M6 M7 Module

Fundamentals
M6 Materials and Hardware

M7 Maintenance Practices
Preparation for basic skills
EASA Part-66 Cat. A / B1 / B2
P66 A/B M6/M7 BS E

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M6 MATERIALS AND HARDWARE PREPARATION FOR BASIC SKILLS
M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Part-66
SAFETY PRECAUTION
For Training Purposes Only
HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 1

Part-66
INTRODUCTION
This module is concerned with fire and safety precautions around workshops
and hangars, it is up to all of us who work in this environment to ensure the
safety of people and equipment. Bear in mind that most accidents are the re-
sult of over-confidence or the action of inexperienced people. Therefore, to
avoid injury to expensive equipment or personnel a sensible approach to your
workplace should be adopted.
We will also be looking at the storage and handling of aircraft, and will cover
general aspects of these tasks; for specific applications, the manufacturers
manuals must be consulted.

Part-66
Machines
6% 16%
Means of tranport
and lifting
25% 24%Stepping on, equipment
Falling striking against, 19%
or struck by 9%
or jumping Equipment
objects
Other
8% Crates and
Caught in objects
other containers
5% 5%
3% 20%
10% Materials, chemicals
28%
Other and radiation
Over-exertion 22%
and strain Working
Exposure or contact enviroment
Struck by with extreme temperatures,

falling oblects electric current,
hazardous chemicals
or radiation
Types of Accident Agent of Accident
Figure 1 Industrial Injuries

Part-66
FIRE PRECAUTIONS
You will already be aware of the potential fire hazards of working in an environ-
ment containing vast amounts of highly flammable fuel such as that contained
in aircraft. Because fire is a most dangerous threat which will always be with
us the following precautions must be observed:
S Smoke only in designated areas set aside for that purpose.
S Observe and obey ’No Smoking’ signs on flight lines.
S Do not carry non-safety matches and do not wear steel tips on shoes as
they can create sparks.
S When operating petrol engined ground equipment have a foam fire extin-
guisher handy.
S Flammable liquids like paints and dope should be kept in an approved store
outside the hangar or workshop.
S If using heat torches in a workshop such as blow lamps, the flame should
be directed towards fire bricks when not in immediate use.
S You should find out where fire extinguishers and fire buckets are located in
your place of work.
S When refuelling or defuelling an aircraft no electrical system should be
switched on or off. Ensure the aircraft is bonded before starting work.
S When fuel tanks have been completely emptied, the fire risk is still present
due to the fumes, always use flameproof torches when entering tanks.
The above is a list of some of the general precautions that you must observe.
Fire instruction notices should be found in your place of work, it is in your inter-
est to read and understand them, they are there for your protection.

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Close door to confine fire
If safe to do so, fight fire
Sound alarm
If fire cannot be controlled, evacuate
Notify fire brigade
Figure 2 Fighting Fires

Part-66
SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP AND HANGAR

Safety in and around your place of work is vital to ensure that accidents to
people and equipment are prevented. it is essential that all notices and warn-
ings placed near machines are strictly obeyed.
Precautions should be taken to protect your skin by the application of barrier
cream prior to practical work, especially if handling oils and greases which can
cause irritation, after completion of work ensure all traces are removed by
washing.
All accidents no matter how small should be reported to your supervisor, the
nature of the accident and the treatment received should be entered in a book
to record the accident should any other action be required.

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Head protection
Ear protection
Tidy hair style
Close- fitting
high- buttoned
overalls
Close-
fitting
cuffs
No rings UNSAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT
or watch
Eye
protection
Cuffless
trousers
Reinforced Insulated
footwear soles KEEP WORKPLACE
SAFE, EFFICIENT
AND TIDE
SAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT
Figure 3 Workshop and Hangar Safety

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ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
General
When using electrical equipment you must ensure the following conditions are
met:
S A three pin plug must be fitted incorporating an earth wire.
S Switch the current OFF before disconnecting or plugging in to the mains
supply.
S Stand on a dry floor, if not stand on a wooden platform or move to a dry
position.
Electric Shock -- First Aid
If personnel are subject to an electric shock you should proceed as follows:
S Switch off current or remove the victim from the supply by the use of insu-
lated material, e.g., rubber gloves or a broom.
S Treat for shock, keep the victim warm.
S Get medical assistance immediately.

Part-66
PATH OF
240 VOLTS CURRENT
EARTH (0 VOLTS)
ELECTRIC SHOCK
Work with
one hand
0.1AMP in pocket Insulated
WILL CAUSE to soles
DEATH 0.2AMP
Insulated
MAY CAUSE 0.012AMP
mat
MUSCULAR to
CONTRACTION 0.02AMP
MAY CAUSE 0.001AMP

SOME to
SENSATION 0.008AMP TAKE PRECAUTIONS WHEN
WORKING ON LIVE EQUIPMENT
REACTION OF BODY TO 100 VOLTS
Figure 4 Working with Electricity

Part-66
MACHINE TOOLS
In all cases, machine tools should be operated only by trained personnel. The
following safety precautions must be taken when using grinding and drilling ma-
chines:
Grinding Machines
S Always wear goggles.
S Ensure tool rest is as near to the wheel as possible.
S Do not use the side of the wheel.
S Do not exert excessive pressure on the wheel.
Drilling Machines
S Ensure all guards and covers are secure and correctly fitted.
S Make sure the work is clamped.
S Don’t allow loose clothing to become entangled with moving parts.
S Don’t use excessive pressure on the drill.

Part-66
WEAR WELL-FITTING
SAFETY GOGGLES
CLOSE-FITTING
OVERALLS BUTTONED
NO SAFETY TO NECK
GOGGLES
POSITION YOURSELF
NO WHEEL GUARD TO ENABLE THE
REQUIRED PRESSURE
TO BE APPLIED
BADLY ADJUSTED
WORK REST
GAP TOO LARGE
AVOID UNSAFE PRACTICES
AND CONDITUONS
HANDS
HAIR AND EYE UNPROTECTED KEPT
CLEAR
SAFETY
BOOTS
SUPPORT YOURSELF
COMFORTABLY ON
BOTH FEET KEEP AREA CLEAR
UNSAFE WORKING DEVELOP AN AWARENESS

FOR SAFETY
Figure 5 Working with Power Tools

Part-66
PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED WHEN WORKING IN AND

AROUND AIRCRAFT
Below are listed some general precautions you must obey when working in and
around aircraft:
S Before operating any system be aware of the implications, the operation of
one system could influence another.
S Before moving flight controls ensure the area around the control surface is
clear of ground equipment and personnel.
S When items are being hoisted by crane, do not walk under suspended
loads, and don’t leave loads unattended.
S Take care with oxygen equipment, ensure no oil or grease comes in contact
with pipeline threads. You should wear clean overalls and have grease free
hands when replenishing oxygen systems.
S Any bonding wire disturbed during maintenance must be replaced to avoid
the build up of static electricity. A bonding test must then be carried out.
S Grommets and seals particularly in fire zones must be in a serviceable
condition.

Part-66
TAKE NOTICE OF SIGNS CLEAN UP RUBBIISH

CLEAN UP OIL AND FLUIDS

BARRIERS INDICATE
RESTRICTED SITUATIONS
Figure 6 Precautions around the Aircraft

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES INTEGITY AWARENESS
Part-66
INTEGRITY AWARENESS
INTRODUCTION
Airplane structural integrity depends upon the diligent performance of all avi-
ation industry personnel. The responsibility for safety cannot be delegated to a
single participant. The following information is presented to become more
aware of the possibility that minor structural problems could lead to a decrease
of structural integrity. Extreme cases could result in the loss of an airplane.
Aircraft safety is one goal that cannot be compromised and requires diligent
performance by the manufacturers, regulatory agencies, airlines and mainte-
nance organisations.
CAUTION: MODERN AIRCRAFT ARE MADE OF LIGHTWEIGHT,
HIGHLY REFINED METALS WHICH ARE REACTIVE TO
CONTAMINANTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND CAN EASILY
BE DAMAGED WHILE ON THE GROUND.
EXPERIENCE HAS SHOWN THAT EARLY SINGS OF
STRUCTURAL DAMAGE HAVE OFTEN BEEN FOUND BY
ALERT PERSONNEL WHILE PERFORMING TASKS ON THE
AIRPLANE WHICH WERE UNRELATED TO THE JOB AT
HAND.

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Figure 7 Awareness
Part-66
AIRCRAFT SAFETY
Improper safety precautions can cause thousands of pounds worth of damage
and extensive unscheduled downtime.
Structural integrity is everyone’s job. Extensive damage to the airframe will re-
quire many hours of repair time by skilled maintenance personnel to restore
structural integrity - mechanics, painters, engineers, planners, inspectors, etc.
Doing a good job is everyone’s responsibility.
Awareness should be everyone’s responsibility and reporting anything noted is
crucial. This awareness includes being conscious of surroundings and looking
for that which is out of the ordinary.
Modern aircraft are made of lightweight, highly refined metals which are reac-
tive to contaminants in the atmosphere and can easily be damaged while on
the ground. Experience has shown that early signs of structural damage have
often been found by alert personnel while performing tasks on the airplane
which were unrelated to the job at hand.
CAUTION: AIRCRAFT SAFETY IS ONE GOAL THAT CANNOT BE COM-
PROMISED AND REQUIRES DILIGENT PERFORMANCE BY
THE MANUFACTRER, REGULATORY AGENCY AND THE
OPERATOR.

Part-66
OPERATOR
MANUFACTURER REGULATORY
AGENCY
NEED FOR SAFETY
Figure 8 Aircraft Safety

Part-66
CARELESSNESS
Damage to airplane structure can occur in many ways, some of these are by
accident, collision with ground equipment, mid-air collision, lightning strike or
hail.
Careless handling of the airplane at the ramp can result in a costly time-con-
suming repair to replace the damaged skins and restore structural integrity.
CAUTION: REINFORCING THE NEED TO REPORT
AWARENESS SHOULD BE EVERYONE’S RESPONSIBILITY
AND REPORTING ANYTHING NOTED IS CRUCIAL. THIS
AWARENESS INCLUDES BEING CONSCIOUS OF SUR-
ROUNDINGS AND LOOKING FOR THAT WHICH IS OUT OF
THE ORDINARY.

Part-66
THE NEED TO REPORT ANYTHING „NOT NORMAL“
Figure 9 Carelessness
Part-66
GENERAL MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

It is essential that proper procedures as well as correct parts and tools be
employed. Poor practices during maintenance operations, repairs, servicing or
loading and unloading can create structural damage. Any incorrect repair can
cause premature cracks in primary structural parts.
Poor Housekeeping
Poor housekeeping, leaving behind garbage, tools, batteries, flashlights, dirt,
chips, etc., can result in the disruption of drain paths, plugged drain valves,
contamination and encourage corrosion to form.
Incorrect Use of Tools

Using tools and equipment incorrectly can result in rough finishes, gouges or
scratches on metal and composite assemblies. All will require premature main-
tenance action to restore structural integrity.
Stepping on Structure
Stepping on or using tubing, wiring, cables or light structural parts as hand-
holds can cause damage to or completely run essential systems.
CAUTION: WALKING / STEPPING ON STRUCTURE
STEPPING ON OR USING TUBING, WIRING, CABLES OR
LIGHT STRUCTURAL PARTS AS HAND-HOLDS CAN
CAUSE DAMAGE TO OR COMPLETELY RUIN ESSENTIAL
SYSTEMS.

Part-66
Figure 10 Stepping on Structure

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES MATERIALS
Part-66
MATERIALS
GENERAL
Abbreviations Conversions
AA Aluminum Association of America Fahrenheit to Centigrade Conversion
AISI American Institute of Steel and Iron S °C = (°F - 32) x 0.555
AL Aluminum Centigrade to Fahrenheit Conversion
ALF3 Aluminum Fluoride S °F = °C x 1.8 + 32
Al2O3 Aluminum Oxide
ALCOA Aluminum Corporation of America
CAF2 Fluorspar
Clad Cladding
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CR Chromium
CRES Corrosion Resistant Steel
CU Copper
DC Direct Chill
F As fabricated
H Strain hardened
H2O Water
NA3ALF3 Cryolite
NI Nickel
MG Magnesium
MN Manganese
MO Molybdenum
O Annealed
PSI Pounds per Square Inch
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SI Silicon
T Heat treated
VA Vanadium
ZN Zinc

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Part-66
Strength of Materials Unit Strain

Strength of materials deals with the relations between external forces applied Unit Strain: The amount of deformation of a dimension of a body resulting from
to an elastic body and the deformations and internal stresses resulting from the application of a load divided by the original dimension of the body.
these applied forces. The use of the principles of strength of materials to meet
functional requirements. Certain of the formulas that are used in strength of Poisson‘s Ratio
materials calculations are based solely on mathematical analysis; others, em- Poisson’s Ratio: The ratio of lateral strain to Iongitudinal unit strain for a given
pirical formulas, are the result of experiment, test and observation. Whether of material subjected to uniform longitudinal stress within the proportional limit.
the former or the latter type most of these formulas make use of certain con- For steel, it equals 0.30; for wrought iron, 0.28; for cast iron 0.27; for brass,
cepts and experimentally determined physical properties of materials such as 0.34.
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity etc. The meaning of some of these terms
is explained in the following paragraphs. Elastic Limit
Elastic Limit: The maximum stress to which a material may be subjected and
Elasticity still return to its original shape upon release of the load. The elastic limit for
A body is said to be periectly elastic if, after it has been deformed by external steel is for all purposes the same as its proportional limit.
forces, it returns completely to its original shape when the forces are removed.
Although there are no perfectly elastic materials, steel and some other structu- Proportional Limit
ral materials may be so considered in certain ranges of loading and deforma- Proportional Limit: That stress beyond which stress is no longer proportional to
tion (see elastic limit). Partially elastic materials are those that do not com- the strain.
pletely resume their original shape when the external forces are released,
some of the energy of deformation having been lost in the form of heat. Yield Strength
Yield Strength: The maximum stress that can be applied to a material without
Unit Stress permanent deformation of the material.
If a load (force) is uniformly distributed over a certain area, the force per unit of
area, usually expressed in pounds per square inch, is called the unit stress or Ultimate Strength
simply the stress. If the stress is the result of forces tending to stretch or Ultimate Strength: The stress at which a material in tension, compression or
lengthen the material it is called a tensile stress; if to compress or shorten the shear will rupture.
material a compressive stress; and if to shear the material, a shearing stress.
Tensile and compressive stresses always act at right angles to (normal to) the Modules of Elasticity
area being considered; shearing stresses are always in the plane of the area Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of stress to strain within the proportional limit of
(at right angles to compressive or tensile stresses). a material in tension or compression.
Combined Stress
When the stress on a given area is a combination of tensile and shearing
stresses, or, compressive and shearing stresses, the resulting stress on the
area is called a combined stress.
Simple stress
Simple Stress: When a tensile, a compressive, or a shearing stress alone is
considered to act, a body is said to be subject to a simple stress.

Part-66
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Hardness
The property of a material that enables it to resist penetration, wear, or cutting
action.
Strength
The ability of a material to withstand forces which tend to deform the metal in
any direction, or the ability of a material to resist stress without breaking.
Elasticity
The capability of an object or material to be stretched and to recover its size
and shape after its deformation.
Plasticity
The property of a metal which allows it to be reshaped.
Ductility
The property which allows metal to be drawn into thinner sections without
breaking.
Malleability
That characteristic of material that allows it to be stretched or shaped by beat-
ing with the hammer or passing through rollers without breaking.
Toughness
The property of a metal which allows it to be deformed without breaking.
Brittleness
The property of a metal to break when, deformed, or hammered. It is the

resistance to change in the relative position of the molecules within the
material.
The characteristic of a material which makes it possible for it to transmit heat or
electrical conduction.
Durability
The property of metal that enables it to withstand force over a period of time.

Part-66
MATERIALS OVERVIEW
Metallic materials
Having the nature of metal or containing metal.
Non -- metallic materials
Having the nature to containing no metal.
Ferrous materials
Iron, or any alloy containing iron.
Non ferrous materials
A metal which contains no iron.

Part-66
Figure 11 Overview: Metallic and Non- Metallic Materials

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES MEASUREMENT
Part-66
MEASUREMENT
GENERAL
Introduction
In order to arrive at values of distance, weight, speed, volume, temperature,
pressure etc., it is necessary that we get familiar with the accepted methods tor
measuring these values and the units used to express them.
Through the ages human beings have devised many methods for measuring
however, it would be impossible to cover even a small part of the information
accumulated for these several thousands of years. Now we shall concern our-
selves principally with the English system and the SI metric system, both of
which are used extensively throughout the world.

Part-66
Figure 12 Measurement Exampels

Part-66
Measurement of Dimensions
Measuring of material and machined subjects involves the use of measuring
tools to determine sizes of length, width, thickness, diameters etc.

Part-66
DIAMETER
WIDTH
THICKNESS
LENGTH
Figure 13 Measurement Of Dimensions

Part-66
Di
MEASUREMENT UNIT SYSTEM

Metric System
The International System of Units, which is now called SI, had its origin when
the meter was selected as the unit of length and the kilogram as the unit of
mass. These unitS were created by the National Academy of Science and
adopted by the National Assembly of France in 1795.
The United States Congress legalized the use of the metric system throughout
the United States on July 28, 1866, but it was not until December 23, 1975,
that the metric Bill was signed into law in the United States to convert alt of our
measurements into the metric system. It is becoming more and more important
for us to be familiar with this system.
One of the great advantages of the metric system is the fact that it is built on
decimal units. Each basic unit may be multiplied or divided by ten as many
times as it is necessary to get a convenient size. Each of these multiples has a
definite prefix, symbol, and name.
English System
The majority of people in English-- speaking countries are familiar to the Eng-
lish unit system. Its units of length, time, and weight are inch, second, and
pound. So the complete documentation of Boeing aircrafts are made in the
English unit system.

Part-66
Figure 14 Number Prefix Table

Part-66
Temperature Unit
The temperature is the degree of heat or cold measurable in a body. The mea-
surement is accomplished with a thermometer, and the value is expressed in
degree Fahrenheit or Celsius.
Fahrenheit Unit
In the English / American unit system all temperatures are given in degrees
Fahrenheit.
Water boils 2120F

Ice melts 320F
Absolute zero --4600F
Celsius unit
In the metric system the temperatures are given in degrees Celsius.
Water boils 1000C

Ice melts 00C
Absolute zero --2730C
Fahrenheit / Celsius Conversion
To convert one type of scale to the other we use the following formula:
0F =9/5 0C + 32
0C = 5/9 (0F -- 32)
Conversion Examples
1. ?0C = 630F
5/9 (63--32) = 630F
5/9 * 31 = 630F
17.20C = 630F
2. ?0F = 270C
27 * 9/5 + 32 = 270C
80.60F = 270C

Part-66


Part-66
English Length System

The second number after the decimal point is in hundredth of an inch. Since
Originally the units inch, foot, yard, and mile were not exact multiples or factors the second number in 0.12 falls into the hundredths category, the entire dimen-
of one another, but for the sake of convenience the foot was made equal to 12 sion must be read in hundredths, that is, twelve onehundredths of an inch. A
in, the yard was made 3 ft, and the mile was made 5,280 ft or 1,760 yd. It is dimension is read in terms of the smallest unit shown; therefore 0.0015 is read
said that the inch was the width of a finger, the foot was the length of a human as fifteen tenthousandths of an inch, or one and one--halfthousandths.
foot, and the yard was the distance from the tip of the nose to the tip of the
thumb when the arm was extended to the side with the thumb pointing forward
and the head faced forward. The mile was originated by the Romans and rep-
resented 1,000 paces, each pace being two steps, or 5 ft. This distance was
later changed to 5 280 ft, which is the present statute mile in the United States.
The nautic mile, used internationally for navigation, is based on one--sixtieth of
one degree of the earth’s circumference at the equator. It is approximately
6,080 ft, or 1,853.2 m. Many other units of length measurement have been
used in various countries some being the rod, elI, fathom, and league. All these
units were established to meet particular needs in different areas. Because of
the increase in travel, international commerce, and scientific exchanges, there
is a need for standardization of measurements. This is taking place through the
use of the metric system.
Boeing Dimensioning System
All linear dimensions on Boeing drawings are in inches and decimal fractions
enable the guys to clearly specifv the degree of accuracy required for a given
dimension. Boeing system of dimensioning, the decimal system, is in units of
ten, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands (1’s, 10’s, 100’s, 1,000’s, 10,000’s),
and so on. Each unit, when multiplied by ten falls into the category of the next
larger unit or, when divided by ten, into the next lower unit. Decimal fractions
may seem rather difficult at first, but in reality they are much simpler than com-
mon fractions. Decimal fractions work in units of ten the same as whole num-
bers; however, decimal fractions are always on the right side of the decimal
point. When ever numbers follow the decimal point, they represent measure-
ments smaller than one inch.
The first number after the decimal point is in tenth of an inch. There are ten
tenth of an inch.

Part-66
1 INCH
Figure 15 English Length System

Part-66
Metric Length System

The basic unit of measurement in the metric system is the meter. The length of
a meter is based on a distance equal to one ten-- millionth of the distance from
the equator to the poles measured along a meridian, the meridian being the
shortest distance along the earth’s surface and at right angles to the equator.
This distance is equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelength of the orange--red light of
excited krypton of mass number 86. Thus we see that the meter is based on a
sound reference that will always be approximately the same. In order to provide
an exact reference meter for scientific purposes, a bar of platinumiridium was
inscribed with two lines exactly 1 m apart at the freezing point of water. This is
320Fahrenheit (F) or 0_ Celsius (C). The International Meter bar is kept at the
Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris. Copies of this bar have been
made and are kept in depositories in all the principal nations In the metric sys-
tem all the measurements of length are either multiples or subdivisions of the
meter based on multiples of 10. The following table shows how the units of
length are related:
10 millimeters = 1 centimeter
10 centimeters = 1 decimeter
10 decimeters = 1 meter
10 hectometers = 1 kilometer
One meter is equal to 39.37 in, which is a little longer than the U.S. yard. Thus
1 decimeter (dm) is equal to 3.937 in. In practice the units of length most com-
monly used are the millimeter, the centimeter, the meter, and the kilometer.

Part-66
Figure 16 Metric System

Part-66
Unit Conversion
P!ease keep in your mind:
1 in = 25.4 mm
So for sheet metal work it is an absolutely must to know the conversion of me-
ter and inch because all hole sizes, material gages, all dimensions etc. are
given in inch and must be often conversioned to the metric system.
Conversion Examples
1/2 in = 25.4 : 2= 12.7 mm
1/4 in = 25.4 : 4 = 6.35 mm
1/8 in =25,4:8 =3.i8--mm
3/16 in = 25.4 : 16 * 3 = 4.76 mm
5/16 in = 7,935 mm
3/8 in = 9,525 mm
5/32 in = 3,968 mm
0.312 in = 25.4 * 0.312 = 7.92 mm
1.15 in = 25.4 * 1.15 = 29.21 mm
0.159 in = 25,4 * 0.159 = 4,038 mm
0.190 in = =4,826 mm

Part-66
DECIMAL AND METRIC EQUIVALENT OF INCHES
Decimal Millimeter
Inches
Equivalent Equivalent
1/64 0.0156 0.379
1/32 0.0313 0.794
3/64 0.0469 1.191
1/16 0.0625 1.588
5/64 0.0781 1.985
3/32 0.0938 2.381
7/64 0.1094 2.778
1/8 0.1250 3.175
9/64 0.1406 3.572
5/32 0.1563 3.969
11/64 0.1719 4.366

3/16 0.1875 4.762
13/64 0.2031 5.159
7/32 0.2188 5.556
Figure 17 Decimal And Metric Equivalent Of Inches

Part-66
RULES AND SCALES

General
Steel scales or steel rules are found in almost all tool chests in both 6 inch and
12 inch lengths. They are used for sheet metal layout and for making measure-
ments where the accuracy of a vernier or a micrometer is not needed.
Theses scales are made of either tempered carbon steel or of satin--finished
stainless steel. They may be graduated in either the fraction or the decimal
system of English or in metric measurements, with some scales having gradua-
tions in both systems. Fractionally graduated scales usually have one scale
divided in increments of 1/32 inch and other in 1/64 inch increments. Decimal
scales have one scale in tenth or fiftieth of an inch and the other scale in incre-
ments of 1/1,000 inch. Metric graduations are in centimeters and millimeters.
Scales are available in both the flexible form about 0.015 inch thick, and the
rigid form with a thickness of about 0.040 inch.

Part-66
12 INCH FLEXIBLE SCALE (CHESTERMAN)
6 INCH FLEXIBLE SCALE

Figure 18 Flexible Scales

Part-66
Scale Handling
When taking measurements with a scale it should be so held that the gradua-
tion lines are as close as possible to the faces. The eye which is observing the
reading should be as near as possible opposite to the mark being read.

Part-66
Figure 19 Scale Handling

Part-66
Flexible Steel Tape (Yo--Yo)

The flexible steel tape is a very useful instrument for taking measurements up
to several feet. The steel tape is equipped with a hook on one end so that it will
hold to a corner or ledge, thus making it possible for the rule to be used by one
individual. Most of the steel tapes are graduated in English and metric mea-
surements.

Part-66
Figure 20 Flexible Steel Tape

Part-66
MICROMETER
General
When a part has to be measured to the second place of decimals in the metric
system, or the third place in the English, we need a more accurate method of
measurement than can be obtained with a vernier calliper, and the micrometer
is commonly used.
Description
A micrometer consists of a semi--circular frame having a cylindrical extension
(the barrel) at its right end, and hardened anvils inside, at the left end. The bore
of the barrel is screwed 1/2 mm pitch and the spindle, to which is attached the
thimble, screws through. Adjustment is provided for the longitudinal position of
the spindle, and for tightness of the screw head. The barrel is graduated in mm
and 1/2 mm for a length of 25 mm and the rim of the thimble is divided into 50
equal divisions. The measurement is taken between the face of the anvil and
the end of the spindle, and the range of the micrometer is 25 mm, so that if we
wish to measure up to 150 mm we must have six micrometers; 0 to 25, 25 to
50, 50 to 75, and so on with 125 to 150 mm as the largest size.

Part-66
11 1 2 10 3 4 9 5 6 7 8
Index to parts
1. Anvils 6. Adjusting nut for main nut

2. Spindle 7. Thimble adjusting nut
3. Locknut 8. ratchet stop

4. Sleeve 9. Thimble
5. Main nut 10. Frame
Figure 21 Micrometer
Part-66
Micrometer Readings
The screw in this micrometer has a pitch of 1/2 mm, so that the jaws open 1/2
mm for each turn of the thimble. The rim of the thimble is divided into 50 parts,
which gives a reading of 1/2: 50 = 1/100 mm. The barrel is marked in millime-
ters and 1/2 mm divisions, so that to take a reading we add the number of hun-
dredths indicated on the thimble to the millimeters and 1/2 mm uncovered on
the barrel.
Reading Examples
The thimble has moved Out 13 complete turns or
13 * 0.50 = 6.50 mm. Plus

15 * 0.01 = 0.15 mm.
Reading is 6.65 mm.
In one revolution the thimble moves out 0.50 mm. There are 50 marks on the
thimble with each mark representing a thimble movement of 0.01 mm.
Each mark on the numbered line on the sleeve is 1.0 mm.
Each mark on the unnumbered line on the sleeve is 0.50 mm.


Part-66
Reading Example
Division on Micrometer
(Reading 11,34 mm)
Barrel Graduated Thimble -

In mm And 1/2 mm 50 Divisions
Figure 22 Reading Exampels

Part-66
20 Complete Turns
20 x 0.50 = 10.00 mm Plus 26 x 0.50 = 13.00 mm Plus ..... x 0.50 = .......... mm Plus
50 x 0.01 = 0.50 mm 1 x 0.01 = 0.01 mm ..... x 0.01 = ......... mm
Reading is 10.5 mm Reading is 13.01 mm Reading is .......... mm
Figure 23 Reading Eampels (Continued)

Part-66


Part-66
Micrometer handling
1. Set the micrometer to a oversize dimension
2. Set the frame anvil straight to the work
3. Clamp the spindle against the subject using the ratchet stop
NOTE: USE ONLY THE RATCHET STOP. OTHERWISE THE MEASURE-
MENT FAILS.

Part-66
Handling on hard to get locations

or one hand handling
Micrometer mounted on a stand (use when

you have to measure a lot of subjects)
Figure 24 Micrometer Handling

Part-66
VERNIER CALLIPER
General
Vernier callipers / sliding gages are used to make accurate inside or outside as
well as depths measurements faster than can be made with a micrometer, and
for measurements that exceed the practical range of a micrometer.
Description
The vernier calliper consists of the bar and the two measuring jaws. One jaw is
fixed to bar, the other one slides on the bar. The bar of a metric vernier calliper
is equipped with a graved--in scale, graduated in mm the so called main scale.
Opposite to this scale there is the so called vernier scale (in German the so
called nonius) on the slide. These scale is divided in 10, 20, or 50 equal spac-
ings, the so called 1/10, 1/~0 or 1 50 vernier (nonius).

Part-66
Figure 25 Vernier Calliper

Part-66
1/10 vernier
The distance from 0 to 1 on the main scale is 10 mm and it will be seen that 10
divisions on the sliding vernier scale are equal to 9 mm on the top main scale.
The length of the bottom division is 9 mm: 10 = 0.9 mm, and since the top divi-
sion is 1 mm the difference is 1 mm -- 0.9 mm = 0.1 mm. This difference repre-
sents the accuracy to which readings may be taken.
1/20 Vernier
The most often used vernier calliper is the calliper with the 1/20 vernier and a
accuracy reading of 0.05 mm.
1/50 Vernier
The accuracy reading is 0.02 mm

Part-66
1/10 Vernier
1/20 Vernier
1/50 Vernier
Figure 26 Vernier
Part-66
Figure 27 Vernier Table

Part-66


Part-66
Vernier Calliper Readings

The reading will be done as follows:
Count the total length indicated on the main scale and note the mark on the
vernier scale which is level with a mark on the main scale. This latter amount
will represent the number of dimensions which must be added to the first read-
ing.

Part-66
Reading is 30.00 mm
(1/10 Vernier)
Reading is 73.65 mm
(1/20 Vernier)
Reading is 68.32 mm
(1/50 Vernier)
Figure 28 Vernier Reading

Part-66
Figure 29 Vernier Reading Exampels

Part-66
Reading
Reading
is:...............mm
is:...............mm
Reading Reading
is:...............mm is:...............mm
Figure 30 Reading Exercises

Part-66
Reading Reading
is:...............mm is:...............mm
Reading Reading
is:...............mm is:...............mm
Figure 31 Reading Exercises

Part-66


Part-66
Vernier Calliper Handling

The vernier calliper is made in various sizes from 150 mm upwards, a good
size being one capable of working up to 300 mm.
When it is used for a bore or any other inside measurement set the cross jaws
to an undersize dimension and slide it to the final position.
Outside Measurement
Set the fixed leg against the work and slide the movable leg in the final posi-
tion.
Starting position with vernier calliper in oversize dimension until the final posi-
tion
Depth measurement
Ensure that the recess in the depth gauge is in the corner area.

Part-66
Figure 32 Vernier Calliper Handling

Part-66
DIAL INDICATOR
General
The dial indicator is high precise measurement tool with an accuracy of 0.01
mm. It is especially used in the mechanical engineering section to measure
alignments of shafts or to check smoothness of surfaces. A special type of the
dial indicator is an excellent tool to measure for example the removed material
after corrosion -- or lightning strike clean up
Description
One revolution of the large hand corresponds to 1 mm. The second smaller
hand of the rotation tachometer counts the revolutions of the large hand. Mea-
suring range is normally 10 mm Set to zero by revolving the rotary scale

Part-66
Tolerance
marks
Rotation tachometer
(mm)
Climb shaft
Spindle
Pin
Figure 33 Dial Indicator

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Work sequence
1. Clean up damaged area
2. Put the dial indicator with the measuring stand on a straight surface and
rotate the rotary scale mark to zero
3. Put the dial gage on the inspection are as shown
4. Do the inspection at different points in the inspection area until you find the
maximum depth of clean up.
NOTE: THIS PROCEDURE MEASURES THE DEPTH OF THE REMOVED
MATERIAL. THE THICKNESS OF THE MATERIAL WHICH RE-
MAINS MUST BE FOUND OUT BY CALCULATION.

Part-66
Dail gage
Measuring
stand
Skin
Base flat
on skin
Area where you must

remove the paint
Figure 34 Dail Indicator Work Sequence

Part-66
SQUARES AND GAGES

Square
The square is the most common tool for testing squareness. When using the
square care should be taken to ensure that its blade is held perpendicular to
the surface being tested or errors may occur.

Part-66
Inside Squareness Outside Squareness

Measurement Measurement
Figure 35 Square
Part-66
Radius gage
Radius gages are used to measure either inside or outside radii. Find a biade
that fits the surface being checked.

Part-66
Radii of the work are

too small
Inside radius
Radii found okay
Outside radius
Radii of the work are
too large
Figure 36 Radius Gage

Part-66
Protractor
The IProtractor consists of an adjustable blade with a dial that is graduated
from 0 to 180 degrees. To use a Protractor, set the blade to the angle being
checked and lock the nut. The angle is indicated on the Protractor head. The
Protractor is generally used in assembly areas to check part flanges or to verify
jig--located angles, clips, etc.

Part-66
Figure 37 Protractor
Part-66
Thickness (feeler) Gage

The feeler gage is made up of a number of thin steel leaves that fold into a
handle like the blades of a pocket knife. The thickness in thousandths of an
inch or in hundreds of a millimeter is marked on each leaf. The marked leaves
are inserted into a gap until the closest fitting leaf is found. The thickness of
that leaf represents the size of the gap. The gage is generally used in assem-
bly areas to check interface gaps or gaps under bolt heads or nuts.

Part-66
Figure 38 Feeler Gage

Part-66
Blend Out Measurement Sequence With A Feeler Gage (Ref. NDT A3 10)
1. Put the straight edge on to the inspection area.
2. Measure the gap between the straight edge and the structure with the
leaves of the feeler gage. Make sure that the gage touches the straight
edge and the structure
3. Write down the measurement by adding the respective feeler gage dimen-
sions

Part-66
AREA WHERE YOU MUST

REMOVE THE PAINT
SECTION
A-A
CORRECT USE OF THE FEELER GAGE
SKIN
STRAIGHT EDGE FEELER GAGE
STRAIGHT EDGE
FLAT ON SKIN
GAP
SKIN STRAIGHT EDGE
FEELER GAGE
Figure 39 Blend Out Measurtement Sequence

Part-66
MARKING OUT AND TOOLS

General
Marking out means marking on the material all the lines and points we need to
provide work from it. In general this will be done by a dimensioned drawing, this
is a drawing showing the exact shape with all dimensions indicated. So we take
a piece of material and accurately copy the given dimensions of the work from
the drawing. Last step is to cut out the piece of material with the work marked
out on it.

Part-66
Figure 40 Marking Out Sequence

Part-66
Marking Out Rules

S Never use a lead pencil on titanium.
S When using a scriber or pencil with a straightedge hold it at a slight angle so
that the line will be parallel to and as close as possible to the straightedge.
S For marking of aluminium use only a soft lead pencil.
S Mark only thin lines.
S Mark lines only once.
Rule
For setting out length, a rule or a steel tape is used.
Try square
For squaring and for lines at right angles a try square is used
Dividers
Dividers are used for scribing arcs and circles, for measuring between points,
and for transferring dimensions taken from a steel rule. The contacts are the
sharp points of the straight legs, and measurement is by visual comparison.
Dividers are difficult to use accurately when the legs are widely extended and
the points steeply inclined to the work surface. Dividers or compasses should
not be used when marks or reference lines are draw~ on metal skin surfaces,
since the metal points will cause permanent damage. Instead, pencil are com-
monly used to lay out skins.

Part-66
Rule Try Square Dividers
Figure 41 Marking Out Tools

Part-66
Scriber
The scriber is used to mark tines on metal surfaces.
NOTE: A SCRIBER IS USED ONLY WHEN THE MATERIAL WITHIN THE
SCRIBBED LINE IS TO BE CUT OUT AND THE SCRIBBLE MARK
IS REMOVED AS PART OF THE SCRAP.
Pencil
When working with aluminium, a soft lead pencil may be used for layout work
or for marking reference lines in areas that will not be removed.

Part-66
Scriber Pencil
Figure 42 Marking Out Tools

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES SAWING
Part-66
SAWING
GENERAL
Introduction
Sawing is mostly used for seperating material but also for producing groove
and notches.
A saw blade has many teeth. Their cutting edges are shaped like a chisel.
When sawing, at any time more than one tooth must be in contact with the
work piece. The teeth are removing small chips of the material.
The teeth must point in cutting direction.

Part-66
adapter guide frame

wing nut
handle
blade adapters
saw blade
cutting
direction
Figure 43 Saw
Part-66
SAW BLADE
Pitch Clearance
The pitch is the space from one tooth to the next. To prevent the saw blade from binding when it proceeds into the material, the
Saw blades are rated as follows regarding to the number of teeth on one inch slot which the saw generates must be wider then the blade is thick.
of blade lengtgh: Therefore the saw blade must cut the required clearance. This is accomplished
in either of the following:
S Coarse: for soft materials
S The teeth are set.
S Medium: for normal materials
S The blade is waved.
S Fine: for hard materials

Part-66
clearance
25 bottom
coarse
(1 inch) view
14 teeth
Teeth are set

25 medium
(1 inch)
clearance
22 teeth
bottom
25 fine view
(1 inch)
32 teeth
Waved blade
Figure 44 Saw blade

Part-66
SAWING
Guiding the hack saw
Sawin is mostly accomplished by moving the arms. appropriate motions of the
body assist the process.
To produce a good cut, startthe cut by holding the saw at an angle.
S Forward stroke under pressure.
S Ruturn stroke without pressure.
Use up as much of the blade length as possible.
Near the end of the cut, just before the material separates, reduce the
pressure on the saw.

Part-66
cutting direction
chips
tooth gap
return stroke cutting stroke

without pressure with pressure
angle
Figure 45 Sawing
M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES FILING
Part-66
FILING
GENERAL
Introduction
Filing is a process which removes chips from a material.
Filing can be :
S A roughing process to alter the size and shape of a part by removing con-
siderable material.
S A finishing process to smooth a surface without removing much material.
HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 A Page 96

Part-66
tip
blade
tang
handle
Figure 46 File
Part-66
FILE SHAPES
General
The selection of the file with regarard to the shape depends on the size and
shape of the surface to be worked.
Flat files
Flat files are used for flat or convex surfaces.
Triangular files
Triangular files have across-section that is an equilateral triangle, these files
are limeted to a internal angles greater than 60˚.
Squre files
Square files are used for filing keyways and for enlarging square and rectengu-
lar holes.
Ruond files
Ruond files are used to file small radius.
Half round files
Half round files are used to file medium and large radius.

Part-66
FLAT
TRIANGULAR
ROUND
SQUARE
HALF ROUND
Figure 47 Files shape

Part-66
CUT OF FILES
General
The cut of files is divided, with reference to the character of the teeth, into
single-cut, double-cut, rasp-cut, and curved-tooth.
Single-cut files:
single cut files are generelly used to produce a smooth surface or to file a
keenedge.
Also for use on soft metals like lead, zinc or aluminum.
Double-cut files:
Double-cut files are used for fast metal removal and where a rought finish is
permissible.
Rasp-cut:
A rasp-cut file produce a extremly rought cut and is used on very soft materials
such as wood and leather.
Curved-tooth:
A curved-tooth file is used to produce a very smooth finish on soft metals such
as aluminum.

Part-66
single cut double cut rasp cut curved cut

Figure 48 Cut of files

Part-66
PROPPER WORKING POSITION

Bench vise
The adjustment of the bench vise is important to have a proper working posi-
tion.
The bench vise should be 5--8 cm / 2--3 inch below your elbow (see picture).
To hold the file
Hold the handle with your right hand so that the end of the handle presses
against the palm.
With the palm of your left hand press down on the file tip.
Left handed persons hold the handle in left hand and press on the file blade
with the right hand.

Part-66
5--8 cm
2--3 inch
Figure 49 Working position

Part-66
FILE TECHNIQUE
General Pressing on the file
Guiding the file by moving your body evenly: With your right hand push the file in longditudinal axis and press it down, and
Move the file in the direction of its longditudinal axis in oder to avoid burrs in with your left hand press it down only. Left handed persons vice versa.
the work surface. Apply pressure on the forward stroke. Return the file without pressure.

Part-66
Figure 50 File Technique

Part-66
FILING OF RADII
Filing of convex radii Filing of concave radii
In oder to obtain a radius flat surface are filed until they approximately from a The radius of the file must be smaller than the radius to be filed.
radius. Guide the file straight as if a flat surface is to filed but turn the fileabout its lon-
The file is moved in longditunial direction and up and down at the same time. gitudinal axis at the same time.
The position of the work in the vise has to be changed frequently in oder to pro- To produce an even radius it is necessary to adveance the file sideways. Do
ducean accurate radius. not feed sideways in order to avoid burrs.

Part-66
flat
surface
up and down motion

Figure 51 Filing of radii

Part-66
DRAW FILING
General
As a final finish you can use the draw filing process. This process is often used
on parts that are long relative to ther width for example aluminum sheets
edges.
This procedure is used to get a fine surface on the edges to prevent crack
growth.

Lufthansa Technical Training 1
Part-66
finish of stroke
cut on
forward stroke
only
start of stroke
Figure 52 Draw filing

Part-66
CLEANING DIRTY FILES

General
Files need to be cleaned frequently. A dirty file cannot produce a good finish
and a dirty file acts like a dull file.
You can clean a file with a file brush by brushing across the file in a direction
parallel to the teeth.

Part-66
File brush
Cleaning with file brush
Figure 53 Cleaning dirty files

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES DRILLING
Part-66
DRILLING
GENERAL
Introduction
The technicians are often faced with the necessity of boring / drilling accurately
sized round holes in order to make attachments and to join parts in an assem-
bly. The tool usually used for drilling such holes is the spiral, or twist, or drill.
The steel drill usually consists of a cylinder into which has been cut spiral
grooves or flutes. One end is pointed, and the other is shaped to fit a particular
drilling press such as a hand--drill motor.
Drills are made of both carbon steel and high speed steel (HSS). The carbon
steel drills cost less, but they will overheat and lose their hardness when they
are used to drill very hard or though material. For this reason HSS drills are by
far the most economical for use in aviation work. There are several types of
drills available so in generally we have to use for different materials different
drills, drill speeds, cutting agents, and pressure.

Part-66
Figure 54 Drill
Part-66
TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE

Shank
The shank of a drill is the part designed to fit into the drilling machine. It may be
a plain cylinder in shape, which is the design for use in a drill chuck on a drill
motor, drill press, or hand drill. The drill shank may also be tapered or pyramid--
shaped. The tapered drill shank is usually used in drill presses. The pyramid--
shaped shank is also called a bit shank and is designed to fit a hand brace
such as that used for wood bits.
Body
The body of a drill is the part between the point and the shank. It includes the
spiral flutes, the lands, and the margin. The body is slightly larger in diameter
at the tip than at the shank, thus causing it to bore a hole with clearance to pre-
vent the drill from binding.
Cutting edge
The point of a drill includes the entire cone-- shaped cutting end of the drill. The
point includes the cutting edges or lips, which are sharpened when the drill is
ground. The web is the portion of the drill at the center along the axis. It be-
comes thicker near the shank. The web may also be defined as the material
remaining at the center of the drill after the flutes have been cut out. The web
forms the dead--center tip at the point of the drill. The dead--center is in the ex-
act center of the tip and is on the line forming the axis of the drill.
Land
The land is the peripheral portion of the body between adjacent flutes.
Flutes
Helical grooves cut or formed in the body of the drill to provide cutting lips, to
permit removal of chips, and to allow cutting fluid to reach the cutting lips.
Margin
The cylindrical portions of the land which is not cut away to provide clearance.

Part-66
Body
Lip or Cutting Edge
Shank Land
Margin Flute
Figure 55 Twist Drill Nomenclature

Part-66
TYPE OF DRILLS
Jobbers drills
The jobbers drill is the most often used twist drill in sheet metal work. It is a
pointed tool that is rotated to cut holes in material.
It is made of a cylindrical hardened steel bar having spiral flutes (grooves) run-
ning the length 0 the body, and a conical point with cutting edges formed by the
ends of the flutes.
Twist drills have from one to four spiral flutes. Drills with two flutes are used for
most drilling; Those with three or four flutes are used principally to follow
smaller drills or to enlarge holes.
The principal parts of a twist drill are the shank, the body, and the point. The
drill shank is the end that fits into the chuck of a hand or power drill. The
straight shank generally is used in hand, breast, and portable electric drills.

Part-66
Figure 56 Jobbers Drill

Part-66
Taper shank drills

Tapered shank drills have a tape called the Morse taper. The size of taper in-
corporated on any particular drill depend on the drill diameter. At the end of the
taper shank of a drill is a tongue called the tang, and when the taper shank is
fitted into the socket or machine spindle, this tang engages in a slot. If the ta-
per itself is in good condition the frictional grip between this and the surface of
the taper hole should be almost, if not entirely, sufficient to drive the drill, but if
the taper becomes damaged, more load will be thrown on the tang in driving
the drill, and if the drill sizes in the hole the tang may be twisted off. For this
reason, taper shanks should be given every consideration in use and always
extracted with the proper taper drift.

Part-66
Figure 57 Taper Shank Drill

Part-66
Machine Spindle
The number of the Morse taper hole in a machine spindle will depend on the
size of the machine, varying from No. 1 in small machines to No. 4 or No. 5 in
large ones, and when a drill has to be accommodated in a spindle with a larger
taper than its shank, taper sockets must be used. These should also be cared
for, as if they become damaged the drill fitted into them will no longer run true.

Part-66
MASHINE
SPINDLE
BLOW
DRIFT
TANG ON
DRILL
Figure 58 Machine Spindle

Part-66
Extension drill
The extension drill has a long shank for reaching limited--access areas. The
drill should not be used unless absolutely necessary. Use a drill guard (a plastic
tube
slipped over the drill to protect adjacent structure from drill whip, and to make it
possible to guide the drill by hand). Hold the drill guard as near the drill point as
possible.

Part-66
Figure 59 Extension Drill

Part-66
DRILLING WORK SEQUENCE

GENERAL
Using the drill
4. Hold drill motor as shown. Notice that the thumb and forefinger of one hand
are used to steady the motor. This method can be used only with a short
drill; short drills are always preferred.
5. Put drill point on spot to be drilled.
6. Keep the drill perpendicular to the surface being drilled. If necessary use a
drill guide.
7. When drilling thick material (two or three times drill diameter or more) with-
draw the drill from the hole periodically to prevent chips from packing in the
drill flutes. Tightly packed chips can cause an oversize scarred hole.
8. Use just enough pressure to allow the drill to cuts its way through the
metal. Never force the drill; this can cause drill breakage, separation of
parts, or oversize or out--of--round holes.
9. Ease the pressure just as the drill point breaks through the material. Drill
through material no more than 1/4 inch.
10.Use a stop drill to prevent the drill from going through the part farther than
necessary (Adjust stop). If a drill stop is not used, the part may be marred
by the drill chuck, and the under--structure may be damaged by the drill
point.
11. Keep drill motor running while withdraw drill from hole.

Part-66
PRESSURE ON
CENTERLINE
OF DRILL
RIGHT SET SREW

WRONG
DRILL STOP
SET DRILL STOP

TO MATERIAL
THICKNESS; PLUS
.10 INCH
Figure 60 Using The Drill

Part-66
DEBURRING
General
When holes are drilled trough two sheets of material, small burrs are formed
around the edges of the holes, and chips were pressed between the two
sheets. So it is absolutely necessary to remove the burrs and the chips. It usu-
ally done by hand with a larger drill larger than the hole, a countersink, or a
specially deburring tool. Removal of burrs from drilled holes may be accom-
plished with a manufactured deburring tool, a countersink using a very light cut,
or other tool which will clear the edges of a drilled hole. Care must be taken to
remove only the rough edges and chips from the hole. When two or more
sheets where drilled at the same time, it is necessary to remove chips from
between the sheets. The picture next show the results of leaving material be-
tween drilled sheets.

Part-66
Figure 61 Deburring
Part-66
Special deburring tool

These tool is designed to debur holes on the exit side which you could not
reach with standard deburring tools (limit access area). This tool is chucked in
a drill motor for rapid work. The retractable blade is held in place by spring
pressure. To use, push the tool through the hole and remove burrs from the exit
side. Then draw the tool back through the hole and remove burrs from the
entry side. This burring tool comes in common hole sizes from 5/32 to 3/8 inch

Part-66
Figure 62 Special Deburring Tool

Part-66
COMMON DRILLING ASPECTS

Drilling Problems
Indication Probable Cause
Outer corners of drill break off 1. Excessive cutting speed.
2. Hard spots in the material.
3. Flutes clogged with swarf.
Parts of the cutting edges break off
1. Excessive feed rate.
2. Excessive drill cutting edge clearance.
Cracks in drill cutting edges
1. Drill overheated or cooled to quickly whilst sharpening or drilling.
Drill breaks
1. Drill point improperly ground.
3. Drill not sharp.
4. Flutes clogged with swarf.
Drill splits up its center

1. Insufficient drill cutting edge clearance
Drill will not feed into material
1. Drill not sharp.
2. 2. Insufficient drill cutting edge clearance
3. 3. Drill too large (i. e. pilot hole required).
Hole wall rough 1. Drill point improperly ground is not sharp.

2. 2. Insufficient or incorrect lubricant.

3. 3. Excessive feed rate.
4. Material not rigid.
Hole oversize
1. Unequal angle and / or length of cutting edges.
2. Loose spindle.

Part-66
Drilling hints
1. For soft metals use a drill having a quick twist to its flutes, and vice versa
for hard metals. For chilled iron a flat drill gives best results.
2. Cut with soluble oil for steel and malleable iron, kerosene or turpentine for
very hard steel. Cast--iron or brass should be drilled dry, or with jet of com-
pressed air.
3. If the corners wear away rapidly, the speed is too high.
4. If cutting edges chip1 reduce feed or grind with less clearance.
5. If drill will not start drilling there is no clearance on lips.
6. Examine relative sizes of turnings issuing from each flute. They should be
approximately the same, and if not, the drill is wrongly ground with one lip
doing more cutting than the other.
7. Drill breakage may be caused by point wrongly ground; feed too great; not
easing drill at ”break through”; binding in hole due to lands being worn
away; drill choked in a long hole.
8. The blueing of a high--speed steel drill is not detrimental but it is fatal to a
carbon steel drill.
9. A hard spot encountered may be removed by reducing speed and using
turpentine
10.For holes larger than 4.8 mm it is necessary to drill at first a pilot hole and
enlarge it to the required hole size.

Part-66
WORK CLAMPING
General
Unless work is so large and heavy that there is no danger of its moving, or be-
ing rotated with the drill, it should always be clamped or held by some method,
and too much attention cannot be given to clamping because unclamped or
insecurely clamped work is not only a danger to the operator, but also a cause
of inaccurate work and broken drills. The chief danger in drilling occurs just as
the drill point breaks through at the underside of the part being drilled. Whilst
the point is being resisted by solid metal, the feeding pressure causes some
spring to take place in the machine and the work, putting them into a similar
condition to a strong spring which is compressed slightly under a load. As soon
as the drill point breaks through, most of the resistance against it suddenly va-
nishes and the stress in the machine releases itself by imparting a sudden
downward push to the drill, just as a sudden relieving of the load from a spring
would allow the end of it to jump up. The sudden downward push on the drill
generally causes one or both of the lips to dig in, often with disastrous results.
When feeding the drill by hand the pressure should be eased off when the point
is felt to be breaking through, and for this reason small drills should always be
fed by hand. Special care is necessary when drilling thin plate as the drill point
often breaks through before the drill is cutting its full diameter.

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Drill press clamping

To secure work by using the drill press the vise, clamps and dogs are often
used.
1.Vise
The most works will be secured by the vise. The main use of the vise is to hold
the work during drilling, reaming etc. in a correct position. Care should be taken
to ensure that when the drill passes through the work it does not drill into the
bottom of the vise.
2.Clamps and dogs
The tables of most drill presses are provide either with Tee slots to accommo-
date bolt heads, or with long slots running through whichever be the case the
slots enable bolts and clamps / dogs to be used.

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Figure 63 Drill Press Clamping

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Hand drill clamping

When using a hand drill motor, the work to be drilled must be properly secured
so it cannot move. It should never be held by hand, because in the event of a
broken drill, the broken end may pierce the hand or a finger and can cause
painful injury. Angle vices, pin vices, hand vices etc. are to be used to hold the
work to be drilled in position.

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Figure 64 Hand Drill Clambing

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DRILLING AIDS
ADDITIONAL TOOLS FOR DRILLING
Stop drilling of cracks (Ref. SRM Hole preparation and stop drilling of
cracks)
Propagation of a crack may be stopped by drilling a hole at the end of the crack
as follows:
1. Drill or counterbore a 0.25--inch diameter crack stop hole through a struc-
ture at each end of a crack. Locate each stop hole so that the center of the
hole is 0.10 inch beyond the visible end of the crack.
2. Make an Eddy Current Method inspection of each stop drilled hole to con-
firm that there is no further cracking on the side of the hole opposite the
crack
S If the crack has not continued to the other side of the hole, enlarge the hole
to 0.312--inch diameter to ensure removal of fatigued material.
S If the crack has continued to the other side of the hole, enlarge the hole by
additional l/16~inch diametral increments until the crack indication is re-
moved. Enlarge the hole an additional 1/16 inch in diameter to remove any
fatigue damaged material.
NOTE: THE TOTAL AMOUNT THAT THE STOP DRILL HOLE MAY BE EN-
LARGED MUST BE DETERMINED FOR EACH SPECIFIC CASE
DEPENDENT UPON THE LOAD PATTERN AND STRESS LEVEL
IN THAT AREA.
3. Install a 2017--T3 flush plug rivet in the stop drill hole, if required.

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Drill stop
The drill stop regulates the hole depth, cushions the break through, eliminates
surfaces marks, and reduces drill breakage. The drill stop locks onto the drill
with a set screw.
Drill guide
The hand held drill guide keeps the drills 900 to the skin surfaces. The guide
assembly consists of a clear plastic housing and special screw in type hard-
ened steel bushing. The bushing can be interchanged.

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Figure 65 Drill Stop and Drill Guide

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Nut plate drill jig

The nut plate drill jig is designed for accurate drilling of rivet holes for nut pla-
tes. It is manufactured with a flexible handle to provide hand clearance when jig
is in use. There are a lot of different drill jigs available.
Drill jig handling
1. Align pilot with pilot hole when drilling the first hole.
2. Align pilot with pilot hole and pilot pin with hole drilled in the first operation
and than drill the second hole.

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Figure 66 Drill Jig

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Hole finder
When replacing an old skin with a new one, if there are no pilot holes drilled in
the new skin, it is quite difficult to locate precisely the holes in the structure. For
this procedure, a hole finder may be used. The finder resembles a clamp that
slips over the new skin, and on its underside is a pin that exactly fits through
the hole in the structure. A hole in the top side guides the drill in making a hole
in the new skin that will align with the one in the structure.

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Figure 67 Hole Finder

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Drill gage
The size of a drill is stamped on its shank. If the size cannot be read, it can be
determined by using the proper drill gage. Drill gages are available for all three
series of drill sizes; fractional, letter, and number. Fractional drills are furnished
in sizes from 1/16 to 1 inch in diameter, graduated in sixty--fourth of an inch.
Letter drills range iii size from A (the smallest) to Z (the largest). Number drills
range from I (the largest) to 80 (the smallest).
To gage a drill, insert the point into a hole in the drill gage. If the drill slips easily
into the hole, insert it into the next smaller hole. When the correct size has
been determined, the drill will rub lightly in the hole.

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Figure 68 Drill Gage

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DRILL AGENTS
General
Drilling agents are recommended (unless prohibited by the engineering draw-
ing) to improve tool life, hole tolerance, and hole finish. Recommended cutting
agents for drilling, reaming, and countersinking are shown in the following ta-
ble. Cutting agents are mandatory only when so specified.
Boelube
Boelube is used an agent for drilling aluminium, magnesium, steel, as well as
titanium.
Boelube consists of cetyl alcohol, a non-- toxic lubricant from the fatty alcohol
chemical family. It is suitable for many production operations and manufactured
in solid, paste, and liquid forms. It is approved for use with aluminum, steel, or
titanium materials. Also it is sealant and paint compatible, and is non--corro-
sive. Disassembly for cleaning is not required in sealant or paint areas.
Boelube lubricants have the following characteristics:
-- non--toxic, non--polluting, and non-irritating under normal conditions
-- excellent lubricating properties under extreme pressure
-- removed by solvent wiping or washing with warm water and mild deter-
gent
-- compatible with most lubricant application systems

Remaining Boelube residue must be removed within 48 hours after use.

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Figure 69 Drill, Reamer and Countersink Cutting Agents

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DRILLING SIZES
General
Twist drills used in aircraft sheet metal are usually of the number drill sizes be-
tween one and sixty; however, for larger sized holes, either fraction drills or let-
ter drills may be used. Following pages show a twist-- drill--size chart that lists
sizes from No. 80, the smallest normally in use, up through 1/2 inch. There are,
of course, drill sizes smaller and larger than those listed, but they fall outside of
the general use of the aircraft mechanic. You will notice that the smallest drills
have the largest numbers; for example. A No. 80 drill is much smaller than the
No. 1 drill. In addition to the number drills, there are letter drills from A through
Z, with A being the smallest. The fraction drills are interspersed among the
number and letter drills, and only at one place do we find a fraction and a num-
ber or letter drill of the same size; both the quarter--inch drill and the E drill are
0.250 inch.

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Figure 70 Drill Size Chart

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DRILL SPEEDS
GENERAL
Introduction
The drill speeds are an important factor in getting good results. Drill speed de-
termines the rate at which the outer cutting edge of the drill is moving across
the material being out.
The proper speed for aluminium alloy will not produce the best results with
stainless steel or titanium. When harder materials are drilled, slower speeds
are required.
The following drill speed tables are recommended for drilling. Material / revolu-
tions per minute (RPM) values and speeds and feeds for most materials com-
monly used are given. These speeds and feeds are a guide for selecting the
proper portable and stationary drilling units to improve tool life, hole tolerance,
and hole finish. In some portable drilling applications, speeds and feeds may
have to be reduced to be compatible with motor power and other limitations.
However, the speeds and feeds shown in the tables should never be exceeded.
Material / RPM tables
Table IV--1 Material / RPM:
Drilling ferrous metals

Drilling high Temperature alloys (Inconel, titanium)

Drilling nonferrous metals (aluminium alloys, magnesium)
Table IV--4 Material / RPM:Drilling nonferrous metals (fiberglass laminates,

nylon Teflon, graphite, epoxy, kevlar epoxy)

Drilling composite with metal (graphite or kevlar epoxy and aluminium stack,
and graphite or kevlar and titanium stack)

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Figure 71 RPM Table IV - 1

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Figure 72 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued)

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Figure 77 Table IV - 2
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Figure 78 Table IV - 2 (Continued)

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TYPES OF DRILL MACHINES

STATIONARY DRILL MACHINE
Drill press
A drill press is a bench--mounted or floormounted machine designed to rotate a
drill bit and press the sharpened point of the bit against metal in order to drill a
hole. The drill press is driven by an electric motor through a speed--changing
mechanism, either a belt transmission or a gear transmission. The belt trans-
mission consists of two stacks of V--belt pulleys which may vary progressively
in size from 2 to 6 in (50.8 to 101.6 cm). The pulleys are arranged so that one
set decreases in size as the belt is moved up the stack and the other de-
creases as the belt is moved down the stack. Thus, as the belt is moved up or
down the pulleys, the ratio of the motor speed to the spindle speed is changed.
This is an important feature because the speed of rotation for the drill bit should
vary in accordance with the type of material being drilled and the size of the
hole being drilled. The drill press spindle is either fitted with a standard chuck
or provision is made for the insertion of drill bits with tapered shanks. Many drill
presses are arranged so that a drill chuck with a tapered shank can be installed
when the machine is driving small drills and, when large drills are used, the
chuck can be removed and a drill with a tapered shank inserted directly into the
hole in the spindle. When used correctly, the drill press makes ii possible to do
precision drill work. There should be no play in the spindle, spindle bearing, or
chuck, and all should be in perfect alignment. The drill point should be properly
sharpened and should indicate no wobble when the machine is turned on. The
work being drilled must be securely clamped to the drill press table so it cannot
move during the operation.
The operator of a drill press should make certain that the machine speed is
adjusted correctly for the work being performed, that the drill point has the
angle most suitable for the machine, and that the correct drilling pressure is
applied with the feed lever.

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Figure 85 Stationary Drill Machine

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Drill press work sequence

1. Select the correct speed and adjust it on the control panel.
2. Select the correct drill and install it on the chuck.
3. Clamp the work on the drill press table.
4. Set up safety glasses, goggles, or face shield.
5. Start drill press --motor.
6. Press down drill using the feed lever. Use the recommended feed range.
7. Curling chips are formed.
8. The material has been cut away by the drill and a hole have been pro-
duced.
9. Stop motor and remove drill and work.


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Figure 86 Drill Press Work Sequence

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HAND HELD DRILL MOTORS

General
The most universally used drill motor for drilling aircraft sheet metal is the
pneumatic or so called air drill. The main advantage of an air drill, over an elec-
tric drill is its safety. It is far less hazardous to have air hoses in the crowded
structure where many sheet metal repairs are made, than to have electrical
wires. Another advantage is the control offered by air drills. By varying the trig-
ger pressure we can make them run slow, intermediate, or high speed and
there is always adequate torque. Most drill motors are equipped with quick
change chucks or keyed chucks.
Common drill motors

These type is the most often used drill motor. These tools are ordered by drill
size capacity and speed.
Angle drill motors

Angle drill motors or power vanes are designed to be operated in tight places
or under limited--access conditions. Three head angles 30, 45, and 90 degrees,
are available.

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Common Drill Motors Angle Drill Motors

Figure 87 Hand Held Drill Motors

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Flat offset drilling head

Another tool designed for use in close quarters is the flat offset drilling head or
pork chop”. This tool uses threaded shank drills up to 1/4 inch diameter. The
pork chop is ordered by spindle direction (up or down) motor speed, and offset
dimension.
Flexible snake drill
The flexible snake drill is used only in limited--access areas where an angle drill
motor cannot be held perpendicular to the surface. The drill motor should be
held in one hand, the snake drill steadied with the other.

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Figure 88 Special Hand Held Drill Motors

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HAND DRILL
General
The hand drill, is a simple devise designed to hold a drill and enable the opera-
tor to rotate the bit at a comparatively high speed. The hand drill provides a
convenient means for drilling small holes, countersinking, or deburring.
The hand drill consists of a chuck, a handle, a operating handle, a rest, and a
transmission drive.
Hand drill handling
Position for vertical drilling
One hand is used for rotating the operating handle and the other one for press-
ing the drill down.
Position for horizontal drilling
One hand is used for rotating the operating handle, the other one holds the
handle, and the pressure is made with the chest.

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Figure 89 Hand Drill

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THE CHUCK OF A DRILL MACHINE

Using the keyed chuck
The chuck of a drill machine is a tool who tightens the drill countersink, reamer,
etc. In using the keyed chuck, be sure to use the right size chuck key. The key
should mesh easily but firmly with the teeth of the chuck. In use hold the key
securely in mesh with the chuck teeth, to prevent its slipping. Turn the key
counter--clockwise until the tool will slip easily into the chuck jaws. Turn the key
clockwise and tighten the tool securely in the jaws, using at least two different
keyholes and make sure that the tool shank is gripped uniformly in all three
jaws. Check the tightness of the tool; if necessary, tighten further, using the
third keyhole.
Handling precautions
Do not tighten the chuck by holding it in the hands with the motor running. This
practice can cause injury and can also damage the chuck or the drill.
Do not start the motor with the key in the chuck; the key can cause injury

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Figure 90 Keyed Chuck

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DRILL GRINDING
GENERAL
Introduction
Do not use dull drills or attempt to sharpen them. Using dull drills wastes time
and makes poor holes. Return dull drills to the tool shop. The drills will be sent
to drill grind for resharpening. Only machine grinding is sufficiently accurate to
produce sharpened drills that will cut holes to correct size. A hand--sharpened
drill usually has the point off--center and will cut oversize holes.
Grinding drill point angles

In order to perform correctly, the drill must be ground or sharpened properly.
For general--purpose work, the drill point should be sharpened to a cone angle
of 1180 (angle, 590) This point will work satisfactorily for most drilling jobs. For
very hard or tough metals, a greater angle at the point is often used. The point
angle may be as great as 1400 (angle, 700) in this case. For soft metals or
fibre, the cutting angle may be reduced to 400. Plastic materials are usually
drilled most satisfactorily with a cutting angle of about 300 (included angle,
600) for shallow holes and with a angle of up to 700 for very deep holes. The
cutting edge is ground off to produce a zero--rake angle for soft plastics such
as plexiglass. For drilling stainless steels or titanium, the drill--point angle
should be about 1400. For standard aluminium alloys, a drill--point angle of
1350 is very satisfactory (N S 907). The point is ground with a lip relief angle
ranging from about 12 to 15 degrees tor drills used in normal hard materials.
For very soft materials, this angle is usually increased to somewhere around 18
to 20 degrees.
In grinding the drill point, it is important to see that the desired point angle and
the proper lip--clearance angle are obtained. Further, it is essential that the
lengths of the lips be made equal. Where they are unequal, the drilled hole will
be oversize and possible out of round. If the cutting lips are ground with differ-
ent cutting angles, the drill will bind on one side and may break. Otherwise, it
will produce an oversize hole.

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Figure 91 Grinding Drill Point Angles

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Drill grinding sequence

1. Adjust the grinder tool rest to a convenient height for resting the back of the
hand while grinding.
2. Hold the drill between the thumb and index finger of the right or left hand.
Grasp the body of the drill near the shank with the other hand.
3. Place the hand on the tool rest with the center line of the drill making a 59o
angle with the cutting face of the grinding wheel. Lower the shank end of
the drill slightly.
4. Slowly place the cutting edge of the drill against the grinding wheel. Gradu-
ally lower the shank of the drill as you twist the drill in a clockwise direction.
Maintain pressure against the grinding surface only until you reach the hell
of the drill.
5. Check the results of grinding with a gage to determine whether or not the
lips are the same length and at a 59a angle.

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Figure 92 Drill Grinding Sequence

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Point thinning
The metal at the center of a drill (called the web) tapers and gets thicker to-
wards the shank. This causes the center of a drill point to get thicker as its
length is reduced by grinding, and to prevent this thick edge from reducing the
efficiency of the drill it should be ground thinner.
The point thinning of a drill will usually remain the drill in a proper position dur-
ing starting the hole.
Grinding problems
1. Lips of different lengths
Drill moves off starting position.
2. Lips at different angles

Hole will be enlarged, rough hole surface.

Part-66
Figure 93 Grinding Problems

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DRILLING SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

General
The following safety precautions are very important. Study them carefully. -- examine the drill: reject it if dull or bent, if the point is nicked, or if the
shank is burred.
-- when drilling above the eye level safety glasses, goggles, or face shields
are used to protect the eyes against chips. -- make sure the drill is secure; remove the chuck key and check drill run-
ning by eye. If running seems excessive, the drill may be bent or improp-
-- remove the key before starting the drill motor. Serious injury may result if erly seated. Make the indicated correction. If the tool is still unsatisfac-
this not done. tory, replace it. Do not use a drill with undue play or runout.
-- when drilling through structure, give warning to anyone who may be on -- determine the proper motor speed for the drill diameter to be used and
the opposite side. the material to be drilled.
-- use drill stops. When used, they will protect aircraft skin material and -- check the chuck or spindle for excessive play. If any is found, turn the
understructure as well as personnel. motor in for repair and get a replacement.
-- use extreme care when drilling with extended drills. Always use exten-
sion drill guards.
-- limit drill speed to 6000 RPM maximum for all drills longer than three in-
ches.
-- use only a sharp drill with the correct point angle.

-- never use a drill that is bent.
-- select a drill motor suited to job requirement: size, speed, range, and
configuration.
-- use the shortest drill.
-- if you drill magnesium or titanium make sure that there is a fire extin-
guisher next to you.
-- do not contact the spindle of the boring machine with your hair.
-- the work which has to be drilled should always be clamped.

Part-66
Figure 94 Drilling Safety Precautions

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES REAMING
Part-66
REAMING
LIMITS AND FITS
General Interference Fit
In precision manufacture it is not possible to make an engineering component In this assembly there is no space between the parts. The shaft is always
to an exact size. Gauge blocks are considered to be very accurate standards of larger than the part it fits into. This means that force is required to assemble
length but even these are not exact. the parts.
If a component cannot be made to an exact size then the amount by which it
Transition Fit
can be in error (known as the deviation from the exact size) must be known
and included with the dimension. This is a range of fits which can be either clearance or interference.
If moving parts in machines are to function properly. then the relationship be- The shaft can be larger or smaller than the part it fits into.
tween the size of one part and the size of the part which fits into it is of extreme
importance. In. for example. manufacturing a shaft which has to run freely in a
bearing. there must be enough space for a film of oil between the two in order Tolerances
to prevent wear. The type of fit between two assembled parts depends on the size to which
The maximum and minimum permanent sizes of a component are known as each part is made. Since no size can be exact then each part must be made
limits. The difference between the maximum and minimum sizes (limits) is within two sizes. The two sizes within which a part must be made are called
called tolerance. limits.
There are a number of limits and fits systems in use which give the largest and If the basic size (also known as the nominal size) of the part is 25mm then the
smallest size of a part for any required type of fit. limits could be given as.
THE ISO SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS

25.0I -- Upper limit
The ISO system of limits and fits gives a range of sizes to which parts should
be made if the type of fit is known. The following list gives you examples of the 24.99 -- Lower limit
types of fit in use: If you subtract the lower limit from the upper limit the result is known as the
S Clearance fit tolerance.
S Interference fit 25.01 Upper limit

S Transition fit
24.99 Tower limit
Clearance Fit
0.02 Tolerance
In this assembly there is a space between the two parts. The shaft is always
smaller than the part it fits into.

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CLEARANCE FIT
INTERFERENCE FIT
IMPRESSION OF AN
IMPRESSION OF A
INTERFERENCE FIT
CLEARANCE FIT BETWEEN TRANSITION FIT
TWO PARTS BETWEEN TWO PARTS
CAN BE CLEARANCE
OR INTERFERENCE
CLEARANCE NO CLEARANCE
(SPACE
BETWEEN THE
HOLE AND THE
SHAFT)
A FORCE IS
REQUIRED TO
PUSH THE
SHAFT
THROUGH
THE HOLE
Figure 95 Basic Types Of Fit 1

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Systems of Fits
There are two systems of fits in use:
S Hole basis system
S Shaft basis system
The Hole Basis System of Fits
This is the preferred system. The range of fits is obtained by manufacturing the
hole to a fixed size and the shaft size is varied. This system is preferred be-
cause reamers, for example. are made in a range of standard sizes. (It would
be impossible to make a range of reamers to cover all types of fit.)
The Shaft Basis System of Fits

In this system the shaft is the fixed size and the hole sizes are varied. This sys-
tem is sometimes used when a variety of components. e.g. bearings. cou-
plings. gears etc. are all to fit the same shaft.

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Part-66
REAMING GENERAL
Introduction
Holes must be of high quality. Finish operation such as reaming improve the have no taper and are used to complete the reaming of blind holes.
quality of the hole. Under certain flight conditions, the maximum design Many factors affect the finished size of a reamed hole. The following are the
strength of every fastener is required. Proper hole fill is essential in attaining most common:
maximum design strength. When a fastener does not fill the hole, it is the weak
-- Pilot hole diameter.
link in a chain of several fasteners. Care and good workmanship are essential
in reaming high quality holes.
-- Hardness of material being reamed.
Surface defects of holes are given in the SRM Chapter 51 ”Surface Defect Cri-
teria for Fastener Holes in Metal.
-- Amount of material being removed by the reamer.
Basics
Reaming is a process in which a fluted tool called a reamer is used to enlarge a -- Speed of reamer.
drilled hole. Reaming is a finishing operation that provides closer control of hole
sizes and better finish than drilling alone. -- Rate of feed (pressure).
In usual practice a hole that is to be reamed is drilled 1/32 inch under the fin-
ished hole size. Reamer pilots are sized to suit the drilled holes. -- Sharpness of reamer.
Before using a reamer on a production part, try it out on scrap material of the
same alloy and thickness in a drilled hole of the same size as the one to be -- Amount and type of lubrication.
reamed. Verify that the reamer will cut to the required tolerance or continue
testing until the right combination of reamer size, speed, and feed is found. A
-- Removing reamer from hole.
reamer will generally produce a hole that is from 0.0001 to 0.002 inch larger in
diameter than the exact size of the reamer.
Reamer are made of either carbon tool steel or high--speed steel. The cutting
blades of a high--speed steel reamer lose their original keenness sooner than
those of a carbon steel reamer; however, after the first super-keennees is
gone, they are still serviceable. The high--speed reamer usually lasts much
longer than the carbon steel type.
Reamer blades are hardened to the point of being brittle and must be handled
carefully to avoid chipping them. When reaming a hole, rotate the reamer in the
cutting direction only. Turn the reamer steadily and evenly to prevent chatter-
ing, or marking and scoring of the hole walls
Reamers are available in any standard size. The straight--fluted reamer is less
expensive than the spiral--fluted reamer, but the spiral type has less tendency
to chatter. Both types are tapered for a short distance back of the end to aid in
starting. Bottming reamers

Part-66
Figure 96 Table Of Defect Criteria (ATA-Chapter 51-- 40-- 05)

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REAMER DESCRIPTION
Shaft
The shaft of the reamers can be of different shapes and forms. It never has a
characteristic shape, for either a hand-- or a machine--reamer. The type of driv-
ing mechanism gives the shape of the shaft.
Hand reamers mostly have a cylindrical shaft with a square end (tap wrench).
The shaft of the machine--reamers is mostly designed as a morse taper.
Chucking grooves
Chucking grooves are the spaces between the single teeth; all chips are col-
lected and transported in these spaces. The course of the chucking grooves
affect the direction of the removal of chips.
There are straight--fluted and spiral--fluted reamers.
Straight--fluted reamers have no precise affect on the direction of the removal
of chips. They have a low abrasion and they are the most used type.
Spiral--fluted reamers on the other hand lead the removal chips into a definite
direction.
Left--hand twist -- Right--hand twist
(For the use of Right--hand cutting tools.)
Right--hand twist affects the direction of the removal of chips like a normal twist
drill. This would be the requirement at ground drills.
The Left--hand twist presses the chips into the advance direction. The chips
cannot have an adverse effect on the reamed part of the holes drilling. There-
fore left--hand-- twist--fluted reamers are only suitable for transmission drills.
They have the advantage that they do not tend to pull themselves into the hole.
When reaming grooved holes, it is better to use the spiral--fluted reamers.

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SHANK NECK FLUTES (BODY) CHAMFER (STRAIGHT TAPER)

SQUARE
STRAIGHT FLUTES
SPIRAL FLUTES
Figure 97 Reamer
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Spacing
Vibration of the tool or work whilst cutting, often lead to non--desired chatter
marks. Modern reamers are made with an uneven spacing; in that way the ef-
fect of a periodical vibration is reduced.
Remove the reamer from a hole, by rotating it in the direction of the cut (work-
ing direction). Otherwise due to the wedge effect of the chips at the positions A
and B the hole surface and/or the cutting edges will be damaged.

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SPACING AND DIAMETRAL PITCH ARE DESIGNED RIGHT DIRECTION OF RPTATION OF REAMERS
IN SUCH A WAY THAT TWO CUTTING EDGES ARE (WORKING DIRECTION)
FACING ONE ANOTHER (MEASURABILITY)
Figure 98 Space Of Cutting Edges

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TYPES OF REAMERS
General
There are two basic types of reamers, the hand-- and the machine--reamer.
Machine reamer
The machine reamer is designed with a large cutting angle, short major cutting
edges (short first cut), and short overall cutting edges. Due to the short first
cut, the machine reamer in principle can only be used if the work piece and the
reamer have no axial play during the reaming process. So you can not use the
hand drill.
The advantage of a machine reamer is the much higher cutting capacity and on
the other side the possibility of reaming dead center holes.

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Overall length
Shank length
Tang
Flute length
Taper shank
Cutter Chamfer Chamfer

sweep angle length
Staight shank Helix angle

Actual
size
Shank length Helical flutes Body

R.H. helix shown
Chamfer length Land width

Chamfer
Chamfer angle Margin
relief
Camfer relief
angle
Actual
Radial rake
size
angle
Figure 99 Machine Reamer

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Hand reamer
The hand--reamer is designed with a small cutting angle, large major cutting
edges (large first cut), and large overall cutting edges.
The hand--reamer will be guided into the
hole through the long first cut and the long
major cutting edges.

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SQUARE SHANK NECK FLUTES (BODY) CHAMFER (STARTING TAPER)
STRAIGHT FLUTES
SPIRAL FLUTES
STARTING
MARGIN RELIEVED LAND
TAPER
CUTTING EDGE RELIEF ANGLE
LAND HEEL
WIDTH
CUTTER FACE
ACTUAL SIZE
FLUT
CORE DIAMETER
BEVEL LAND
Figure 100 Hand Reamer

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Pilot Reamer
The pilot reamer is guided into the hole through a bushing.
Pilot Chuck Reamer

The pilot chuck reamer is the most commonly used reamer which gives accu-
rate lead into drilled hole and superior finish.

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Pilot Reamer
Pilot Chuck Reamer
Figure 101 Types Of Reamer 1

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Expansion hand reamer

This reamer is used when the hole must be cut a few thousandth over nominal
size for fitting purposes. Slots are cut into the hollow center of the tool, and the
center opening is machined on a slight taper.
The reamer is expanded by tightening a taper screw into this opening. The
amount of expansion is limited and the reamer may be broken if expanded too
much. It is not recommended that the expansion reamer be used in place of a
solid reamer because of the danger of producing oversize holes.
Taper reamer
This reamer is used to finish a taper hole (for example for a taper shank bolt)
accurately and with a smooth finish. Because of the long cutting edges, taper
reamers are somewhat difficult to operate.

Part-66
Expansion Hand Reamer

Taper Reamer

Part-66
Adjustable hand -- reamer

This reamer is threaded its entire length and fitting with tapered slots to receive
the adjustable blades. The blades are tapered along one edge to correspond
with the taper slots in the reamer body so that when they are in position, the
cutting edges of the blade are parallel. The diameter of the reamer is set by
loosening one adjusting nut and tightening the other. The blade can be moved
in either direction. This type reamer is manufactured in sizes ranging from 3/8
to 1/2 inch and each reamer has sufficient adjustment to increase the diameter
to the size of the next larger reamer.

Part-66
LARGER SMALLER
CUTTER TAPER
Adjustable Hand Reamer

Part-66
REAMING SPEED AND AGENTS

Reaming speeds
The reaming speed is the speed of the chip removal. The recommended mate-
rial / RPM values (speeds and feeds) for reaming are shown in the following
tables:
Table V--1 Reaming aluminium alloys
Table V--2 Reaming titanium alloys
Table V--4 Reaming titanium or aluminium stackup
Table V--5 Reaming composites and composites with metal


Part-66
Figure 104 Table V - 1

Part-66
Figure 105 Table V - 1 (Continued)

Part-66

Part-66

Part-66

Part-66

Part-66
Figure 110 Table V- 4

Part-66

Part-66

Part-66
Reaming agent
To ream a hole to a high degree of surface finish, a cutting agent is needed. A
good agent will cool the work and tool and will also act as a lubricant between
the chip and the tool to reduce friction and heat build--up. The following cutting
agents given in Table VII--l are recommended (unless prohibited by the engi-
neering drawing) to improve tool life, hole tolerance, and hole finish.

Part-66
Figure 113 Table VII - 1

Part-66
REAMING ADVICES
General
Do not try to straighten the drilled hole by applying side pressure; you will prob-
ably cut oversize.
Stop reamer rotation as soon as the reamer’s major diameter breaks through.
When removing the reamer from the hole rotate it by hand in the direction of
the cut; backing up the reamer will dull it.
Chatter corrections may be made by reducing the speed increasing the feed, or
using a reamer with pilot.
Oversize holes can be caused by inadequate work support, worn guide bush-
ings, worn or loose spindle bearings, or a bent reamer shank.
Check reamer if it gradually start cutting larger holes; it may be caused by

built--up edges on the reamer cutting surfaces. Some aluminium alloys and
mild steel are affected by this built--up edges.
Reamers should be stored so that they do not get contact with another reamer
to avoid burrs on the tools.
If you take a reamer or a reamer set out of the toolshop check out given dimen-
sions marked on the shank with the given hole sizes in the SRM.

Part-66
BUILT-UP EDGE
90˚
Figure 114 Reaming Advices

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES COUNTERSINKING
Part-66
COUNTERSINKING
GENERAL
Introduction
To install countersunk fastener, it is necessary to provide a conical depression
in the suftace of the skin so that the head of the fastener will be flush with the
surface. This provides smooth aerodynamic surfaces on airplane structures or
smooth surfaces for attaching adjoining members. The use of countersinks on
riveted joints also provides a weight savings by eliminating the weight of the
rivet head material.
This depression is made by means of a countersunk tool when the skin is suffi-
ciently thick and by dimpling when the skin is thin. The use of a machine coun-
tersink is limited by the size of the fastener and the thickness of the skin. Gen-
erally, sheet metal should not be countersunk entirely through the sheet (See
SRM. Minimum sheet thickness for countersinking for fasteners).
A countersink tool is usually provided with a straight shank, for use in a hand
drill, a drill motor, or a bench drill. Countersinks are made with a variety of point
angles. In sheet metal work conntersink cutters are available for both 82--de-
gree and 100--degree fastener heads, and for special NACA rivets. Always be
sure that the cutter angle you use is the correct one for the fastener to be used
NOTE: IN GENERAL ALL SHEET METAL WORK IS DONE USING
100--DEGREE FASTENER HEADS.

Part-66
Figure 115 Table Of Sheet Thickness For Countersinkig

Part-66
COUNTERSINKING TOOLS
Standard countersink / plain counter
A standard countersink can be used in a drill motor or a hand drill, but the diffi-
culty in cutting the depression to the correct depth makes this tool impractical
when you have more than some holes to countersink Standard countersinks
are available with one, three, or multiple cutting lips.
Standard countersink with pilot
These type of tool looks like the standard countersink. The only difference is
the pilot pin who guides the countersink into the material.

Part-66
Countersink / Plain Counter Countersink With Pilot

Figure 116 Standard Countersink

Part-66
Microstop countersink
For all around purposes, the microstop countersink, fitted with a removable cut-
ter has been proved the most efficient countersink tool. This tool controls coun-
tersink depth and keeps the cutter perpendicular to the work surface. The mi-
crostop is equipped with a removable cutter and pilot. These cutter consists of
a cutting head and a pilot that on the larger tool is removable. Countersink cut-
ters are available for both 82--degree and 100--degree fastener heads, and for
special NACA rivets. Always be sure that the cutter angle you use is the cor-
rect one for the fastener to be used.

Part-66
BARREL SKIRT
(BROKEN VIEW)
LOCKING RING CUTTER PILOT

Figure 117 Microstop Countersink

Part-66
Instruction to use the Microstop countersink tool
The shaft of the microstop countersinking tool rotates on a bearing inside an
adjustable ”locking sleeve and foot piece assembly”. The foot piece (or ”stop”
as it is often called) threads onto the shaft bearing, enabling depth adjustments
to be made.
Markings, indicating depth differentials in 0.001--inch increments, surround the
bevelled circumference of the locking sleeve to aid in depth adjustments.
The adjustment is made by pulling the sleeve back and turning the stop, to
deepen or shallow the cut. The sleeve is then dropped back into its original
position to effect a lock.
NOTE: MAKE SURE THAT THE LOCKING SPLINES INTERMESH;
ONLY THEN IS THE ADJUSTMENT SECURELY LOCKED. IN
GENERALLY ADJUSTMENT OF THE MICROSTOP WILL BE
MADE ON SCRAPPED SHEETS.
The stop countersink may be adjusted or set up on the part to be countersunk,
provided the following precautions are taken:
1. Be sure the adjustable foot piece is extended far enough to ensure that the
cut will not be too deep.
2. Gradually increase the depth adjustment until the depth and diameter of the
hole are the same as the size of the fastener head.
3. If at all doubtful of the accuracy of the adjustment, try the countersink on a
piece of scrap sheet stock before using.
The pilot pin guides the spinning cutter as it cuts into the material. The pilot pin
should be approximately 0.002 inch less in diameter than the fastener hole.
This allows cutter to spin without binding in the hole. Cutter-- pilots which are
more than 0.002 inch smaller than the hole size will allow the cutter to wobble
and result in a lop--sided countersink.
NOTE: MAKE CERTAIN THE CUTTER IS SEATED IN THE COUNTER-

SINK SHAFT BEFORE USING THE STOP COUNTERSINK. IN-
CORRECT DEPTH OF COUNTERSINK WILL OCCUR.
In actual practice, the proper depth of the countersink is determined by driving
a test rivet in a scrap piece of metal. The depth adjustment of the microstop
countersink tool is gradually increased until a countersink depth is obtained that
provides the required flushness of a driven rivet. Once the proper countersink
adjustment has been established in this manner, the tool can be used for coun-
tersinking on the actual job.

Part-66
ADJUSTING OF MICROSTOP
COUNTERSINK TOOL
HOLDING OF MICROSTOP
COUNTERSINK TOOL
1/2 100˚ 1/8

COUNTERSINK CUTTER
Figure 118 Microstop Handling

Part-66
Back countersinking
The back countersinking tool is to be used to countersink inaccessible holes.
The tool consists of a pilot rod and a countersink cutter. The rod must be
slightly smaller than the hole.
Work sequence
1. Install the rod in a drilling motor.
2. Insert the pilot rod through the hole.
3. Attach the cufler to the rod end.
4. Start drilling motor and push back the motor.

Part-66
PILOT ROD
COUNTERSINK CUTTER
Figure 119 Back Countersinking

Part-66
Spotfacing
Spotfacing is the method used for cutting a flat area or seat for a bolt head or
nut on a contoured or uneven surface. This operation should be done in a drill
press whenever possible, but must occasionally be done with hand--held equip-
ment
Spotfacers have interchangeable pilots that must be slightly smaller than the
fastener hole. Spotfacer diameter will be called out on the drawing. The me-
chanic will check out a pilot 1/32 inch smaller than the hole.

Part-66
Figure 120 Spotfacer

Part-66
RULES FOR COUNTERSINKING COUNTERSINK CUTTING AGENTS / SPEEDS

General General
-- Because countersinking is done through skin tape or through a protec- Cutting agents are recommended (unless prohibited by the engineering draw-
tive spray coating, allow for this added thickness when adjusting counter- ing) to improve tool life, hole tolerance and hole finish. Recommended cutting
sink cutter depth. agents are shown below.
-- Be sure the skirt of the countersink tool is smooth and polished; burrs or
nicks on the skirt may mark the skin.
-- Do not allow the skirt to rotate on the metal; this can scratch the skin.
-- Be sure the locking ring is kept snug; the ring tends to work loose during
use.
-- Countersink depth requirements are given in the SRM (aerodynamic
smoothness) for each airplane.
-- Periodically check countersink depth throughout the countersinking op-
eration to ensure that flushness requirements are being met. Counter-
sink depth will vary depending upon the skin thickness and understruc-
ture support.
-- Before using, check countersink cutter for pilot size, sharpness, degrees
of cutter, and true running.
-- Hold countersink at a 90--degree angle to material.
-- Take full depth of cut each time.
-- Apply pressure directly behind countersink.

Part-66
Figure 121 Cutting Agents

Part-66


Part-66
Figure 122 Cutting Guidelines

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES BENDING
Part-66
BENDING
GENERAL
Introduction Bending Process
Materials can be bent in the “as received” or “heat treated” condition. For mate- Bending a strip compresses the material on the inside of the curve and
rials to be bent in the as received” as well as in the “heat treated” condition,re- stretches the material on the outside of the curve. The smaller the radius of
fer to the SRM chapter 51. bend is and the thicker the metal, the greater the expansion will be.
NOTE: ALL TOOLS USED FOR THE BENDING PROCESS MUST BE The degree of expansion varies from metal to metal. It is dependent on the
FREE FROM SCRATCHES, BURRS, ETC. kind of alloy, the temper condition or tensile property of the materia
A material which has, for example, an ultimate strain of 20 % may only be bent
CAUTION: DO NOT BEND PAINTED SHEET MATERIAL, AS BENDING
to a level below 20 % wheraes the risk of fracture increases when approaching
WILL DESTROY ITS PROTECTION.
the ultimate strain limit.
The subsequent data is necessary to calculate the correct dimensions of a re-
pair component: Examhple:
S sheet thickness (T), Material with an ultimate strain of 22 %.
S bend radius (R), The drawing illustrates the expansion of the outer fibres in comparison with the
S bend allowance (V). neutral fibres when bent at 900.
Because the ultimate strength can be strongly reduced by notching the edges
NOTE: THE MINIMUM BEND RADIUS IS RELATED TO THE MATERIAL
and surface of the material (fracture during bending or latent tendency to
SPECIFICATION AND SHEET THICKNESS.
break) it is necessary to deburr and polish the edges of the part to be bent. The
surfaces should always be protected against any kind of damage. Markings
should only be made with a soft pencil.

Part-66
T 1
1
R3
R1
B a b
R
NEUTRAL FIBRES NEUTRAL FIBRES

L
OUTER FIBRES OUTER FIBRES
(expansion approx. 48%) (expansion approx. 17%)
A + B = FLANGE WIDTH
L= DEVELOPED LENGTH
Material theoretically broken Bellow ultimate strain

T= SHEET THICKNESS
Figure 123 Radius Of Bend

Part-66
Bending Process (Continued)
The ultimate strength of the material varies according to the grain direction.
There is a higher ultimate strength in the direction of the grain, therefore an
acute--angled bend should always be at right--angles to the grain. The direction
of the rolled grooves is usually the same as the grain direction. Bending should
be performed at right--angles to this direction.
In practice, the minimum radius of bend, which can guarrantee a crack--free
deformation cross wise and longitudinally to the grain direction, should be taken
from the respective table in the appropriate manual. These values are valid for
various aluminum and steel alloys in aircraft construction.
Because the ability to elongate can decrease by increasing deformation (risk of
fractures by further deformation) it is necessary to check if heat treatment
would bring back the ultimate strength.
It is advisable to perform straight line bending at a constant and moderate
speed to enable the material to flow.

Part-66
LONGITUDINAL
DIRECTION
SHEET METAL
ROLLED GROVES
Figure 124 Bending Process

Part-66
Defining the flat layout of the material
Because the material is shaped round--edged and not square--edged, the
length of the material is reduced by a certain amount.
The reduction in size can be determined by test--bending or by applying a cer-
tain equation.
Example of test-bending
Cut a piece of material which is the same in substance and thickness to a cer-
tain measurement e. g. 100 mm.
Straight--line bend the material with the intended radius at any point to an angle
of 90_ using the machine which will be employed for the actual work later.
Now measure the outer lengths at the bent strip by using a caliper guage and
add the sums together. Subtract the original length of 100mm from this sum
and the result is the amount that the material has apparently extended (around
the radius).
NOTE: IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE THE DESIRED MEASUREMENT FOR
A 90_ BEND, THE SHEET METAL MUST BE SHORTENED AP-
PROPRIATELY BEFORE STARTING WORK.

Part-66
100
62
44
62 + 44 = 106 mm
-- 100 mm
= 6 mm
Figure 125 Example Of Test Bending

Part-66
Calculation of the Developed Length
The developed length: L= A + B - or + V
The bend allowance “V” changes with:
S the dimension of the bend radii “R”,
S the bend angle “a”,
S the sheet thickness “T”.
The bend allowance “V” is negative when the bend angles “a” = 0° to 115° (sec-
tion angle “b” = 180° to 65°).
The bend allowance can be positive or negative when the bend angles “a” =
115° to 180° (section angle “b” = 65° to 0°).
The basic (Rule of thumb) formula for the setback calculation of a 90° bend is:
Setback= R/2 + T
For more than two bends it is helpful to use the following formula:
Setback= 0.43R + 1.48T
Example:
You want to bend an angle 90° with the dimension 20 by 30 mm. Material thick-
ness is 1.5 mm, and radius 8 mm.
Question: How long is the unbent portion?
Calculation
20 mm plus 30mm = 50 mm. Than the setback
(R/2 + T) 4 - 1.5 = 2.5 mm has to be subtracted from the 50 mm. Last not
least you got the unbent portion of 47.5 mm.

Part-66
1 1
T
R3 15 R3 15
15 30
B a b
R
A
Flat Flat
=_______________ =_______________
L length length
=______________ =______________
A + B = FLANGE WIDTH
=_______________ =_______________
L= DEVELOPED LENGTH
T= SHEET THICKNESS =_______________ =_______________
Flat Flat
=___________mm =___________mm
length length
Figure 126 Example For Calculating The Flat Layout

Part-66
Example for Calculation of the Developed Length
A hat section of 1 mm thick sheet metal is to be made. How wide must the flat
layout be?
The profile has seven flats. There are 6 radii. The outer dimensions of the flats
are added. From this dimension the sums of setbacks caused by the bends is
subtracted.

Part-66
58
L4
R4
L3 L5
55 T=1mm
L1 L7
15
L2 L6
30
TL= Total length

TL = L1+L2+L3+L4+L5+L6 +L7--6x (R/2+T)
FL= Flat length
TL= 15 +30+55+58+55+30+15 --6x (R/2+T)
TL= 258 –6x (4/2+1)
TL= 258 –6x 3

TL= 258 –18
FL= 240mm
Figure 127 Calculation Example

Part-66
FIXED INTERCHANGEABLE TOP LEAF

COUNTER WEIGHT OF THE CLAMPING BAR
HANDWHEEL FOR
MOVING THE
CLAMPING BAR
BENDING
LEAF HANDLE
ADJUSTING SREW
BENDING LEAF (MOREABLE)
Figure 128 Folding Machine

Part-66
1 2
1. CLAMPING BAR
2. RADIUS BAR
3. WORKPICE
3 4. EDGE RAIL
5. BENDING LEAF
4
Figure 129 Folding Machine (Continued)

Part-66
Straight line bending by hammering
The advantage of performing straight line bending by using a hammer is the
fact that the tool used is very simple and also can be used anywhere.
The application is limited, however, to mainly thin sheet--metal and soft materi-
als.
The following is to be observed in the examples opposite:
The clamping surfaces of the vise must be fitted with a protective lining to ele-
minate the possibility of damaging the surface of the metal to be bent.
The bending edge must have a radius corresponding to that required on the
material.
Hammers are used which are made of wood,plastic,ebonite (hard rubber), or

steel depending on the material or condition of material to be worked.
When using a steel hammer, a protective plate of plastic is used to spread the
force of the impact from the hammer over as large an area as possible and
also to protect the material from impressions and dents made by the hammer.

Part-66
Figure 130 Bending By Hammering

Part-66
Straight line bending by hammering (Continued)
It is easier to carry out simple straight line bending by using form blocks. The
form block guarrantees the same radii and dimensions on all worked pieces on
condition that the materials used and theirsizes are all the same.
Incidentally, aids like form blocks can also be made out of materials like plastic
(nylon or resin bonded fabric) or out of metals. The choice of material depends
on the amount of straight line bending to be done and also the kind of sheet
metal and thickness.
The straight line bending can also be carried out in off--set lines (see illustra-
tion).

Part-66
Figure 131 Bending By Hammering (Continued)

Part-66
Straight line bending by hammering (Continued)
When hammering the sheet metal, which is to be done gradually, it will spring
back slightly. Therefore the form block is to be constructed in such a way that
the angle on the form block where there will be a possible spring--back is
somewhat smaller. The spring--back angle can be determined by performing
sample bending.

Part-66
SPRING-BACK SPRING-BACK
ANGLE ANGLE
WRONG RIGHT
Figure 132 Bending By Hammering (Continued

Part-66
Folding Machine
The folding machine is suitable for the production of long and sometimes com-
plicated profiles, boxes and pipes.
When using a folding machine the material to be bent is placed on a snaker
which is in the machine. The material is then pressed into the snaker by a mold
which has the desired radius.
The molds are screwed onto the upper beam of the machine. The total width of
the molds and the snakers can be changed because they are built up of sepa-
rate parts which are 3, 3,5 , 4, 5, 10, 50, 100 cm long.
Consequently it is easily possible to manufacture even boxes whose sides are
relatively high including the last side which has to be bent.

Part-66
ADJUSTMENT FOR EDGE RAIL
MANUAL FOLDING WHEEL
FOLDING LEVER
EDGE RAIL MOLD (INTERCHANGEABLE)
EDGE RAIL (INTERCHANGEABLE)

Figure 133 Hydraulic Folding Machine

Part-66


Part-66
C-PROFILE SQUARE TUBE TUBE

SHEET METAL BREAK THROUGH

FLAT PROFILE
FOLD BACK WITH FLANGE
Figure 134 Production Exampels

Part-66
Procedure
1. Calculate flat layout
2. ut to size using squaring shears
3. Clean up the cut edges
4. Check that the radius bar is correctly set
5. Set the bending leaf
6. Perform sample bending
NOTE: IF A DEVIATION TO THE FINAL MEASUREMENTS IS NOTICED

(DUE TO MEASUREMENT, PERMISSIBLE VARIATION, MEA-
SURING TOOLS) THIS MUST BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT IN
THE FOLLOWING SHEET METAL BENDING PROCEDURES.
7. Perform actual bending on workpiece. The dimension EM equals the de-

sired dimension when finished FM, minus that value which was determined
in the sample bending.
NOTE: UNSUCCESSFUL BEND MUST NOT BE BENT BACK OTHER-

WISE THE MATERIAL COULD FRACTURE OR THERE MAY BE
A STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION.
8. Check the measurements and angles if necessary- adjust

9. Follow procedure for locating sheet metal in the press.
NOTE: FOR PRODUCTION REASONS IT IS NECESSARY TO PER-

FORM EACH BENDING PROCESS IN A CERTAIN SEQUENCE

Part-66
EM
FM
Figure 135 Procedure

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES THREAD CUTTING
Part-66
THREAD CUTTING
THREAD FORMS
General
There are a lot of different thred forms. In the illustration below you can see
some of the often used forms.
Check how one thread form differs from another by inspecting:
The thread angle.
The shape of the crest.
The shape of the bottom of the groove.
The height and the pitch of the thraed.
S The ISO thread form is a modern general purpose screw thread form, de-
veloped by the International Organisation of Standards for both ISO metric
threads and the ISO inch Series threads.
S The American National thread form (and the DIN metric thread forms)
were commonly used on aircrafts.
The root of extenal threads is rounded.The crest may be either rounded or
flat depending on the method of manufacture.
The root of internal threads is usually ruonded. The crests are usually flat.
There are two series:
Unified National Coarse UNC
Unified National fine UNF
S The Whitworth thread form was once a widely used general purpose
thread.
S The British Association thread form was widely used for small srews in
electrical fitings and scientific apparatus. It has a metric pich.

Part-66
ISO Metric thread unified inch series thread

Whitworth thread
American national thread

& DIN metric thread British association thread
Figure 136 Thread forms

Part-66
THREAD PITCH
Unified National Threads
The pitches are given as the number of threads per inch.
Below one-quarter-inch diameter the nominal size is given as a series of num-
bers from 0 to 12.
Above one-quarter-inch diameter the nominal size is given as given as frac-
tions of an inch.
For example a 3/16 inch bolt with UNF thread has the nominal diameter num-
ber of 10 and 32 threads per inch.
The designation of this srew is 10--32 UNF.
Srew pitch gauges
Srew pitch gauges are used to dtermine the pitch of a thread quickly and ex-
actly.
S Select a srew pitch gauge of the correct tread form.
S keep the leaf parallel to the thread axis.
S Check that the gauge leaf fits the thread accurately
S Read the required pitch directly from the leaf that accurately matches the
thread.

Part-66
External
Screw pitch gauge
Internal
Figure 137 Srew pitch gauge

Part-66
HAND THREADING TOOLS

The stock
The stock is the tool used to hold and turn a threading die when producing ex-
ternal threads by hand.
The dies
The dies have three or more flutes to form cutting edges on the internal threads
and caveties for removal of the chips.
They have chamfers ground on the first few thresds of leading end of the die
to allow easy starting.

Part-66
Locking and adjusting srews
Flute
Handle Recess Cutting Chamfer

for die teeth
Leading face of die Leading face of die
Stock Die
Figure 138 Hand threading tools

Part-66
HAND TAPPING TOOLS

Tap wrench
Tap wrenches are tools used to hold and turn a tap when cutting internal
threads by hand.
Tap wrenches have adjustable jaws to grip the hand tap.
Hand taps
Hand taps have three or more flutes to form cutting faces on the external
threads and channels for removal chips.
Hand taps have chamfers ground on the leading threads of the tap to enable
easy starting.
The end of the shank is squared to allowed to grip firmly in the tap wrench.

Part-66
Tap wrench-
grips squared
part of shank
Jaws
Adjust jaw
by turning
handle
Handle Chamfer
Flute Cutting face

Bar-type tap handle
Hand tap
Figure 139 Hand tapping tools

Part-66
TYPE OF TAPS
Regular hand taps
Each regular hand tap set consists of a taper, an intermediate and a bottoming
tap. Each tap in a set has identical length and thread measurements and only
the tapered lead is different.
1. Always use the taper tap to start thread.
2. Always use the intermediated tap to follow the taper tap.
3. Use the bottoming tap to complete the thread.

Part-66
Use intermediate Bottoming completes

tap after taper thread
Start with taper tap
Tper tap Intermedite tap Bottoming tap

Figure 140 Types of taps

Part-66
HOLES FOR TAPPING

Size and condition
Holes of the correct size and condition are essential for successful tapping.
Theoretically a tap would produce a 100% thread in an accurate hole of the
same diameter as the minor diameter of its thread.
Calculation based on a different standard formula for each thread may be used.
Engineering handbooks and manufacturers give tables of tapping drill recom-
mendation.

Part-66
Drill hole to small

can cause: -Excessive depth
threads may break
-Tap may break
Minor diameter
Drill hole not correctly
can cause: -Uneven depth
Major diameter of thread
-Tap may break
Drilling swarf left in bottom of blind hole

can cause: -Tap jam on packed
swarf and break
Figure 141 Holes for tapping

Part-66
HOW TO TAP
Procedure
1. Check the size of thread required, and select the correct taps. 16.If the flutes are clogged, reverse the tap carefully and remove it from the
2. Determine the correct size of tapping drill. Drill the tapping hole carefully hole. Use a brush to remove the chips from the tap and the hole and con-
and deburr the edges. tinue the tapping process.
3. Fit the taper tap in a maching size bar-type tap wrench. 17.Continue turning the tap until at least half the tap extends below the lower
surface of the material.
4. Hold the tap wrench with both hands close to the centre. Place the end of
the tap in the hole. Sight up that the tap is vertical to the surface of the 18.When the taper tap reaches the required depth, change to the intermediate
work. tap. Hand screw the intermediate tap into the thread drilled by taper tap,
and continue turning with the wrench.
5. Apply steady downward pressure and begin turning the handles clockwise
in a horizontal plane. 19.To complete the hand tapping change to the bottoming tap after the inter-
mediate tap reaches the required depth. Do it the same way like as you do
6. Complete two turns while keeping the wrench handles level and applying
it with the intermediate tap.
even downward pressure.
7. Release and remove the tap-wrench.
8. Place a small try square on the work to check that the tap is vertical to the
work surface. Test again in a second position about 90˚ from the first. If the
tap is not square to the surface, note the correction required.
9. Replace and tighten the tap-wrench.
10.Hold the tap wrench as before and begin turning. To correct a tap that is out
of square, apply slight side pressure in the direction required as the wrench
is turned.
11. Complete two turns and check as before that the tap is square. The tap
must be square within the first few turns. Out of squareness cannot be cor-
rected after this.
12.If the tap is square with the work, apply a suitable cutting fluid.
13.Hold the tap-wrench at the end of the handles with the fingers to allow sen-
sitive feel of the torque applied to the tap.

14.Turn the wrench with constant pressure applied evenly with both hands. No
downward presure is required once the tap begins to feed itself into the
hole.
15.As you turn the wrench try to feel the degree of resistance beging offered to
the tap. If you feel it is increasing, turn the wrench a quarter turn back in
reverse direction.

Part-66
Start tapping Check tap is square Squaring up the tap

Quarter reverse when necessary Complete tapping

by constant turning
Figure 142 How to tap
P66 A/B M6/M7 BS E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SAFETY PRECAUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 PROPPER WORKING POSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 FILE TECHNIQUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
FIRE PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 FILING OF RADII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP AND HANGAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 DRAW FILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 CLEANING DIRTY FILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
MACHINE TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 DRILLING . 112
PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED WHEN WORKING IN AND GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
AROUND AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
INTEGRITY AWARENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 TYPE OF DRILLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
DRILLING WORK SEQUENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
AIRCRAFT SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
CARELESSNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
DEBURRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
GENERAL MAINTENANCE PRACTICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
COMMON DRILLING ASPECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 WORK CLAMPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
DRILLING AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
ADDITIONAL TOOLS FOR DRILLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
MATERIALS OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
DRILL AGENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 DRILLING SIZES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
DRILL SPEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
MEASUREMENT UNIT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
RULES AND SCALES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
MICROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 TYPES OF DRILL MACHINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
VERNIER CALLIPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 STATIONARY DRILL MACHINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
DIAL INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 HAND HELD DRILL MOTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
SQUARES AND GAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 HAND DRILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
MARKING OUT AND TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 THE CHUCK OF A DRILL MACHINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
SAWING . . 90 DRILL GRINDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
SAW BLADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 DRILLING SAFETY PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
SAWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 REAMING . 188
FILING . . . 96 LIMITS AND FITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 THE ISO SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
FILE SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 REAMING GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
CUT OF FILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 REAMER DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
HAM US/F-5 C. Krüger Dec 2005

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TYPES OF REAMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
REAMING SPEED AND AGENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
REAMING ADVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
COUNTERSINKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
COUNTERSINKING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
RULES FOR COUNTERSINKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
COUNTERSINK CUTTING AGENTS / SPEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
BENDING . 238
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
THREAD CUTTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
THREAD FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
THREAD PITCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
HAND THREADING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
HAND TAPPING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
TYPE OF TAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
HOLES FOR TAPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
HOW TO TAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

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Figure 1 Industrial Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 36 Radius Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 2 Fighting Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 37 Protractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 3 Workshop and Hangar Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 38 Feeler Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 4 Working with Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 39 Blend Out Measurtement Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 5 Working with Power Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 40 Marking Out Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 6 Precautions around the Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 41 Marking Out Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 7 Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 42 Marking Out Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 8 Aircraft Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 43 Saw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 9 Carelessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 44 Saw blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 10 Stepping on Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 45 Sawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 11 Overview: Metallic and Non- Metallic Materials . . . . . . . 27 Figure 46 File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 12 Measurement Exampels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 47 Files shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 13 Measurement Of Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 48 Cut of files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 14 Number Prefix Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 49 Working position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 15 English Length System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 50 File Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 16 Metric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 51 Filing of radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 17 Decimal And Metric Equivalent Of Inches . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 52 Draw filing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 18 Flexible Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 53 Cleaning dirty files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 19 Scale Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 54 Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 20 Flexible Steel Tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 55 Twist Drill Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 21 Micrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure 56 Jobbers Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 22 Reading Exampels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 57 Taper Shank Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 23 Reading Eampels (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Figure 58 Machine Spindle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 24 Micrometer Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 59 Extension Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Figure 25 Vernier Calliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 60 Using The Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 26 Vernier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Figure 61 Deburring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 27 Vernier Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Figure 62 Special Deburring Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 28 Vernier Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 63 Drill Press Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Figure 29 Vernier Reading Exampels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Figure 64 Hand Drill Clambing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Figure 30 Reading Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Figure 65 Drill Stop and Drill Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figure 31 Reading Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Figure 66 Drill Jig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 32 Vernier Calliper Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Figure 67 Hole Finder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 33 Dial Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Figure 68 Drill Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Figure 34 Dail Indicator Work Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Figure 69 Drill, Reamer and Countersink Cutting Agents . . . . . . . . 149
Figure 35 Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 70 Drill Size Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

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Figure 71 RPM Table IV - 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Figure 106 Table V - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Figure 72 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Figure 107 Table V - 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Figure 73 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Figure 108 Table V - 2 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Figure 74 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Figure 109 Table V - 2 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Figure 75 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Figure 110 Table V- 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Figure 76 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Figure 111 Table V - 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Figure 77 Table IV - 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Figure 112 Table V - 5 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Figure 78 Table IV - 2 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Figure 113 Table VII - 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Figure 79 Table IV - 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Figure 114 Reaming Advices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 80 Table IV - 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Figure 115 Table Of Sheet Thickness For Countersinkig . . . . . . . . 223
Figure 81 Table IV - 4 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Figure 116 Standard Countersink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Figure 82 Table IV - 4 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Figure 117 Microstop Countersink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 83 Table IV - 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Figure 118 Microstop Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Figure 84 Table IV - 5 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Figure 119 Back Countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Figure 85 Stationary Drill Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Figure 120 Spotfacer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Figure 86 Drill Press Work Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Figure 121 Cutting Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Figure 87 Hand Held Drill Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Figure 122 Cutting Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Figure 88 Special Hand Held Drill Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Figure 123 Radius Of Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 89 Hand Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Figure 124 Bending Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 90 Keyed Chuck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Figure 125 Example Of Test Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 91 Grinding Drill Point Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Figure 126 Example For Calculating The Flat Layout . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Figure 92 Drill Grinding Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Figure 127 Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Figure 93 Grinding Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Figure 128 Folding Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Figure 94 Drilling Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Figure 129 Folding Machine (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 95 Basic Types Of Fit 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Figure 130 Bending By Hammering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Figure 96 Table Of Defect Criteria (ATA-Chapter 51--40--05) . . . . 193 Figure 131 Bending By Hammering (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Figure 97 Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Figure 132 Bending By Hammering (Continued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Figure 98 Space Of Cutting Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Figure 133 Hydraulic Folding Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Figure 99 Machine Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Figure 134 Production Exampels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Figure 100 Hand Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Figure 135 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Figure 101 Types Of Reamer 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Figure 136 Thread forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Figure 102 Types Of Reamer 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Figure 137 Srew pitch gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Figure 103 Types Of Reamer 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Figure 138 Hand threading tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Figure 104 Table V - 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Figure 139 Hand tapping tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Figure 105 Table V - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Figure 140 Types of taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Page iv
P66 A/B M6/M7 BS E
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 141 Holes for tapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Figure 142 How to tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Page v

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Fundamentals

M6 Materials and Hardware

EASA Part-66 Cat. A / B1 / B2

P66 A/B M6/M7 BS E

Tel: +49 (0)40 5070 2520

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 1

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 2

Struck by with extreme temperatures,

Figure 1 Industrial Injuries

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 4

Close door to confine fire

If safe to do so, fight fire

If fire cannot be controlled, evacuate

Notify fire brigade

Figure 2 Fighting Fires

SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP AND HANGAR

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 6

SAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT

Figure 3 Workshop and Hangar Safety

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 8

MAY CAUSE 0.001AMP

Figure 4 Working with Electricity

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 10

UNSAFE WORKING DEVELOP AN AWARENESS

Figure 5 Working with Power Tools

PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED WHEN WORKING IN AND

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 12

TAKE NOTICE OF SIGNS CLEAN UP RUBBIISH

CLEAN UP OIL AND FLUIDS

Figure 6 Precautions around the Aircraft

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 14

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 16

Figure 8 Aircraft Safety

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 18

THE NEED TO REPORT ANYTHING „NOT NORMAL“

GENERAL MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Incorrect Use of Tools

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 20

Figure 10 Stepping on Structure

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HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 23

Strength of Materials Unit Strain

(at right angles to compressive or tensile stresses). a material in tension or compression.

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 24

The property of a metal to break when, deformed, or hammered. It is the

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 25

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 26

Figure 11 Overview: Metallic and Non- Metallic Materials

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 28

Figure 12 Measurement Exampels

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 30

Figure 13 Measurement Of Dimensions

MEASUREMENT UNIT SYSTEM

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 32

Figure 14 Number Prefix Table

Water boils 2120F

Water boils 1000C

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HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 35

English Length System

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page 36

Figure 15 English Length System