with a lightweight coarse aggregate. In some cases a portion or the

entire fine aggregates may be a lightweight product.

2.1.2 Ordinary Portland Cement

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a

basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-specialty grout. It was developed from

other types of hydraulic lime in England in the mid-19th century, and usually originates from

limestone. It is a fine powder, produced by heating limestone and clay minerals in a kiln to form

clinker, grinding the clinker, and adding small amounts of other materials. Several types of

Portland cement are available. The most common, called ordinary Portland cement (OPC), is
grey in color, but white Portland cement is also available. Its name is derived from its similarity

to Portland stone which was quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. It was named by

Joseph Aspdin who obtained a patent for it in 1824. However, his son William Aspdin is

regarded as the inventor of "modern" Portland cement due to his developments in the 1840s.

Portland cement is caustic, so it can cause chemical burns. The powder can cause

irritation or, with severe exposure, lung cancer, and can contain some hazardous components;

such as crystalline silica and hexavalent chromium. Environmental concerns are the high energy

consumption required to mine, manufacture, and transport the cement; and the related air

pollution, including the release of greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide), dioxin, NOx, SO2,

and particulates.

The low cost and widespread availability of the limestone, shales, and other naturally

occurring materials used in Portland cement make it one of the lowest-cost materials widely used

over the last century throughout the world. Concrete produced from Portland cement is one of

the most versatile construction materials available in the world.

The five types of Portland cements exist, with variations of the first three according to ASTM

C150,

 Type I Portland cement is known as common or general-purpose cement. It is generally

assumed unless another type is specified. It is commonly used for general construction,

especially when making precast, and precast-prestressed concrete that is not to be in

contact with soils or ground water. The typical compound compositions of this type are:

55% (C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 2.8% MgO, 2.9% (SO3), 1.0% ignition
 loss, and 1.0% free CaO. A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not

exceed 15%.

 Type II provides moderate sulfate resistance, and gives off less heat during hydration.

This type of cement costs about the same as type I. Its typical compound composition is:

51% (C3S), 24% (C2S), 6% (C3A), 11% (C4AF), 2.9% MgO, 2.5% (SO3), 0.8% ignition

loss, and 1.0% free CaO. A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not

exceed 8%, which reduces its vulnerability to sulfates. This type is for general

construction exposed to moderate sulfate attack, and is meant for use when concrete is in

contact with soils and ground water, especially in the western United States due to the

high sulfur content of the soils. Because of similar price to that of type I, type II is much

used as a general purpose cement, and the majority of Portland cement sold in North

America meets this specification.

 Type III has relatively high early strength. Its typical compound composition is: 57%

(C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 3.0% MgO, 3.1% (SO3), 0.9% ignition loss,

and 1.3% free CaO. This cement is similar to type I, but ground finer. Some

manufacturers make a separate clinker with higher C3S and/or C3A content, but this is

increasingly rare, and the general purpose clinker is usually used, ground to a specific

surface area typically 50–80% higher. The gypsum level may also be increased a small

amount. This gives the concrete using this type of cement a three-day compressive

strength equal to the seven-day compressive strength of types I and II. Its seven-day

compressive strength is almost equal to 28-day compressive strengths of types I and II.

The only downside is that the six-month strength of type III is the same or slightly less

than that of types I and II. Therefore, the long-term strength is sacrificed. It is usually
 used for precast concrete manufacture, where high one-day strength allows fast turnover

of molds. It may also be used in emergency construction and repairs, and construction of

machine bases and gate installations.

 Type IV Portland cement is generally known for its low heat of hydration. Its typical

compound composition is: 28% (C3S), 49% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 12% (C4AF), 1.8% MgO,

1.9% (SO3), 0.9% ignition loss, and 0.8% free CaO. The percentages of (C2S) and

(C4AF) are relatively high and (C3S) and (C3A) are relatively low. A limitation on this

type is that the maximum percentage of (C3A) is seven, and the maximum percentage of

(C3S) is thirty-five. This causes the heat given off by the hydration reaction to develop at

a slower rate. However, as a consequence the strength of the concrete develops slowly.

After one or two years the strength is higher than the other types after full curing. This

cement is used for very large concrete structures, such as dams, which have a low surface

to volume ratio. This type of cement is generally not stocked by manufacturers, but some

might consider a large special order. This type of cement has not been made for many

years, because Portland-pozzolan cements and ground granulated blast furnace slag

addition offer a cheaper and more reliable alternative.

 Type V is used where sulfate resistance is important. Its typical compound composition

is: 38% (C3S), 43% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 9% (C4AF), 1.9% MgO, 1.8% (SO3), 0.9%

ignition loss, and 0.8% free CaO. This cement has a very low (C3A) composition which

accounts for its high sulfate resistance. The maximum content of (C3A) allowed is 5%

for type V Portland cement. Another limitation is that the (C4AF) + 2(C3A) composition

cannot exceed 20%. This type is used in concrete to be exposed to alkali soil and ground

water sulfates which react with (C3A) causing disruptive expansion. It is unavailable in
 many places, although its use is common in the western United States and Canada. As

with type IV, type V Portland cement has mainly been supplanted by the use of ordinary

cement with added ground granulated blast furnace slag or tertiary blended cements

containing slag and fly ash.

Types Ia, IIa, and IIIa have the same composition as types I, II, and III. The only

difference is that in Ia, IIa, and IIIa, an air-entraining agent is ground into the mix. The

air-entrainment must meet the minimum and maximum optional specification found in

the ASTM manual. These types are only available in the eastern United States and

Canada, only on a limited basis. They are a poor approach to air-entrainment which

improves resistance to freezing under low temperatures.

2.1.3 Aggregates

Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel or crushed stone that are an end

product in their own right. They are also the raw materials that are an essential ingredient in

concrete. For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of

absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration

of concrete. In the UK we are self-sufficient in aggregates and produce 99.98% of all that we

consume. Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete, are

divided into several distinct categories, and are either coarse or fine.

 Coarse aggregates

Coarse aggregates are particles greater than 4.75mm, but generally range between 9.5mm to

37.5mm in diameter. They can either be from Primary, Secondary or Recycled sources. Primary,
or 'virgin', aggregates are either Land- or Marine-Won. Gravel is a coarse marine-won aggregate;

land-won coarse aggregates include gravel and crushed rock. Gravels constitute the majority of

coarse aggregate used in concrete with crushed stone making up most of the remainder.

Secondary aggregates are materials which are the by-products of extractive operations and are

derived from a very wide range of materials Recycled concrete is a viable source of aggregate

and has been satisfactorily used in granular sub-bases, soil-cement, and in new concrete.

Recycled aggregates are classified in one of two ways, as: Recycled Aggregate (RA), or as

Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA).

 Fine Aggregates

Fine aggregate are basically sands won from the land or the marine environment. Fine aggregates

generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone with most particles passing through a 9.5mm

sieve. As with coarse aggregates these can be from Primary, Secondary or Recycled sources.

Lightweight aggregates Lightweight aggregates are manufactured from natural materials or from

the manufacture or processing of industrial by-products. The required properties of the

lightweight concrete will have a bearing on the best type of lightweight aggregate to use.

2.2 Related Studies and Technologies

2.2.1 Machine Crushed Cow Bones As A Partial Replacement Of Fine Aggregates In

Lightweight Concrete

An exploratory study on the suitability of the machine crushed animal bones as partial or full

replacement for normal coarse aggregates in concrete works has been carried out. Physical and

mechanical properties of machine crushed animal bones and locally available normal aggregate

have been determined and compared. A large number of concrete cubes of size 150×150×50 mm

with different percentages by weight of normal aggregate to crushed animal bones as coarse
aggregate in the order 100:0, 75:25, 65:35, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100 were cast, tested and their

physical and mechanical properties were determined. Compressive strength tests showed that

approximately 50% of the crushed animal bones in replacement for normal aggregate were quite

satisfactory with no compromise in compressive strength requirements for concrete mix ratio

1:1.5:3. The study has been carried out at 25%, 35%, 50%, 75%, and 100% replacement levels of

normal aggregate by crushed animal bone (CAB) aggregate by weight and a comparative study

has been done between normal concrete and crushed animal bone (CAB) concrete.

From Table-1 it is further observed that the crushing value of CAB aggregate is higher than

normal aggregate indicating poor strength of CAB aggregate as compared to normal aggregate.

Table-2: The Mechanical Properties Of Bones

Compressive strength

The compressive strength of concrete cubes made with and without CAB aggregates has been

determined at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. The average compressive strength (cube strength) results

are shown in Table-4. From these results it is observed that compressive strength decreases as the

CAB aggregate content increases (as percentage of normal aggregates decrease). As expected,

the compressive strength is maximum for specimen with 100% normal aggregate (i.e., no

replacement of normal aggregates by CAB aggregates) and minimum when CAB aggregate

content is 100%. It is further observed that the minimum 28-day cube strength value of 20

N/mm2 (M-20) as expected for nominal concrete mix 1:1.5:3 could still be achieved with

approximately 50% CAB aggregate inclusion.

Unit weight

For structural applications of lightweight concrete, the density is often more important than

thestrength (Rossignolo et al., 2003). The reduction in unit weights of the CAB concrete for

various percentages of CAB aggregates and normal aggregate at the age of 28 days is shown in

Table-5. As can be observed from this Table that the average unit weights corresponding to 50%,

75%, and 100% of CAB aggregate inclusion in concrete are 19.60 KN/m3, 17.65 KN/m3, and

16.55 KN/m3 respectively for nominal concrete mix 1:1.5:3. These fall within the range of

lightweight concrete, as lightweight concrete is defined as the concrete whose dry density varies

from 14 kN/m3 to 20kN/m3 compared with that of 24 kN/m3 for normal-weight concrete

(NWC) (Chen and Liub, 2005).

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of results produced in this study it is concluded that:

1. Lightweight concrete using CAB aggregate can be achieved by replacing normal aggregate by

CAB aggregate approximately 50% or more.

2. The average unit weights corresponding to 50%, 75%, and 100% of CAB aggregate inclusion

in concrete are 19.60 KN/m3, 17.65 KN/m3, and 16.55 KN/m3 respectively, for nominal

concrete mix 1:1.5:3.

3. Compressive strength of CAB concrete (lightweight) is low as compared to normal concrete;

however, it can be improved by using silica fume (SF).

4. Besides achieving economy in construction, by reducing the weight of the structure, the

catastrophic earthquake failures caused due to inertia forces (earthquake forces are proportional

to the weight of the structure) that influence the structures can also be ultimately reduced.

SOURCE: http://www.arpnjournals.com/jeas/research_papers/rp_2012/jeas_0912_780.pdf

2.2.2 Probability Based Design of Concrete Mixes With Cow-Bone Ash Admixed Cement

A probability-based procedure for design of concrete mixes with cow-cone ash admixed

cement has been developed considering the strength as a random variable. However, the

compressive strength of concrete in turn, depends on the properties of its constituent materials:

cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and cow-bone ash. The compressive strength data

generated experimentally has been analyzed using normal-probability distribution functions

based on 95% confidence interval. The proposed probability based design was compared to the

method of trial mixture. It was observed that for reliability index (β) of 1.3, the proposed

probability methodology uses 10.2% less cement content than the method of trial mixture; thus,

indicating that the method is conservative. It was also observed that, for concrete grade 25, the

proposed methodology gives higher compressive strength at both 7 and 28 days. Hence, the

probability-based design procedure was found appropriate and is therefore recommended for the

design of concrete mixes with cow-bone ash admixed cement.

Most of the studies revealed that the compressive strength increases up to 10% cow bone ash

replacement and from then, decreases as the percentage cow bone ash increases.

Limited studies have been published on the structural safety and or adequacy of using cow bone

ash as replacement for cement in concrete production, hence the need to assess the performance

of this concrete with the aim of establishing confidence in its utilization in concrete production

and construction industry at large.

The water content requirement for aggregates and other values has being selected based on the
workability and durability requirements.
Concrete mix design example
Design parameters and the comparisons of resulted materials are presented in Table 3, respectively
Table 4.

Conclusions

The following conclusions can be drawn from this study:

(1) The proposed reliability based design methodology uses 10.2% less cement content than the

ACI method indicating that the ACI method of trial mixture is conservative.

(2) For a particular concrete grade, the proposed methodology gives higher compressive strength

at both 7 and 28 days.

(3) Probability-based design procedure was found appropriate and is therefore recommended for

the design of concrete mixes with cow-bone ash admixed cement.

SOURCE:
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304788221_Probability_based_design_of_concrete_mixes_
with_cow-bone_ash_admixed_cement_Probability_based_design_of_concrete_mixes_with_cow-
bone_ash_admixed_cement)

2.2.3 Machine Crushed Cow Bones As A Partial Replacement Of Fine Aggregates In

Lightweight Concrete

A study on the suitability and effectiveness of machine crushed cow bones (MCCB) as partial

replacement of fine aggregates in concrete works was carried out. Mechanical and physical

properties of machine crushed cow bones as a partial replacement for locally available fine

aggregates have been determined and compared. 36 concrete cubes of 1:2:4 mix design ratio
measuring 150x150x150mm with varying percentages by weight of normal concrete aggregates

to crushed cow bones as fine aggregate in the order 100:0, 75:25, 65:35, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100

were cast, cured and tested after 14, 21 and 28 days and their physical and mechanical properties

were determined. Compressive strength tests showed that at 25:75 (MCCB:Sand) ratio at 28

days, a strength of 17.6 N/mm2 was achieved at 1:2:4 concrete mi ratio. At 50: 50 (MCCB:Sand)

ratio, the compressive strength obtained after 28 days was 16.5 N/mm2. The study has been

carried out at 25%, 50%, 65%, 75% and 100% replacement levels of fine aggregate by machine

crushed cow bones (MCCB) aggregate by weight and a comparative analysis of the result has

been carried out between normal fine aggregate and machine crushed cow bone concrete. The

values of the compressive strength at 28 days for replacement levels of (25% - 50%) fine

aggregate by MCCB corresponds to values of compressive strength for lightweight concrete

(17.6 N/mm2 - 16.5 N/mm2). Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) for MCCB is 32% and that for

fine sand is 17.89%, while Aggregate Impact Values (AIV) for the CCS is 1.22% and that for

river san is 11.8%.

Properties of machine crushed animal bone (MCCB)

Table-1 shows the physical properties of the MCCB and those of normal fine aggregate. Physical

properties listed are: maximum aggregate size, Bulk Density, Specific Gravity, Aggregate

Crushing Value (ACV), Aggregate Impact Value (AIV), Coefficient of Uniformity and

Coefficient of Curvature.
Properties of light weight concrete with machine crushed animal bone (MCCB)

The compressive strength of concrete cubes made with partial or full replacement with

MCCB has been determined after 14, 21 and 28 days. The result is shown in Table-3. Generally

it is observed from Table-3 that the compressive strength decreases as the percentage of MCCB

increases. The compressive strength has a maximum value for the control value (0% MCCB)

fine aggregate and minimum for the (100% MCCB) fine aggregate content.

However, it was observed that the compressive strength of the concrete cubes with 25:75

(MCCB: River Sand) at 1:2:4 mix ratio and 0.6 water cement ratio at 21 and 28 days are 16.95

N/mm2 and 17.6 N/mm2 respectively. These values compare favorably with compressive

strength for lightweight concrete which in some codes of practice are defined as concrete with a

minimum strength of 15.0 N/mm2. The values of the ACV and AIV in Table-1 supports the

appreciable values of the compressive strengths obtained at 25:75 (MCCB: River Sand). The

MCCB is neither an exceptionally strong aggregate nor a weak aggregate. ACV values of less
than 10 are regarded as exceptionally strong aggregates and values of ACV above 35 are

regarded as weak aggregates.

Unit weight

In structural applications of lightweight concrete, the density is far more important than the

strength, (Rossignolo et al., 2003). Table-5 shows the values of the unit weight for the various

percentages of the MCCB: River Sand at 14, 21 and 28 days for 1:2:4 mix ratio and water

cement ratios of 06 and 0.75 respectively. As can be observed from Table-5, there is a reduction

in unit weights as the MCCB fine aggregates increases. Observation shows that the average unit

weights corresponding to 25%, 50%, 65% , 75% and 100% of MCCB fine aggregate inclusion in

the concrete are 2490 kg/m3, 2330 kg/m3, 2330kg/m3, 2180kg/m3 and 2090kg/m3 at 28 days,

respectively for the 1:2:4 mix. These values compares favorably with the values of unit weight

for light weight concrete which are defined as concrete whose dry density is in the range of 1427

kg//m3 to 2040 kg/m3., compared with that for normal-weight concrete.

Chemical properties of cow bone

Table-6 shows the chemical properties of cow bone used for the study. Calcium and Silicon

constitute more than 60% of the total constituent of the cow bone. The calcium content accounts

for the reduction in compressive strength, while the silicon content is responsible for the

nearness of the properties of the MCCB to that of river sand.

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions were deduced from the analysis of the result of the study.

a) Lightweight concrete using MCCB as fine aggregate can be easily achieved by replacing

normal fine aggregate with MCCB to a maximum of 50%.

b) Values of compressive strength of MCCB (fine aggregates) lightweight concrete is

comparable to values of compressive strength of normal fine aggregate up to 50% replacement

with MCCB, thereafter, the compressive strength of (MCCB) fine aggregate reduces to very low

values.

c) MCCB (fine aggregate) in concrete reduces the workability of concrete.

d) MCCB acts as a retarder in concrete works.

e) MCCB helps to achieve economy of construction by reducing the unit weight of the structure.

2.2.4 Comparative Study Of The Reinforcement Efficiency Of Cow Bone And Cow Bone
Ash In Polyester Matrix Composites For Biomedical Applications

This work was carried out to study comparatively the reinforcement efficiency of cow

bone and cow bone ash particles in polyester matrix composites in order to consider the

suitability of the materials as biomaterial. Cow bone was procured from an abattoir, washed with

water and sun dried for 4 weeks and a portion was burnt. The bone ashes and un-burnt bone

portions were pulverized separately using the ball mill. Sieve analysis was carried out on the

pulverized bone ash and bone particles into particle sizes of 75μm, 106μm and 300μm.

Composite materials were developed by casting into tensile and flexural tests moulds using pre-

determined proportions of 2, 4, 6, and 8 wt % for both the cow bone and cow bone ash. The
samples after curing were striped from the moulds and were allowed to further cure at room

temperature for 3 weeks before tensile and flexural tests were performed on them. The tensile

test results showed that bone particles reinforced composites have the best tensile properties

except in Modulus of elasticity where bone ash particles reinforced composite samples have

higher values while the flexural test showed that bone ash particle reinforced samples has the

best flexural properties.

Variation of E-Modulus with Particle Sizes for both Cow Bone and Cow Bone Ash

Reinforced Composites

Figure 1 shows the variation of E-Modulus of the samples with different particle sizes for both

cow bone and cow bone ash reinforced composites. The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the

stiffness of the material and is the rate of change of strain as a function of stress within an elastic

limit. The results show that the modulus was enhanced by cow bone ash than cow bone particles

in all the particle sizes. The best results were obtained from cow bone ash reinforced samples of

300 μm particle size having 8 and 6 wt % with the highest values of 4597.56 Mpa and

4454.38MPa respectively. This was closely followed by 8 wt % of 75 μm cow bone ash

reinforced samples with a value of 4450.49 MPa while the unreinforced polyester material has a

value of 3966.15 MPa.

 Variation of Tensile Stress at Maximum Load with Particle Sizes for both Cow Bone and Cow Bone
Ash Reinforced Composites.

CONCLUSION

The investigation carried out from this research work has revealed that both cow bone ash and

cow bone particles can be used as reinforcement in polyester matrix in order to develop

composites materials that is suitable as biomaterials. The work showed that variation in

particlesizes as well as biocompatibilization treatment has pronounced influence on the

microstructure and mechanical properties of the materials. The following conclusions were also

drawn out;

 Cow bone ash (biocompatibilization treated) particle reinforcement gave better

improvement in flexural/bending strength properties while cow bone particle

reinforcement gave better enhancement in tensile strength properties except for modulus

of elasticity where cow bone ash particle reinforcement offered better enhancement. This

confirmed the fact that biocompatibilization treatment offer improved enhancement for

the mechanical properties. Hence, it remains a promising material for biomedical

applications.
  The enhancement of the mechanical properties of composites was observed to be

reducing as the particle sizes increases. Optimum results were obtained from 75 μm

particle sizes followed by 106 μm particle sizes. However, 300 μm particle sizes from

cow bone ash gave the best enhancement for both tensile and bending modulus. This

implies that coarse particle from biocompatibilization treatment offer improved

enhancement in modulus property.

 By considering the fibre content, optimum results were obtained from 8 wt % addition

followed by 2 wt %

SOURCE: http://acta.fih.upt.ro/pdf/2014-4/ACTA-2014-4-03.pdf

2.2.5 Influence of Cow Bone Particle Size Distribution on the Mechanical Properties of Cow
Bone-Reinforced Polyester Composites

This work was carried out to investigate the influence of cowbone particle size distribution on

the mechanical properties of polyester matrix composites in order to consider the suitability of

the materials as biomaterials. Cow bone was procured from an abattoir, washed with water, and

sun-dried for 4 weeks after which it was crushed with a sledge hammer and was further

pulverized with laboratory ball mill. Sieve size analysis was carried out on the pulverized bone

where it was sieved into three different sizes of 75, 106, and 300𝜇m sieve sizes. Composite

materials were developed by casting them into tensile and flexural tests moulds using

predetermined proportions of 2, 4, 6, and 8%.The samples after curing were striped from

themoulds and were allowed to be further cured at room temperature for 3 weeks before tensile

and flexural tests were performed on them. Both tensile and flexural strength were highly

enhanced by 8 wt% from 75 𝜇m while toughness was highly enhanced by 6 and 8 wt% from 300

𝜇m. This shows that fine particles lead to improved strength while coarse particles lead to
improved toughness. The results show that these materials are structurally compatible and are

being developed from animal fibre based particle; it is expected to also aid the compatibility with

the surface conditions as biomaterials.

Variation of Tensile Properties with Fibre Content.

Figure 1 shows the variation of ultimate tensile strength with the fibre content for the cow bone

particulate reinforced polyester composites. It was observed from the result that sample

reinforced with 8wt% from 75 𝜇m particulate enhanced the tensile strength of the polyester

matrix more than others. The strength was 63.04MPa compared to the unreinforced polyester

matrix that has a value of 50.76MPa.This is likely due tolarge surface area that is possible from

fine particles compared to large ones.

Variation of tensile modulus with fibre content

Figure 2 where it was observed that 6wt% from 300 𝜇m particulate reinforced polyester composite gave

the best result. The value was 4304.7MPa compared to unreinforced polyester matrix with a value of

3966.15MPa. The tensile modulus is a parameter that measures the stiffness of the material. The result

shows that the tensile modulus increases as the fibre content increases from 2 to 6wt%for 300𝜇m

particulate reinforcement while it decreases for 8wt% reinforced composite. This trend was also observed

in Figure 1 for UTS which shows that the tensile properties of the composites increases as the fibre

content increases from 2 to 6 wt% before it experiences depreciation with 300 𝜇m particulate

reinforcement.
CONCLUSION:

The use of animals as a means of testing for the suitability of some drugs in the area of drug

delivery in human body has initiate the idea of using cow bone as a reinforcement in polyester in

order to develop polymer based composites for biomedical application in this research. As a

result of the compatibility between animals and human being, both being living things and in the

class of animals, the use of cow bone as a replacement in human body is a welcome

development. From this work, was observed the following.

(i) The use of cow bone particles 75,106 and 300 𝜇m led to the enhancement of the mechanical

properties of polyester matrix. Polyester from previous research has been used as biomaterial

which shows that it is a good material for this application in terms of compatibility. Though

biocompatibilization treatment was not performed on the cow bone, this can be carried out on

cow bone since it has met the mechanical properties necessary for the material to be used as

biomaterial.

(ii) In most of the results, 6 and 8 wt% from 75 and 300 𝜇memerge as thebest.Thiswas the case

as follow; UTS, 8wt% from 75 𝜇m while for tensile modulus 6wt% from 300 𝜇m. For flexural

properties, 8wt% from 75 𝜇m while for hardness, it was 8 wt% from 300 𝜇m.
(iii) Both tensile and flexural strength were highly enhanced by 8wt% from 75 𝜇m while

toughness was highly enhanced by 6 and 8wt% from 300 𝜇m. This shows that fine particles lead

to improved strength while coarse particles lead to improved toughness.

SOURCE: http://www.arpnjournals.com/jeas/research_papers/rp_2014/jeas_1214_1395.pdf

2.2.6 Suitability Of Burnt And Crushed Cow Bones As Partial Replacement For Fine Aggregate

In Concrete

The suitability of burnt and crushed cow bones (BCCB) as partial replacement for fine

aggregate in concrete was studied. The percentages of replacements of fine aggregates of 0, 10,

20, 30, 40 and 50%, respectively of BCCB were tested considering 1: 2: 4 and 1 : 1½ : 3 concrete

mix ratios. The cow bones were burnt for 50 minutes up to 92 C before being crushed. Ninety-

six (96) concrete cubes of 1: 2: 4 mix ratio and ninety-six (96) concrete cubes of 1 : 1½ : 3 mix

ratio measuring 150x150x150mm were tested for the compressive strength at 7, 14, 21 and 28

days respectively. The research revealed that the BCCB acted as a retarder in the concrete.

Water-cement ratio increased with the increase in the percentage of the BCCB. The mixes of

1:2:4 and 1: 1½ :3 at 28 days curing yielded average compressive strengths in N/mm2 ranging

from 16.49 - 24.29 and 18.71 - 29.73, respectively. For the mix ratios of 1:2:4 and 1: 1½ : 3 at 28

days curing age, it was observed that increase in the BCCB content beyond 40 and 50%,

respectively resulted to the reduction of the average compressive strength below recommended

minimum strength for use of concrete in structural works.

Material Characteristics and Classification

Table 1 show the properties of aggregates and cement used in the research consequent upon

laboratory test. The gradation of fine aggregates was carried out by determining the cumulative

percentage passing through each sieve as specified in BS410.

Effect of BCCB on Compressive Strength of Concrete

The study clearly show that the compressive strength of the concrete responded with the

variation in the percentage of the BCCB, the concrete mix ratio and the age of curing as shown

in Figures 4 and 5. It can be seen that the compressive strength of concrete reduces with increase

in BCCB content. For the mix ratios of 1:2:4 and 1: 1½ : 3 at 28 days curing age, it was observed

that increase in the BCCB content beyond 40 and 50%, respectively resulted to the reduction of

the average compressive strength below 17N/mm2, which is the recommended minimum

strength for use of concrete in structural works.

The compressive strength generally increases with increase in age of curing and

decreases as the burnt and crushed cow bones (BCCB) content increases (Figures 4 and 5).

Density is a measure of compactness and therefore the compressive strength of the concrete

reduced with increase in BCCB content because the bulk density (shown in Table 1) of BCCB is

smaller than those of gravel and the river sand. A comparison of the compressive strengths for
concrete mix ratio of 1:2:4 and 1: : 3 show that the later mix ratio yielded higher compressive

strengths (Figures 4 and 5).

CONCLUSIONS

The effect of burnt and crushed cow bones (BCCB) as partial replacement for fine

aggregate in concrete was studied. The research revealed that the BCCB acted as a retarder in the

concrete. Water-cement ratio increased with the increase in the percentage of the BCCB resulting

in the reduction of the workability of concrete. The percentages of replacement of fine

aggregates of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%, respectively of BCCB considering 1:2:4 and 1:11/2:3

concrete mix ratios yielded average compressive strengths in N/mm2ranging from16.49 - 24.29

and 18.71 - 29.73, respectively. This indicates that the compressive strength of concrete reduces

as % BCCB increases. The compressive strength generally increases with increase in age of

curing. A comparison of the compressive strengths for concrete mix ratio of 1:2:4 and 1: 1½ : 3

show that the later mix ratio yielded higher compressive strengths. The minimum and maximum

compressive strength of concrete at 50% BCCB content for 1:2:4 concrete mix ratio at 28 days

curing age are 15.67 N/mm2 and 17.67 N/mm2, respectively. Similarly, the minimum and

maximum compressive strength of concrete at 50% BCCB content for 1: 1½ : 3 concrete mix

ratio at 28 days curing age are 17.78 N/mm2 and 19.29 N/mm2, respectively. For the mix ratios

of 1:2:4 and 1: 1½ : 3 at 28 days curing age, it was observed that increase in the BCCB content

beyond 40 and 50%, respectively resulted to the reduction of the average compressive strength

below 17N/mm2, which is the recommended minimum strength for use of concrete in structural

works.

Source: www.nijotech.com , http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/njt.v36i3.4

 2.2.7 Effect Of Cow Bone Ash Particle Size Distribution On The Mechanical
Properties Of Cow Bone Ash-Reinforced Polyester Composites

This research work was carried out to study the influence of cow bone ash

particles in polyester matrix composites in order to improve the properties of polyester

matrix and to provide alternative use of cow bone which constitute a challenge to the

environment especially in developing countries. Cow bone was sourced from an

abattoir, washed, sun dried for 4week and then carbonized. The bone ashes were

further pulverized using the ball mill. Sieve analysis was carried out on the pulverized

bone ash particles into particle sizes of 75μm, 106μm and 300μm. Composite materials

were developed by casting into tensile, hardness and flexural tests samples using pre-

determined proportions of 2, 4, 6, and 8 wt % of the cow bone ash. The samples after

curing were striped from the molds and were allowed to further cure at room

temperature for 3 weeks before tensile, hardness and flexural tests were performed on

them. The results shows that use of cow bone ash particles of 75,106 and 300 _m led to

the enhancement of the mechanical properties of polyester matrix. The tensile result

shows that sample reinforced with 4% of particle size 300μm gave the highest value of

UTS, sample with 8% of particle size 300μm bone ash has the highest value of tensile

modulus. Flexural strength were highly enhanced with 8% of particle size 75μm has the

highest value of bending strength, this shows that fine particles lead to improved

strength. The best result for hardness was obtained from 6wt% 106_m cow bone ash-

reinforced sample with a value of 87.8HV compared to the unreinforced polyester matrix

with a value of 81HV.

Variation of Tensile Properties with Fibre Content.

Ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being

stretched or pulled before necking. The result shows that sample reinforced with 4% of particle

size 300μm gave the highest value of UTS with 57.8244MPa, followed by 4% particle size of

106μm with 51.8572MPa compared with the control sample with 50.7MPa.

Variation of Flexural Properties with Fibre Content.

Bending modulus also known has flexural modulus of elasticity is the ratio of maximum fiber

stress to maximum strain within elastic limit of stress-strain diagram obtained in flexure test. The
result revealed that bone ash reinforced sample of 8% 300μm sample as the highest value of

Bending Modulus (9137 N.mm2), followed 8% 75μm bone ash reinforced sample with (9103

N.mm2), compared with the control sample of 7451.8 N.mm2.

Conclusion

The use of waste materials for production of composites has initiated the idea of using cow bone

ash as reinforcement in polyester in order to develop polymer based composites for structural

application in this research. The following conclusions were drawn from the research work:

(i) The use of cow bone ash particles 75,106 and 300 _m led to the enhancement of the

mechanical properties of polyester matrix.

(ii) The tensile result shows that sample reinforced with 4% of particle size 300μm gave the

highest value of UTS with 57.8244MPa, bone ash reinforced sample for 8% of particle size

300μm has the highest value of tensile modulus with 4597.56MPa followed by 6% 300μm with

4454.38MPa while for hardness, the best result was obtained from 6wt% 106_m cow bone ash-

reinforced sample with a value of 87.8HV compared to the unreinforced polyester matrix with a

value of 81HV.

(iii) Flexural strength were highly enhanced 8% of particle size 75μm with the highest value of

bending strength at peak (68.238MPa) followed by 106μm 4% bone ash reinforced sample with

66.231MPa compared with the control (43.254MPa). This shows that fine particles lead to

improved strength. Fibre volume fraction of 8% particle size 300μm sample has the highest value

of bending modulus (9137 MPa), followed 8% 75μm bone ash reinforced sample with

(9103MPa).

Source: www.iiste.org
 2.2.8 An Effective Study On Utilizing Bone Powder Ash As Partial Replacement Of

Construction Material The Possibility Of Utilizing Cattle Bone

The implementation of our project was in three phases such as phase one, two and three.

In the initial phase, study to find out cementitious value of Bone Powder Ash when burnt at

various durations or at various temperatures was considered. In the second phase the study was

made on concrete made of various replacement level of Bone powder Ash as a fine aggregate. In

the third phase, the study was made on cement particle board which is made of Bone Powder

Ash as a particle as well as cement as a binder. In the initial Phase, Bone Powder Ash was burnt

to form charcoal first in open air afterward, charcoal was crushed to a finer particle. The

chemical composition was carried out to determine mainly calcium, silicon as well as Iron. In the

second phase fundamental experiments are made on aggregate as well as cement to discover

specific gravity, excellence modulus for mix design and moreover experiments are done on Bone

Powder Ash to make out specific gravity, excellence modulus of Bone Powder Ash. In the third

phase, M20 Mix ratio is considered which includes 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% replacement level

of Cement by Bone Powder Ash. The concrete were considered for Grade 30 and water cement

ratio was set aside at 0.57. The substitute of Bone Powder Ash was by weight. The compressive

as well as tensile strength were performed for 7 as well as 28 days of age.

Fig 2: Comparison for Compressive Strength for 7 and 28 days

CONCLUSION
We study the possibility of utilizing Cattle Bone Powder Ash as partial replacement of

construction material in form of ash to substitute cement, in ground form to substitute sand in

concrete and as particle to generate cement particle. The implementation of our project was in

three phases such as phase one, two and three. In our work we have studied the properties of

Bone Powder Ash. From our work the performance of blended concrete is found to be good

quality. Partial replacement of Cement by Bone Powder Ash provides extra environmental as

well as technical benefits. Chemical components of Bone Powder Ash as well as Cement are

almost same thus Bone Powder Ash is one of normal pozzolanic material which replaces cement.

Cost of concrete reduces due to partial substitute of wastes and this knowledge assures high

strength as well as high workability. Compressive Strength of the cube for seven days is slowly

increasing to ten percentage replacement of Bone powder ash to cement and subsequently

decreases but at 15% strength is more when measured to specimen devoid of replacement of

Bone powder ash. Bone mineral is a difficult chemical made from calcium, phosphate as well as

hydroxyl ions, but which might moreover contain little quantity of cationic, magnesium as well

as strontium replacing calcium as well as bicarbonate, replacing hydroxyl anions. Bone is a

tough, fibrous material in mammalian body which provides shape as well as support to body.

Our technique of preparation of bone ash precludes option that this excess may be derived from

collagenate of bone matrix. The bone ash composition is comparable to that of tri-calcium

phosphate. The bone ash in such condition is reduced to fine powder. The organic matter leaves a

compact white mass of bone salts. By using bone powder ash in concrete makes it an efficient as

well as innovative system of getting free of waste material that is damaging and dangerous to

humans as well as environment. It makes in amount of non-renewable resources that goes in

cement production. It helps in reduction of greenhouse of emission, as a result improved

environment health.

Source: (IJITR) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND

RESEARCH Volume No.4, Issue No.3, April – May 2016, 3060 – 3062.

2.2.9 Flexural Performance Of Foam Concrete Containing Pulverized Bone As Partial

Replacement Of Cement

This paper presents the results of a study conducted to investigate the flexural behavior of

foam concrete containing pulverised bone as partial replacement of cement. A total of sixty

reinforced beams (150×150×750 mm) were used to investigate the flexural behaviour of the

specimens. For reinforcement of the beams, hot-rolled, deformed 10-mm-diameter bars with

yield and ultimate stresses of 478.10 N/mm2 and 710.81 N/mm2 respectively were used. The

cement constituent of the mix was partly replaced with up to 20% of pulverised bone. The

flexural parameters investigated are crack formation and its pattern, failure mode, ultimate load,

theoretical and experimental ultimate moments, deflection and stiffness. From the results of this

investigation, it is concluded that the provision of the design standard in relation to shear and

flexural design of beams can be considered as adequate for the design of reinforced foam

concrete. It is further concluded that the stiffness is not affected by the inclusion of pulverised

bone in the mix at up to 15% cement replacement level, and neither is the deflection pattern of

the uncracked sections of the specimens affected by the inclusion of pulverised bone. The

bending moments of the specimens, however, decreased with increase in pulverised bone.

Effect of pulverised bone on failure load

It is observed that the failure load decreases with increasing pulverised bone content. The load at

which the first crack occurred follows the same trend. This can be attributed to a lowering of
density with increase in pulverised bone content as a result of lower specific gravity of

pulverised bone (2.22) in relation to that of cement (2.92). On average the cracking load is about

82% of the failure load (81.1%, 80.0%, 82.4%, 81.3% and 86.2% for 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and

20% respectively of cement replacement with pulverised bone).

Effect of pulverised bone on ultimate moment

The bending moments (both theoretical and experimental) decrease with increasing pulverised

bone content, probably as a result of reduced density, with consequent reduction in compressive

strength. The bending moments are calculated on the assumption that failure takes place at the

onset of the first visible crack. The values of the experimental bending moments are consistently

higher than those of the theoretical ones calculated using equation (2), although the difference

can be considered insignificant (generally less than 10%), considering the fact that aerated

concrete is a variable material. Thus equation (2) developed on the basis of rectangular stress

idealisation can be considered to be valid for foam concrete with and without pulverised bone.

Effect of Reinforcement on Failure Load

It can be seen that the addition of reinforcement significantly improves the flexural performance

of the foam concrete at all replacement levels. The failure loads for reinforced beam specimens

are multiples of those of unreinforced specimens. This is an indication that the inclusion of

reinforcement inhibits the propagation of cracks in foam concrete and thus enhances its bending

resistance.
CONCLUSIONS

From the results of this investigation, the followings conclusions can be made:

1) The equation developed for the calculation of shear reinforcement for beams in normal

concrete can be considered valid for reinforced foam concrete beam with and without pulverised

bone.

2) Increase in pulverised bone does not have an effect on crack formation and propagation, and

neither does it have any effect on the mode of failure.

3) Deflection of beam specimens increases as the quantity of pulverised bone in the mix

increases.

4) Increase in the dosage of pulverised bone brings about the reduction in bending moment.

5) Equation (2), developed on the basis of rectangular stress idealisation for normal concrete, can

be considered to be valid for foam concrete with and without pulverised bone.

6) The stiffness of foam concrete is not affected by the inclusion of pulverised bone up to 15%

replacement level.

7) The use of reinforcement significantly improves the flexural performance of foam concrete.

Source: Maejo Int. J. Sci. Technol. 2014, 8(01), 20-31 (www.mijst.mju.ac.th)

2.2.10 Evaluation Of Sustainable Green Concrete With Partial Replacement Of Cement By Rice

Husk Ash And Partial Replacement Of Coarse Aggregate By Crushed Cattle Bones

Point of this proposition is to diminish the CO2 emanation by lessening the bond utilization and

coarse totals in development industry there by making a natural neighborly reasonable green

concrete for present day development world. At the point when rice husk ash is legitimately
singed, it has high silica content and can be utilized as an admixture in mortar and cement.

Crushed cattle Bones rich in calcium content enhances the binding property of cementitious

substances with aggregate in this manner enhances the bond strength between cement phase and

aggregate phase. An expansive number of concrete cubes of size 150×150×150 mm with various

rates by weight of ordinary aggregate to crushed cattle bones as coarse aggregate and rice husk

ash remains as cement were thrown, tried. Common portland cement was partial supplant with

rice husk ash remains in the proportions of 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% and coarse aggregate was

partial supplant with crushed cattle bones in the proportions of 0%, 10%,20% and 30%.

Compressive strength test on harden concrete of M40 review of concrete is directed and the

strength is around 34.106 and 45.405 for 28days. While the strength as been expanded by 20-

30% contrasted with normal concrete.

Crushed cattle bones:

The CCB aggregate was machine pounded in the size scope of 10-20mm and underneath. The

CCB aggregate is calcareous in nature and can predicament effortlessly with concrete items.

Being natural in nature, the properties of CCB aggregate very vary from the traditional

aggregate.

Physical properties of CCB:

Specific gravity = 1.4

Fineness modulus = 6.45

Testing of samples:

RHA were included cement at 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% replacement with cement. CCB were

included concrete at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% supplanting with coarse aggregate. Seven different

mix proportions were arrived to be specific N1, N2, N3, N4, N5, N6 and N7. The blend extent

points of interest are arranged in table. Concrete cubes, cylinders and prism are threw in

individual forms and are de-molded following 1 day interim. The de-molded samples are placed

in water tank for curing. Last strength of concrete cubes, cylinders and prisms are tested

following 28 days. Compressive strength test and split tensile test are tried utilizing pressure

testing machine. The devastating burdens were noted and normal compressive strength and

tensile for three samples is resolved individually. The flexural strength test has been done on

prism of size 150 x 150 x 500mm by flexural testing machine. This was finished by single point

load test having an end direction of 50mm from each support. The crushed cattle bones (goat or

sheep bones) are dried in the outdoors to get out the soil and to lessen the scent and dampness

content. The CCB was as a matter of first importance separated to our coarse aggregate sizes

deliberately. The extent of these bones should be as coarse aggregate sizes. These CCB

aggregates were utilized as incomplete substitution of customary coarse aggregate in concrete

cubes, cylinders, and prisms samples up to 30%. The samples are made for M40 review concrete.
Concrete blend proportion of with a water/concrete proportion of 0.4 individually has been

utilized as a part of the review.

Compressive strength test:

The compressive strength of concrete is tried utilizing compression testing machine. The

exploratory outcomes are contrasted with standard control concrete planned with yield a normal

compressive strength of 40MPa at 28 days. Moulds were threw for the blends to be specific N1,

N2, N3 and N4. These threw moulds are tried for its compressive strength following 7, and 28

days curing period. The test outcomes are classified in table.

Compressive strength (MPa) = Failure load / cross sectional area

Split tensile strength test:

Cylinders were threw for the samples N1, N2, N3, were tried following 7 and 14 days curing.

The load is connected consistently along the length of the chamber and the load is connected
until disappointment of the cylinder, along the vertical distance across. The test outcomes are

organized in table. Split elasticity was figured as takes after:

Spilt Tensile strength (MPa) = 2P / π DL

Where, P = Failure Load (KN)

D = Diameter of Specimen (150 mm)

L = Length of Specimen (300 mm)

Flexural strength test:

The prism of size 100mm x 100mm x 500mm is utilized for deciding the flexural strength. The

samples are tried toward the finish of 7 and 28 days curing utilizing flexural testing machine

Prisms were threw for every one of the samples from N1 to N7. The load is expanded until the

sample comes up short and the most extreme load connected to the sample amid the test is

recorded. The test results are classified in table and plotted in figure. The Flexural strength is

computed by utilizing the recipe

σ = P l/ bh2

Where, P = load in Newton

l = length of rectangular prism in mm

b = breadth of rectangular prism in mm

h = height of rectangular prism in mm

CONCLUSION:

1. As substitution level of RHA builds the compressive strength decreases and also on account of

crushed cattle bones as substitution level increments compressive strength reduces.

2. From the compressive strength, split tensile and flexural strength test outcomes, (RHA 10%

and CCB 10%) blend is recognized as optimized concrete. The optimized concrete as a higher

strength contrasted with the conventional concrete.

3. Using RHA as substitution of OPC in cement, the emanation of greenhouse gasses can be

diminished up to a more greater extent.

4. Effective usage of RHA and CCB in concrete can spare natural resources and henceforth can

keep our condition safe and furthermore decreases the utilization of cement and coarse

aggregates.

5. On Whole it is reasoned that both RHA and CCB can be used in concrete at 10% supplanting

of RHA with cement and 10% supplanting of CCB with coarse aggregate.
2.2.11 Low-Cost Construction Through The Use Of Pulverized Bone Foamed Aerated Concrete

(Pb-Fac)

Mix Proportions

From the literatures (Mindess, et al., 2003 and Litebuilt, 2011), foamed aerated concrete with

structural value can be obtained in the density range of 1400 – 1900kg/m3. A target density

1600kg/m3 was adopted for which mix proportion was developed. Density being the design

criterion in foamed concrete technology. The designed density provided the basis of evaluating

the structural behavior of the foamed concrete so produced, with and without supplementing

cementing material with pulverized bone. And to achieve desired density and workability with

the available local materials, trial mixes are done in this study. It was on the basis of the results

from trial mix that the following mix design parameters were adopted: (i) binder (cement and

pulverized bone) /sand ratio of 1: 3, (ii) water/Binder (cement and pulverized bone) ratio of 0.5,

(iii) foaming agent dilution of 1: 25, (iv) curing methods are by Water and Air (at room

temperature) at 7, 14, 21, 28, 60, and 90days. In addition, 125grams of foam concentrate was

designed for 50kg of sand. The mix without pulverized bone served as the control. The

replacement of cement with pulverized bone in the mix was at interval of 5% up to 20%. The

mix constituent proportions are shown in Table (1). The mix proportion of normal concrete of

equivalent strength as determined from the trail mix was 1:3:6 (cement: fine aggregate: coarse

aggregate) and water/cement ratio of 0.5.

Structural Properties

The results of investigations into the structural properties of foamed aerated concrete with and

without pulverized bone as partial replacement of cement, at the designed density of 1600kg/m3

are presented in Table (2). The average wet density of the foamed aerated concrete with and

without pulverized bone was 1610.51kg/m3. This is within the tolerance limit of 50kg/m3 (Jones

and McCarthy, 2005) Also the standard deviation of the foamed aerated concrete wet density

was 39.65kg/m3 and the average coefficient of variation was 3.53. These values were considered

as acceptable level of repeatability of the specimens (Jones and McCarthy, 2005).

The average density of the normal concrete of equivalent strength used for this investigation was

2376.60kg/m3, which is an acceptable value for normal concrete. From the standpoint of

structural applications, compressive strength at 28 days of curing is considered to be the index of

concrete quality (Wright and Macgregor, 2009). From Table (2), the compressive strength at 28

days curing varies from 15.43N/mm2 to 12.98N/mm2 at 0% to 20% replacement levels

respectively for air-cured specimens. These strengths meet the requirement for moderate

structural lightweight concrete according to both RILEM (1993) and ACI (2003) classifications.

Also the tensile strengths are more than 10% of the compressive strength. The water absorption

capacity varies from 1.03% to 5.01% for zero and 20% cement replacement with pulverized

bone. This is a measure of its ability to withstand water-based agents of deterioration in the

service environmental. Concrete with water absorption capacity of less than 10 is considered

good (Neville, 2003). The NIS 87 (2004) requires a water absorption capacity of less than 12 for

materials that is to be used for blocks both for load-bearing and non-load-bearing purposes in

addition to a compressive strength of 3.45N/mm2 and above.

Conclusions

From the results of this investigation, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1) The foamed aerated concrete with and without pulverized bone up to 20% as a partial

substitute for cement produced in this work satisfied the minimum structural requirements, by all

available codes governing lightweight concrete.

2) From the cost analysis, foamed aerated concrete is cheaper than the normal concrete of

equivalent strength.

3) The use of pulverized bone as a partial replacement of cement in the production of foamed

aerated concrete will result in significant savings.

4) The foamed aerate concrete produced in this work is structurally adequate and cost effective,

and thus recommended for building affordable houses and low-cost construction infrastructure.
 2.2.12 Suitability Of Crushed Cow Bone As Partial Replacement Of Fine Aggregates For

Concrete Production.

This paper presents an assessment of the strength properties of concrete containing crushed cow

bone (CCB) as partial or full replacement of fine aggregates. Fine aggregate was replaced with

CCB by weight up to 100 % at intervals of 10%. The properties investigated were: workability,

density and the compressive strength. The slump test and the compacting factor test were used to

assess the workability of the concrete sample specimens. The density and compressive strength

were determined using 150 mm cube specimens. The results showed that: (i) increase in the

percent replacement of sand with CCB resulted in less workable concrete, (ii) replacing sand

with CCB resulted in different types of concrete, and (iii) a compacting factor test will be

appropriate to assess the workability of concrete containing CCB because of the resulting dry

mix and (iv) up to 20% of sand replacement with CCB will result in compressive strength that is

not significantly different from the control.

Preliminary Investigations

It can be observed from Table 1 that the weight-related properties of CCB, that is, the bulk

density and specific gravity, showed lower values than that of the river sand. What is suggested

is that a larger volume of CCB will result for a unit replacement by weight of river sand. The

parameters that measure the internal structures like the void ratio, porosity and the water

absorption showed higher values than the river sand. This suggests that concrete with CCB may

require more water and develop lower compressive strength in relation to concrete with river

sand using the same mix ratio. Also it may consume more cement than fine aggregate (ACI,

1999).
Further, the water absorption value for CCB, which is a measure of the total pore volume

accessible to water (ACI, 1999) is higher than the sand. This means that part of the mixing water

may be absorbed by the CCB and thus deprived the concrete mix of the water necessary to

maintain the strength-forming hydration process. Figure 1 shows the results of the particle size

distribution for both the river sand and the CCB. It can be observed that the grading for both

river sand and CCB are similar. Their grading can be described as uniform, and only a few sizes

dominate the bulk material. This similarity is further reinforced from the values of their fineness

modulli. Both the river sand and the CCB with the fineness modulus respectively of 2.88 and

2.44 satisfy ASTM C 33 specifications (ASTM, 2003), for fine aggregates which require

fineness modulus not to be less than 2.3 or more than 3.1.

Density

The results of density measurements at the chosen curing ages and for all the replacement of

fine aggregates with crushed cow bone are presented in Table 3 with the standard deviation in

parenthesis.
Compressive Strength The results of the compressive strength development for all the percent

replacements of sand with CCB are presented in Figures 3 and 4, and Table 4. It can be observed

from Figure 3 that the compressive strength of the mix decreased with an increase in crushed

cow bone. At 28-day curing, the compressive strength decreased from 24,62 N/mm2 for the

control specimens to 12.45 N/mm2 at 100 % replacement of sand with CCB (see Table 4). This

represents a decrease of 49.43% or an average of 4.94 decreases, for each level of replacement.

This pattern was observed at other curing ages.

The results as presented in Table 1 shed some light on this pattern of behaviour. It was found that

the weight-related properties of CCB are lower than that of the sand used for this investigation.

The immediate effect of this is that for unit weight of sand replaced, more volume than replaced

resulted. This inevitably lead to reduced density. In concrete, low density always results in low

compressive strength (Sin, 2007). Also, as from Table 1, CCB was found to be more porous than

the sand used.

Moreover, this CCB higher porosity when combined with higher water absorption led to the total

volume of pores in CCB being more than that of the sand. Neville (2003) reported a direct

relationship between the total volume and the compressive strength. With the same water/

cement ratio, the effective water that is available for the strength-forming hydration process in

the sample with more CCB is reduced (Neville, 2003). Insufficient water will slow down the
formation of the C-S-H gel known to be responsible for the strength development in concrete,

and will thus result in reduced strength as the quantity of the CCB in the mix increases. It can

however be observed from Figure 4 that the compressive strength increased with curing age with

all the replacements of sand with CCB. This is due to the fact that the longer a concrete is

allowed to cure, the more the products of hydration that will be generated. Table 4 shows the

statistical analysis of the results of compressive strengths for the concrete specimens at all

replacement values of sand with CCB, for curing ages of 28, 60 and 90 days. The figures

following “±” represent the standard deviation of the data samples.

As shown in Table 4, the figures in the parenthesis are the computed t-values at 10% confidence

interval using a two-tailed test to determine at what percent of sand replacement with CCB is the

difference between the compressive strength of the control specimens and specimens with CCB

are to be considered significant.

At 10% confidence interval, the statistical table t-value is ±2.920 (Kothari and Garg, 2014).

Hence, the computed t values for sand replacement with CCB up to 20% for the curing ages of

28 days and above were below the statistical t value, and thus fall within the acceptance region of

the normal distribution curve. What this means is that the compressive strengths of the concrete

specimens up to 20% sand replacement with CCB are comparable with the compressive strength

of the control specimens.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Based on the results of this investigation, the following conclusion can be made:

1) There was a reduction in concrete workability with an increase in the percent replacement of

sand with CCB. The use of CCB also resulted in harsh mixes with attendant low slump.

2) The density of the concrete specimens reduced as the percent increase in sand replacement

with CCB increased.

3) Using CCB as partial replacement of sand can result in different types of concrete based on

the density attainable.

4) The compressive strength of the specimens decreased with an increase in the percent

replacement of sand with crushed cow bone.

5) The compressive strength of the specimens increased with curing ages.

6) Replacement of sand with CCB up to 20% by weight will result in compressive strength

development that is not significantly different from those of the control samples.

7) The use of CCB in the replacement of cement up to 20% by weigh in the production of

concrete will have a positive impact on the environment, and encourage the use of bio-concrete

in structural engineering.

This paper describes an investigation into the potential use of crushed cow bone as a partial

replacement of fine aggregate in concrete, with particular focus the compressive strength and

related properties. Evidence shows that compressive strength is the sole measure of concrete

quality (Wright and McGregor, 2009). However, durability properties are also important if its

usage is to gain wide acceptance. This should be investigated.