INTRODUCTION:

1.1 General:

Induction machines are the most widely used machines in fixed-speed

applications due to reasons of cost, size, weight, reliability, ruggedness, simplicity,
efficiency and ease of manufacture. For variable speed, high-performance drives,
the dc machine is better than the induction machine, since an induction machine
requires more complex methods of control. The complexity arises because of the
variable frequency power supply; ac signals processing and complex dynamics of
the ac machine.

Also it requires more expensive, higher-rated inverters. The

disadvantages of the induction machine are being eroded by the increasing Power
of microprocessors and digital signal processors (DSP’S) with reducing cost and
size, together with improvements in inverter technology. Hence it would be
advantages to use induction machines as a basis for electrical to mechanical
power conversion.

In many applications, the dynamic behavior of induction machine has

an important effect up on the overall performance of the drive system. The
realization of this requires a suitable mathematical model of the induction machine
representation, which can be conveniently altered to simulate the Symmetrical
induction machine in any reference frame.

AC induction motors, which contain a cage, are very popular in

variable speed drives. In many industries, we need to speed control of AC
induction motor. This drive application allows vector control of the AC induction
motor running in closed-loop with the speed/position sensor coupled to the shaft.

1
1.2Vector control:

The fast torque response obtained using vector control is achieved by

estimating, measuring, calculating the magnitude and position of the motor flux in
the machine. if this flux is known, the stator current phasor can be aligned to
maintain the field at he desired level and to produce torque as desired. A
reference a frame conversion is used to transform the thee- phase stator currents
into two orthogonal components, one to control the flux magnitude and the other
current to control the developed torque. The main difficulty lies in the
measurements or estimation of the flux position. The rotor flux position is required
to calculate the stator current vector position in the stationary reference frame that
is linked to the stator of the machine i.e. it is required to determine the orientation
of the motoring field flux vector. Hence these controls are also called “field oriented
control”.

There are two field orientation strategies to detect the rotor flux
position. Direct vector control method uses sensors to directly track the flux
position. Hall sensors are seldom used because of the high temperature inside the
induction machine. Typical flux in a stationary reference frame and not the rotor
flux, which is used in the decoupling network. So, flux linkage equations are
necessary to derive the rotor flux from the flux sensor measurements. The required
calculations introduce estimated machine parameters into the disturbance feed
forward path causing detuning errors.

The second category is called indirect vector control. Here, the flux
position is derived using a calculated or estimated value of the angle between the
flux and the rotor position measurement gives the rotor fluxes position.

2
2.1 INDUCTION MOTOR THEORY:

A polyphase induction motor is single excited ac machine. Its stator

winding is directly connected to a.c source , where its rotor winding receive its
energy from stator by means of induction ( i.e. transformer action ) balanced poly
phase currents in polyphase windings produce a constant –amplitude rotating
m.m.f wave both rotate in the air gap in the same direction at synchrnous speed .
these two m.m.f waves are thus stationary with respect to each other consequently
the development of steady electro magnetic torque is possible at all speeds but not
at synchronous speed. The stator and rotor mmf waves combine to give the
resultant air-gap flux density wave of constant amplitude and rotating at syncronus
speed. Since an induction motor can’t run at syncronus speed, it is called
syncronus machine.

When polyphase voltages are applied to the poly phase winding of

induction motor, constant amplitude rotating magnetic field is produced. The speed
of this rotating field is called the syncronus field and it is determined by number of
stator poles and applied stator frequency. The mmf produced by both stator and
rotor level in the same direction at syncronus speed. The combination of these two
m.m.fs. Given rise to resultant air –gap m.m.f or flux-density wave rotating at
synchronous speed. Since the relative speed between rotor m.m.f. and the
resultant flux density wave is zero, a steady torque is developed by their
interaction.

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2.2 Target Motor Theory:

The AC induction motor is a rotating electric machine designed to

operate from a 3-phase source of alternating voltage. For variable speed drives,
the source is normally an inverter that uses power switches to produce
approximately sinusoidal voltages and currents of controllable magnitude and
frequency.

A cross-section of a two-pole in induction motor is shown in Figure – 2.2

lots in the inner periphery of the stator accommodate 3-phase winding a, b, c. The
turns in each winding are distributed so that a current in a stator winding produces
an approximately sinusoid ally-distributed flux density around the periphery of the
air gap. When three currents that is sinusoid ally varying in time, but displaced in
phase by 120° from each other, flow through the three symmetrically-placed
windings, a radically-directed air gap flux density is produced that is also sinusoid
ally distributed around the gap and rotates at an angular velocity equal to the
angular frequency, s, of the stator currents. The most common type of induction
motor has a squirrel cage rotor in which aluminum conductors or bars are cast into
slots in the outer periphery of the rotor. These conductors or bars are shorted
together at both ends of the rotor by cast aluminum end rings, which also can be
shaped to act as fans. In larger induction motors, copper or copper-alloy bars are
used to fabricate the rotor.

Figure – 2.2.1 2-Phase AC Induction Motor

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2.3 Induction motor as a transformer:

An induction motor is similar to a transformer in many respects .in this

connection consider an induction motor with both its star. the rotor winding is
assumed open-circuited so that rotor current is zero and no electromagnetic torque
is developed. Application of 3-phase balanced voltages at line frequency to the
stator winding causes the production of a rotating magnetic field. This rotating flux
cuts both the stator and stationary rotor conductors at synchronous speed,
consequently emfs of line frequency f 1 are induced in them. The induction motor at
stand still is similar to a transformer at no load in induction machines ,
synchronously rotating air gap flux (or mutual flux ) is due to the combined action
of both stator and rotor m.m.f s.

The difference between induction motors and transformers is that the

no load current in induction motors varies from about 30% to 50% of full load
current, where as in transformers, no load current, where as in 2%to 6% of full load
current .in induction motors, the magnetizing current (lagging nearly 90 o behind the
applied voltage) forms a considerable portion of no load current that is why
induction motor operate at low power factors at no loads induction motor with both
stator and rotor in star.
A A

E1 E2

B
Stator Rotor B
C C
Fig 2.3.1

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 A 2 – pole machine, the rotating field travels a distance covered by 2-
poles in 1-cycle. For a 4 pole machine, the rotating will travel a distance covered by
2 poles, i.e. half revolution in one cycle. For a 6-pole machine, the rotating field will
travel a distance covered by 2-poles i.e. 1/3 rd revolution in one cycle and so on. This
thought process reveals that the rotating field speed , for p-pole machine, is 1/(p/2)
revolution in 1-cycle and therefore f/(p/2) revolutions in f-cycles-in other words f/
(p/2) revolutions in one second, because f – cycles are completed in one second .
Here f =frequency of the 3-phase currents. If ns denotes the rotating field speed in
rps.

ns=f/(p/2)=2f/p
Ns=120f/prpm

2.4 Three phase supply:

It will now be shown that when three phase winding displaced in

space by 1200 are fed by three phase currents, displaced in time by 120 0 , they
produce a resultant magnetic flux, which rotates space as if actual magnetic poles
were being rotated mechanically.

The principle of a three phase, two poles stator having three identical
winding placed 120 space degrees apart as shown in fig. the flux (assume
sinusoidal) due to three phase windings is shown in fig.

The assumed positive directions of the fluxes are shown in fig. let the
maximum value of flux due to any one of the three phases be Φ m. The resultant
flux Φr at any instant, is given by the vector sum of the individual fluxes Φ 1, Φ2, and
Φ3 due to three phases. We will consider the values of Φr at four instants of 1/6th
time period apart corresponding two points mark 0, 1, 2 and 3 in fig2.4.1.
6
3-phase power supply:

F2 S
S1 F2

S S2
S22

S3

Fig 2. 4.1

(1) When θ= 00 i.e corresponding in fig.

Here Φ1 = 0, Φ2 = -√3 Φm, Φ3 =√3 Φm the vector for Φ2 in fig is

2 2
drawn in direction opposite to the direction assumed positive in fig2.4.1 .

Φr = 2* √3 Φm cos(60/2) = √3*√3 Φm= 3 Φm

2 2 2

7
3-phase fluxes components:

Phase1 Phase2 Phase3

Øm

0 1 2 3 4 θ

Fig 2.4.2

8
3-phase voltage phasor diagram:

1200

Fig2.4.3

(2)When θ=600 i.e corresponding to point 1 in fig

Here Φ1 =√3 Φm
2

Φ2 = -√3Φm
2

Φ3 = 0
9
 Φr = 2* √3 Φm* cos300= 3 Φm
2 2
It is found that the resultant flux is again 3/2 Φm but as rotating clock

wise through an angle of 600.

(3) When θ=1200 i.e corresponding to point 2 in fig2.4.2.

Here Φ1 =√3 Φm
2
Φ2 =0

Φ3 =-√3 Φm
2
It can be again proved that Φr = 3 Φm
2
So the resultant is again of the same values, but has further rotated
clock wise through an angle of 600 .

(4) When θ=1800 i.e corresponding to point 3 in fig

Here Φ1 =0,

Φ2 =√3 Φm
2

Φ3 =-√3Φm
2
The resultant 3/2 Φm and as rotated clock wise through an additional angle
600 through an angle 1800 from the start.

Hence we conclude that

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 (1) the resultant flux is of constant value 3/2 Φm i.e 1.5 times the maximum
value of the flux due to any phase
(2) the resultant flux rotates around the stator at synchronous speed given by

Ns = 120f
P

2.5 Why does the rotor rotate?

When three phase stator windings, are fed by three phase supply then,
as Seen from above a magnetic flux of constant magnitude rotating at syncronus
Speed is set up. In the flux passes through the air gap, sweeps past the rotor
surface and so cuts to the rotor conductors which, as yet are stationary. Due to the
relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary conductors, and emf is
induced in the later according to faradays laws of electro magnetic induction, the
frequency of the induced emf is as same as the supply frequency. Its magnitude is
proportional to the relative velocity between flux and the conductors and direction
is given by Flemings right hand rule sine the rotor bars or conductors forms a
closed circuit, the rotor current is produced whose direction, as given by lenzs law
is such as to oppose the very cause producing It. In this case, the cause which
produces the rotor current is the relative velocity the rotating flux of the stator and
the stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts
running in the same direction as that of the flux and tries to catch up with the
rotating flux.

The setting up of the torque for rotating is explained below: The stator
field which is assumed to be rotating clockwise. Motion of The rotor with respect to
the stator is anticlockwise. By applying right hand rule. The direction of the of
induced emf in the rotor is found to be out wards. Hence the direction of flux due to
11
rotor current alone is as shown in fig. now, by applying the left hand rule, or by the
effect of combined field it is clear that the rotor conductors experience a force
tending to rotate them in clockwise direction. Hence the rotor is set into rotation in
the same direction as that of the stator flux.
stator

rotor

Fig 2.5.1

2.6 Slip:

In practice, the rotor never succeeds in” catching up” with the stator
field .if it really did so, then there would be relative speed between the two, hence
no rotor emf, no current, and so torque to maintain rotation. That is why the runs at
a speed which always is less than the speed of the stator fielded. The difference in
speeds depends upon the load on the motor.

The difference between the synchronous speed N s and the actually

speed N of the rotor is known as slip. Through it may be expressed in so many
revolutions /second, yet it is usual to express it as a percentage of the
synchronous speed. Actually the term “slip” is descriptive of the way in which the
‘rotor slip back” From synchronism.

Sometimes, Ns-N is called the slip speed.

Obviously, rotor (or motor) speed is N=Ns (1-s).
It may be kept in mind that revolving flux is rotating synchronously, relative To
stator but at slip speed relative to the rotor.

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2.7 ROTAR FREQUENCY:

It has been show that the rotor running in the direction of rotating
magnetic field. At stand still, rotor conduction are being cut by rotating flux wave at
synchrnous speed ns, there fore frequency f2 of the rotor emf and current is equal
to the line frequency f1 . when rotor revolves at a speed of rps in direction of
rotating flux wave , the relative speed between synchrnous by rotating flux wave,
the relative speed between synchronous by- rotating flux and rotor conduction
becomes (ns – nr )rps
There fore frequency of rotor emf = poles/2
= p (ns – nr ) /2

But s = n s – nr / n s

There fore rotor frequency, f2 = ps ns/2 = sf1

2.8 Frequency of rotor current:

When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of rotor current is the same
as the supply frequency but when rotor starts revolving, and then the frequency
depends upon the relative speed or on slip speed. Let at any slip speed, the
frequency of the rotor current is f”. then

Ns-N=120f’ also Ns=120f

P P

Dividing one by other, we get,

f’=Ns-N=S
f Ns

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 As seen, rotor currents have a frequency of f”=sf and when flowing
through the individual phases of rotor winding, give raise to rotor magnetic fields.
These individuals rotor magnetic fields produces a combined rotating magnetic
field, whose speed relative to rotor is

=120f’=120sf=sNs
P P

However, the rotor itself is running at speed N with respect to space.

Hence, Speed of rotor field in space =speed of rotor magnetic field relative to rotor
Speed of rotor relative to space

=sNs + N = sNs + Ns(1-s) = Ns

It means that no matter what the value of the slip, rotor currents and
stator currents each produce a sinusoid ally distributed magnetic field of constant
magnitude and constant space speed of Ns. In other words, both the rotor and
stator field rotate synchronously, which means that the are stationary with respect
to each other. These two synchronously rotating magnetic fields, in fact
superimpose on each and give rise to the actually existing rotating field, which
corresponding to the magnetizing current of the stator winding.

2.9Relation between torque and slip;

A family of torque/slip curves is shown in fig. for range of s=0 to s=1

with R2 as the parameter. We know that It is clear that when S=0 T=0, hence the
curve starts from point 0. At normal speed, close to synchronism (sx2) is and
hence negligible w.r.t R2 Hence, for low values of slip, the torque/slip, the
torque/slip curve is approximately a straight line. As slip increase, the torque also
increase and becomes maximum when s=R2/X2.this torque is known as “pull-out”
or ‘breakdown’ torque Tb or stalling torque. As the slip further increase with further

14
increase in motor load, thenR2 becomes negligible as compared to (sx2). There
fore the large values slip.

T = k Øs E2 R2
R22 + (sX2)2

It is clearer that when s=0, T=0, hence the curve starts from point 0.
At normal speed the term (sX2) is small and hence negligiblew.r.tR 2.

Tαs
R2

Hence, the torque/slip curve is a rectangular hyperbola. So, we see

that beyond the point of maximum torque, any further increase in motor load
resultant in decrease of torque development by the motor. The result is that motor
slows down and eventually stops. The circuit breakers will be tripped open if the
circuit has been so protected. In fact the stable operation of the motor lies between
the values of s=0 and that corresponding to the maximum torque. The operation
range is shown shaded in fig. It is seen that although maximum torque does not
depend on R2, yet the exact location of Tmax is dependent on it. Greater the R2,
greater is the value of slip At which the maximum torque occurs. The typical
induction motor speed-torque characteristic is shown in fig2.9.1. At increase in
motor load, then R2 became negligible as compared to (sX). There fore for large
value of slip.
Tα s α 1
2
(sX2) s

15
Figure-2.9.1 AC Induction Motor Speed-Torque Characteristic

Squirrel-cage AC induction motors are popular for their simple

construction, low cost per horsepower, and low maintenance (they contain no
brushes, as do DC motors). They are available in a wide range of power ratings.
With field-oriented vector control methods, AC induction motors can fully replace
standard DC motors, even in high-performance applications.

2.10 Voltage Equations in Machine Variables:

An induction machine consists of two essential parts: stator and rotor

windings. A typical 3 -  ac machine has a symmetrical three phase winding in the
stator and it can be well assumed that its rotor has a symmetrical three phase
windings as shown in Fig2.3.1.

16
 For the formulation of machine equations, the following assumptions are
made
1. The stator and rotor windings are of balanced three phase windings
2. The air gap flux distribution is radial and sinusoidal
3. The machine is of cylindrical rotor construction and is not saturated
Let stator windings has N s equivalent turns and resistance r s, and rotor
windings has Nr equivalent turns and resistance rr.

2.11 Effect of changes in supply frequency on torque and speed:

Hardly any important changes in frequency take place on a large

distribution System except during a major disturbance. However, large frequency
change takes place on isolated low power system in which electric energy is
generated by means of diesel engines are gas turbines. Examples of such system
are; emergency supply in a hospital and electrical system on a ship etc.

The major effect of change in supply frequency is on motor speed if

frequency drops by 10%, then motor speed also drops by 10%. Machine tools and
other motor driven-equipment meant for 50 Hz cause problem when connected to
60 Hz supply. Everything runs (60-50)*100/50=20% faster then normal and this
may not be acceptable in all applications. In fact case, we have to use either gears
to reduce motor speed or expensive 50Hz source.

A 50Hz motor operate well on a 60Hz lion provide its terminal voltage is
raised to 60/50=6/59(i.e. 120%) of the name plate rating. In that case, the new
breakdown torque becomes equal to the original breakdown torque and starting
torque is only slightly reduced. However, power factor, efficiency and temperature
rise remain satisfactory.

Similarly, a 60Hz motor can operate satisfactorily well on 50Hz supply

Provided its terminal voltage is reduced to 5/6(I.e. 80%) of its name plate rating.
17
2.12 Torque /speed curve:

The torque developed by a conventional 3-phase motor depends on its

speed two cannot be represented by a simple equation. It is easier to show the
relationship in form of a curve. In this diagram, T represents the nominal full Load
torque of the motor. As seen, the starting torque is 1.5 T and the maximum Torque
is 2.5T

At full load, the motor runs at a speed of N. when mechanical load

increases, motor speed till the motor torque again becomes equal to the load
torque. As long as the two torques are balanced, the motor will run at constant
speed. However, if the load torque exceeds 2.5T, the motor will suddenly stop.

2.13 Current/speed curve of an induction motor:

It is a v-shaped curve having a maximum value at synchronous speed.

This maximum is equals to the magnetizing current which is need to create flux In
the machine. Since flux is purposely kept constant, it means that magnetizing
Current is the same at all synchronous speeds. Shows the current/speed curve of
induction motor discussed in art. As, seen locked rotor current is100A and the
corresponding torque is 75 N-m. If stator voltage and frequency are varied in the
same proportion current/speed curve has the same shape, but shift along the
speed axis. Suppose that voltage and frequency reduced to one fourth of their
previous values to 110v to 15Hz respectively. Then locked rotor current decreases
to 75 a but corresponding torque increases to 150 n-m which is equal to full
breakdown torque. It means that reducing frequency; we can obtain a larger torque
with a reduced current. This is one of the big advantages of frequency control
method. By progressively increasing the voltage and current during the start-up
period, a SCIM can be made to develop close to its breakdown torque all way from
zero to rated speed.
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 Another advantage of frequency control is that it permits regenerative
braking of the motor. In fact, the main reason for the popularity of frequency-
controlled induction motor drives is their ability to develop high torque from zero to
full speed together with the economy of regenerative braking.

Current

150

100

75

0 450 900 1350 1800

Speed

Fig2.13.1 Current – speed curves.

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Stator current
Torque

150 T15
T60

100

I60

75

I15

0 450 900 1350 1800 2250

Speed

Fig 2.13.2 Stator current/toque and speed curves

2.14 Mathematical Description of AC Induction Motors:

There are a number of AC induction motor models. The model used for
vector control design can be obtained by using the space vector theory. The 3-
phase motor quantities (such as voltages, currents, magnetic flux, etc.) are
expressed in terms of complex space vectors. Such a model is valid for any
instantaneous variation of voltage and current and adequately describes the
performance of the machine under both steady-state and transient operation.
Complex space vectors can be described using only two orthogonal axes. The

20
motor can be considered a 2-phase machine. The utilization of the 2-phase motor
model reduces the number of equations and simplifies the control design.

2.15 Objectives:

The objective of this project is to become familiar with most aspects of

a vector controlled induction motor in a simulation environment. After completing
the project, you should be able to:

 Identify the equivalent parameters of an induction machine.

 Adapt the machine model to different reference systems (Transformation

between two and three phase systems; transformation between stator

reference frame and synchronous reference frame).

 Implement current and speed regulation loops and calculate PI-controllers.

 Implement position estimation (sensor less control) and analyze its

limitations.

 Implement a PWM inverter.

 Implement the SVM technique.

 Simulate the blocks.

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VECTOR CONTROL:

3.1 Reference Frame Theory:

Reference frame theory is useful for machine modeling. Change of

variable is used in the analysis of ac machines to eliminate time varying
inductances. Some known transformation definitions are given below.

In parks’ transformation the variables like voltages, currents and flux

linkages associated with stator windings of a machine are transformed to variables
associated with the fictitious windings rotating with the rotor, in other words the
stator variables to a frame of reference fixed in the rotor.

H.C. Stanley employed a change of variables in the analysis of

induction machines. He showed that the time varying inductances in the voltage
equations of an induction machine due to electric circuit in relative motion could be
eliminated by transforming the variables associated with the rotor windings to
variables associated with the fictitious stationary windings. In this case the rotor
variables are transformed to a frame of reference fixed in the stator.

G.Kron introduced a change of variables, which eliminated the time

varying inductance of a symmetrical induction machine by transforming both the
stator variables and rotor variables to a reference frame rotating in synchronism
with the rotating magnetic field. This reference frame is commonly referred as the
synchronously rotating reference frame.

The analysis of an induction machine is thus possible with one general

transformation, which eliminates all time varying inductances by referring the stator
and rotor variables to a frame of reference, which may rotate at any angular
velocity or remain stationary. All known real transformations may then be obtained

22
by simple assigning the appropriate speed of rotation to this so-called arbitrary
reference frame. This is explained below.

3.2Space Vector Definition:

Assume that isa, isb, and isc are the instantaneous balanced 3-phase
stator currents:

isa+isb+isc = 0 3.21
The stator current space vector can then be defined as follows:

is= k( isa +aisb+a2isc) 3.2.2

Where:
a and a2 = The spatial operators, a = e j2/3 , a 2= e j43
k = the transformation constant and is chosen k=2/3

Y
Phase B

Is
Isb isy
Isa
Isx X, phase A
Isc
Phase C

Fig 3.2.1 3-phase to 2-phase conversion.

3.3 Stator Current Space Vector and Its Projection:

23
 The space vector defined by EQ. 2 can be expressed utilizing the two-
axis theory. The real part of the space vector is equal to the instantaneous value of
the direct-axis stator current component, i sx, and whose imaginary part is equal to
the quadrature-axis stator current component, i sy. Thus, the stator current space
vector in the stationary reference frame attached to the stator can be expressed
as:

Is = isx+jisy 3.3.1

In symmetrical 3-phase machines, the direct and quadrature axis stator

currents isx, isy fictitious quadrature-phase (2-phase) current components, which

are related to the actual 3-phase stator currents as follows?

isx = k ( isa-1 isb-1 isc) 3.3.2

2 2

 3 (isb- isc)
isy = k 3.3.3
2

Where:
k=2/3 is a transformation constant
The space vectors of other motor quantities (voltages, currents, magnetic fluxes,
etc.) can be defined in the same way as the stator current space vector.

3.4 AC Induction Motor Model:

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 The AC induction motor model is given by the space vector form of the
voltage equations. The system model defined in the stationary X, Y-coordinate
system attached to the stator is expressed by the following equations. Ideally, the
motor model is symmetrical, with a linear magnetic circuit characteristic.

a. The stator voltage differential equations:

Vsx = Rs isx + d ψsx 3.4.1

dt
VsY = Rs isY + d ψsY 3.4.2
dt
b. The rotor voltage differential equations:

Vrx = 0= Rr irx + d ψrx + ω ψry 3.4.3

dt
Vry = 0= Rr iry + d ψry - ω ψrx 3.4.4
dt
c. The stator and rotor flux linkages expressed in terms of the stator and rotor current space
vectors:

Ψsx = Lsisx + Lmirx 3.4.5

Ψsy = Lsisy + Lmiry 3.4.6

Ψrx = Lrirx + Lmisx 3.4.7

Ψry = Lriry + Lmisy 3.4.8

25
d. Electromagnetic torque expressed by utilizing space vector quantities:

te = 3Pp (ψsxisy - ψsYisx) .3.4.9

2

Where:
X, y = Stator orthogonal coordinate system
Vs= Stator voltages [V],y,x
Isx, y= Stator currents [A]
Vrx, y= Rotor voltages [V]
irx, y= Rotor currents [A]
Ψsx, y = Stator magnetic fluxes [Vs],
Ψrx, y = Rotor magnetic fluxes [Vs],
Rs = Stator phase resistance [Ohm]
Rr = Rotor phase resistance [Ohm]
Ls = Stator phase inductance [H]
Lr = Rotor phase inductance [H]
Lm = Mutual (stator to rotor) inductance [H]

ω/ωs = Electrical rotor speed / synchronous speed

Pp = Number of pole pairs [-]
te = electromagnetic torque [Nm]

Besides the stationary reference frame attached to the stator, motor

model voltage space vector equations can be formulated in a general reference
frame, which rotates at a general speed, ω g. If a general reference frame with
direct and quadrature axes x,y rotating at a general instantaneous speed ω g=dθg
/dt is used, as shown in Fig3.4.1. Where θg is the angle between the direct axis of
the stationary reference frame (x) a
 ttached to the stator and the real axis (x) of the

26
general reference frame, then the following equation defines the stator current
space vector in general reference frame.

isg = ise – jѲg = isx +jisy 3.4.10

Y
Y

ωg
is,isg x

isY θg
X

isX

Figure3.4.1 Application of the General Reference Frame

The stator voltage and flux-linkage space vectors can be similarly

obtained in the general reference frame. Similar considerations hold for the space
vectors of the rotor voltages, currents and flux linkages. The real axis (r x) of the
reference frame attached to the rotor is displaced from the direct axis of the stator
reference frame by the rotor angle, Ѳr. As shown, the angle between the real axis
(x) of the general reference is frame and the real axis of the reference frame
27
rotating with the rotor (r x) Ѳg -Ѳr. In the general reference frame, the space vector
of the rotor currents can be expressed as:

irg = ire –j(Ѳg-Ѳr) = irx +jiry 3.4.11

Where:

ir = The space vector of the rotor current in the rotor reference frame

The space vectors of the rotor voltages and rotor flux linkages in the
general reference frame can be expressed similarly.

The motor model voltage equations in the general reference frame can
be expressed by using the transformations of the motor quantities from one
reference frame to the general reference frame introduced. The AC induction motor
model is often used in vector control algorithms. The aim of vector control is to
implement control schemes which produce high-dynamic performance and are
similar to those used to control DC machines. To achieve this, the reference
frames may be aligned with the stator flux-linkage space vector, the rotor flux-
linkage space vector or the magnetizing space vector. The most popular reference
frame is the reference frame attached to the rotor flux linkage space vector with
direct axis (d) and quadrature axis (q). After transformation into d-q coordinates the
motor model follows:

Vsd = Rsisd + d ψsd – ωs ψsq 3.4.12

dt

Vsq = Rsisq +d ψsq – ωs ψsd 3.4.13

dt
Vrd = 0 = Rrird + d ψrd – (ωs – ω) ψrq 3.4.14
dt

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Vsq = 0 = Rrirq + d ψrq – (ωs – ω)ψrd 3.4.15
dt

ψsd = Lsi sd + Lmi rd 3.4.16

Ψsq = Lsi sq + Lmi rq 3.4.17

Ψrd = Lri rd + Lmi sd 3.4.18

Ψsq = Lri rq + Lmi sq 3.4.19

te = 3 Pp (ψdisq - ψsqisd ) . 3.4.20

2

3.5 Digital Control of an AC Induction Motor:

In adjustable-speed applications, AC motors are powered by inverters. The

inverter converts DC power to AC power at the required frequency and amplitude.
Fig3.5.1 illustrates a typical 3-phase inverter.

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 Figure -3.5.1. 3-Phase Inverter

The inverter consists of three half-bridge units where the upper and lower switch
are controlled complimentarily, meaning when the upper one is turned on, the lower
one must be turned off, and vice versa. As the power device’s turn-off time is longer
than its turn-on time, some dead time must be inserted between the time one
transistor of the half-bridge is turned off and its complementary device is turned on.

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The output voltage is mostly created by a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique,
where an isosceles triangle carrier wave is compared with a fundamental-frequency
sine modulating wave. The natural points of intersection determine the switching
points of the power devices of a half-bridge inverter. This technique is shown in
fig3.5.1 The 3 -phase voltage waves are shifted 120 0 to one another and thus a 3-
phase motor can be supplied.

3.6 INTERNAL CONTROL OF INVERTER:

Output voltage from an inverter can also be adjusted by exercising a control

with in the inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing this is by pulse width
modulation control used with in an inverter.

3.7 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION COTROL:

In this method, a fixed dc input voltage is given to inverter and a controlled ac

output Voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the inverter
components. This is most popular method of controlling the output voltage and this
method is termed as pulse width modulation (PWM) control.

3.8 The advantages possessed by PWM technique are as under:

 The output voltage control with method can be obtained with out any
additional components.
 With this method, lower order harmonic can be eliminated or minimized
along with its output voltage control. As higher order harmonics can be
filtered easily, the filtering requirements are minimized.
The main disadvantages of this method are that the SCRs are expensive as they
must possess low turn-on and turn-off times.
PWM inverters are quite popular in industrial applications.

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3.9 PULSE WIDTH MODULATED INVERTERS:

PWM inverters are gradually taking over other types of inverters in

industrial applications. PWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude
pulses. The width of these pulses is, however modulated to obtained inverter
output voltage Control and to reduce its harmonic content.

Different PWM techniques are as under:

(a)Single-pulse Modulation
(b)Multiple-pulse Modulation
(c)Sinusoidal-pulse Modulation

In PWM inverters, forced commutation is essential .The three PWM

techniques Listed above differ from each other in harmonic content in their
respective output voltages. Thus, choice of a particular pwm technique depends
upon the permissible harmonic content in the inverter output voltage In industrial
application, PWM inverter is supplied from a diode bridge rectifier and An LC
filter .Now the devices are switched on and off several times with each half
Cycle to control the output voltage which has low harmonic content.

3.10 SINGLE-PULSE MODULATION:

The output voltage from single-phase full-bridge is when modulated the out
put voltage is of the form, it consisted of a pulse of width 2d located symmetrically
about Π/2 and another pulse located symmetrically about 3Π/2 . The range of
pulse width 2d varies from 0 to Π : i. e., 0<2d< Π. The output voltage controlled by
varying the pulse _width 2d.

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3.11 MULTIPULE-PULSE MODULATION:

This method of pulse modulation is an extinction of single-pulse modulation.

In multiple –pulse (MPM), several equidistant pulses per half cycle are wised. For
simplicity, the effect of using two symmetrically spaced pulses per half cycle, pulse
width is taken half of that, but their amplitudes are the same.

3.12 SINSOIDAL-PULSE MODULATION:

In this method of modulation, several pulses per half cycle are used as in
the case of multiple –pulse modulation (MPM). The pulse width is equal for all the
pulses, but is sin M; the pulse width is a sinusoidal function of the angular position
of the pulse in a cycle.

For realizing sin m, high-frequency triangular carrier wave v c is compared

with a sinusoidal reference wave vr waves determines the switching instants and
commutation of the modulated pulse . vc is the peak value of triangular carrier
wave and vr that of the reference, or modulating, signal. The carrier and reference
waves are mixed in a comparator. When sinusoidal wave has magnitude higher
than the triangular wave, the comparator output high, otherwise it is low. The
comparator output is processed in a trigger pulse generator in such a manner that
the output voltage wave of the inverter has a pulse width tn agreement width in
agreement with the comparator output pulse.

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 Figure 3.12.1. Pulse Width Modulation

The most popular power devices for motor control applications are Power
Mosfet and IGBTs.

A Power MOSFET is a voltage-controlled transistor. It is designed for high-

frequency operation and has a low-voltage drop, so it has low power losses.
However, saturation temperature sensitivity limits the MOSFET’s use in high-power
applications.

An Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is controlled by a MOSFET

on its base. The IGBT requires low drive current, has fast switching time, and is
suitable for high switching frequencies. The disadvantage is the higher voltage
drop of the bipolar transistor, causing higher conduction losses.

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DESIGN CONCEPT OF ACIM VECTOR CONTROL:

4.1 System outline:

The system is designed to drive a 3-phase ac induction motor ( ACIM). The

application has the following specifications:
 Vector control technique used for ACIM control
 Speed control loop of the ACIM
 Runs on 3-phase ac induction motor control development platform at a
variable line voltage of 400/420v
 The control technique incorporates:
 speed control loop with an in q axis stator current loop
 rotor flux control loop with an inner d axis stator current loop
 field weakening technique
 stator phase current measurement method
 ac induction flux model calculation in an x, y –stationary reference
frame
 D-q establishment allows transformation from the stationary reference
frame to the rotating reference frame
 space vector modulation(SVM)
 motor mode
 maximum speed of 1500 rpm at input power line 420v ac

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4.2 Ac induction motor specifications:
P=100 Hp
Vline=420V
Frequency=50 Hz
Poles 4
Ns=1500rpm
Lm=0.01664H Lr=0.017H
Rs= 0.03957ohm Rr=0.02215 ohm

4.3 Vector Control of AC Induction Machines:

Vector control is the most popular control technique of AC induction motors.

In special reference frames, the expression for the electromagnetic torque of the
smooth-air-gap machine is similar to the expression for the torque of the separately
excited DC machine. In the case of induction machines, the control is usually
performed in the reference frame (d-q) attached to the rotor flux space vector.
That’s why the implementation of vector control requires information on the
modulus and the space angle (position) of the rotor flux space vector. The stator
currents of the induction machine are separated into flux- and torque-producing
components by utilizing transformation to the d-q coordinate system, whose direct
axis (d) is aligned with the rotor flux space vector. That means that the q-axis
component of the rotor flux space vector is always zero:

Ψrq = 0 and d ψrq =0 4.3.1

dt

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The rotor flux space vector calculation and transformation to the d-q coordinate
system require the high computational power of a microcontroller; a digital signal
processor is suitable for this task. The following sections describe the space vector
transformations and the rotor flux space vector calculation .

37