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RadioScience,

Volume
21,Number
4, Pages
605-616,
July-August
1986

Applications
of complex
imagetheory
Peter R. Bannister

Submarine
Electromagnetic
Systems
Department,
NavalUnderwater
Systems
Center,NewLondon,
Connecticut

(Received
October
31,1985;revised
December
8, 1985;accepted
January
29,1986.)

Duringthe pasttwo decades, complex imagetheorytechniques


havesuccessfully beenutilizedto
determinesimpleformexpressions for theelectric
andmagneticfieldsproduced by antennaslocated
neartheearth'ssurface,
forbothsingle-layered
andmultilayered
earths.It isthepurposeof thispaper
to provide
a tutorialoverview
of complex imagetheory.
Particular
attentionwillbepaidtoitsrangeof
validity. Specificapplicationswill alsobe discussed.

INTRODUCTION ated with ionosphericor magnetospheric


currentsare
beinganalyzed,and it can be usedto make a quick
Themain reasonforusing the concept ofanimage check
ontheaccuracy ofthemore involved calcula-
isthat
itprovidesasimple picturethat enablesonetions required toobtain theexact response ofthe
towritedown thetotal fieldabove aconductor im- earthtothevarious typesofartificial sourcesem-
mediately
withoutresorting tothenecessity ofsolv-ployed
ingthe appropriatedifferentialequations.In addi-
byexploration geophysicists.
During the past two decades,finitely conducting
tion,
thesolutions
obtained bytheimage method areearth
image theorytechniques
have proved extremely
relatively
simplealgebraic expressionsthatcan gen-useful
indetermining simple
form expressions forthe
erallybeevaluated onadeskcalculator,
incontrastelectric
andmagnetic fieldsproduced byantennas
to the integral
solutions
lyticaltreatment.
resulting
from thefullana-locatedneartheearth's surface forbothsingle-
The image principlehas
first
been applied
inopticslayeredandmultilayered earths (inboth thefre-
quency and the time domain). Image theory tech-
and electrostatics.
Instatics
thereexist
exactdipoleniqueshave been utilized
intheinduction andmag-
images fortheconducting planeanddielectric
half-netotelluric
methods of geophysical exploration.
space problems. Theconducting planeimageisdi- They have also been employed indetermining the
rectlytransferred toelectromagnetic
field
problems,couplingbetween powerlinesandother nearby cir-
whereas
there
isnocorresponding
principle
forthe cuits.
Also,
theyareuseful
forextremely
lowfre-
dielectric
half-space
problem.Thepower of the quency
communication
anddetection
calculation
image
concept,
however,
isinitssimple
geometrical
purposes,
aswellasforanalyzing
theburiedminer
content:
replacing
theother
half-space
bya certainproblem.
(Forspecific
applications,
seethelistof
source
whichdepends
ontheprimarysource,
bothmore than40references.)
lyingin the samehomogeneous medium.The geo-
metricalinsightis but Iittle distortedif the imageis
complex or liesin complexspace. LOCATION
OF IMAGEDEPTH
Although
theidea
ofthecomplex
image
hasarisen Physically,
theessence
ofthefinitely
conducting
mainly
inconnection
withextremely
lowfrequency
earth
image
theory
technique
istoreplace
thefinitely
wave
propagation,
it is clearly
applicable
to the conducting
earthbya perfectly
conducting
earth
10-
problems
inelectromagnetic
inductionofinterest
to catedatthe(complex)
depthd/2.Analytically,
this
geophysicists.
Forexample,
it affords
a simple
pro- corresponds
toreplacing
thealgebraic
reflection
co-
cedure
bywhichtheeffect
ofinducedearthcurrents
efficient
intheexact
integral
expressions
byanex-
can
beestimated
when magneticvariations
associ-
ponential
function.
Theimage theorygeometry
is
presented
in Figure1. In thisfigure,Ro- [p2+ (z
This
paper
isnotsubject
toU.S.copyright.
Published
in 1986 _ h)2]t/2 is the distancefrom the sourceto the
by
the
American
Geophysical
Union. receiver,
R1---[p2q_(z q_h)2]1/2isthedistance
from
Paper
number
6S0058. the mirror imageof the sourceto the receiver,and

605
606 BANNISTER:COMPLEXIMAGE THEORY

RECEIVER

SOURCE

D•d*h /
/7
/
/

//
/

IMAGE

Fig. 1. Compleximagetheorygeometry.

R2 = [/92+ (d+ z + h)23x/2is the distancefromthe the most generalmethods(A.D. Watt, personal
complex imageof thesourceto thereceiver. communication, 1962)is to equatethe z-directed
The questionthat is oftenaskedis, What, physi- waveimpedances for normalincidence
at thesurface
cally,doesa complexdepthrepresent ? The answeris (z = 0) for thetwocasesshownin Figure2.
that there is nothing wrong with a complexdepth, For caseA, for transverseelectric(TE) propaga-
since images are not a physical hypothesisbut a tion,
• (1)
computational
convenience
Basic antenna [Park,
theory tells 1973].
us that the fields pro- ZA
duced
byacurrent-carrying
wireofanylength,
whenwhere
y•= -co2/xo
%,77= ico/xo(ax
+ i•o•),and
placedover a perfectlyconductingearth,may be rep-

resented
Ifby
image.the
the combined
finitely fields
of
the
conductingwire
earth and
couldits
bere- ( icotXo
rt•-- +icø•l (2)
placed
witha perfectly
conducting
earthat someForcase
Bwecanwrite
specifieddepth belowthe surfaceof the finitelycon-
ductingearth, we then could use standardimage ZB,,-% tanh(yoZO (3)
theory
fields. tolocate
theantenna
image
and
theresulting
where
%- (#o/Co)
•/2~ 120re.
Several methods are available for deriving the
For smallvaluesof zl (i.e., I YoZll• 0.5), tanh(•0
z•) ~ •o z•, and
depth of a perfectly conductingplane that can be
usedto replace a rinkely conductingearth. One of ZB•,-r/oYozt = icø/ao
z• (4)
BANNISTER:
COMPLEXIMAGETHEORY 607

CASE
B I1 2
l-Ix
4•i•Oeo
(y• - yo•)p
3
AIR

ß --•:--;?•:•.•-•.:-,:•?•.•:F::•:•,-::•::.•::.•-*.?.•
..:.•.•..•
ßF(1+ yop)eTM -- (I + y,p)eTM] (10)
FINITELY
CONOUCTIHG
EARTH AIR
The imagetheoryresultis
......................
?.).-•,-
!•.•.•.
........................
•..,..•••:..
•,•..•
,,••.. .....
• •.••i•i•.•j-'-•-• Ilx•.• II - o e-YøP'
1 (I 1)
PERFECTLYCONOUCTIHG
EARTH

Fig.
2. Replacement
ofa finitely
conducting
earth
witha per- where
œectly
conducting
earthat depthz•.

When Re y•p >>1,(10)reducesto


Equating
thetwoimpedances
results
in

z•'•y•(1--/o,r•,
•2A,2•1/2
--(721
1

-- 702)1/2 (5)
1 IIx '• '
4nico•
øp3 ,l (1 + yop)e-•øt' (12)

while (11) becomes


Sincethe imagedepth is equal to 2z•, we seethat
forTE propagationthe image depth dt• for a wire
on the surfaceof a finitely conductingearth can be
I-Ix• .
,, (1 + yop)eTM (13)

expressedas
Equating(12) and (13) resultsin
2 2/7•
2
dTE
,•,(}'21
__702)
TM
m{I--1/n2)
•/2 (6)
• • (y]_yg).• 04)
subjectto the condition that l yoZxl•<0.5 (i.e.,
](•l
2- 1)1/2
] >-2, wheren2= y2•/yg
= (• _ ia/rOeo)).
which
isidentical
to(6).
Similarly,
fortransverse
magnetic(TM)propagation, Following
WaitandSpies
[1969],
another
wayto
since determinethe imagedepth is to expand the function

z^ = •{• - 7•o/7b
TM (7) f(uo)=e"ø'•(
u•--uø••
ku• + Uo/
(15)
then
in a Taylor seriesabout Uo= 0, resulting in
2 2
dTM• -- (I -- 7•/712)
TM= -- (1/•12)
TM (8)

e-"øa I + + .-. (16)


subjectto the condition that l yoz•l <0.5 (i.e., u•+ uo •
In2/(n
2- 1p/2m• 2).
For normalincidence,
or if In21> 15, (6) and (8)
reduce
tothewell-known
result
[WaitandSpies,
where d is given by(6),Uo
= (22+yo•)
TM,ux=
1969;
Bannister,
1979;A.D.Watt,personal
com-(22+ y•)x/2,
anditisthedummyintegration
variable
munication,
1962] inthebasic
Sommerfeld
integrals.
The introduction of exp (-% d) into the FIx inte-
dTE"-'dTM'• d • 2/yt (9) gral equation yields an image at a distance h + d
where fromtheearth's
surface
(seeFigure1),whilehigher-
order terms would correspondto multiple images at
Yl '"(io)/-toO1)
TM a1>>r0eoe, the samelocation[Mohsen,1980' Mahmoudand
Metwally, 1981a,b; Weaver, 1971].
t'• • 60nai/(s,)
TM+ iw(lloSoSr)
112 ffl <<WSoœr

Another
waytodetermine
thefinitely
conducting RANGE
OFVALIDITY
earthimagedepthis to comparetheresultsobtained
from image theory
withknownanalyticalresults.
For Compleximagetheoryis basedupon approxi-
z = h = 0, thehorizontal
electric
dipole(HED)Hertz matingtheFresnel
reflection
coefficient
by a suitable
vector
isexactlyequalto [Wait, 1961] exponential
functionof Uo.The planewavereflection
608 BANNISTER: COMPLEX IMAGE THEORY

coefficient
R(uo)for TE wavesis givenby [Wait, (o-1/o-2)
1/2(fora thinoverburden)to
unity(fora thick
19701 overburden).Restriction(24) requires that the
measurement
distance
begreater
thanapproximately
R(Uo)=
_(u•-Uoh (17)four
skin
depths
ineach
layer
(i.e.,
R1>4•,and
\u• + Uo/ R• > 4c52).
Thusforthethinoverburdenandhighly
Analternative
formforR(uo)isobtained
bymulti- resistive
sublayer
case,
(24)isa muchmorestringent
plying
boththenumerator andthedenominator
of requirement than(23).
Thisfactisoften
overlooked.
(17)by(ut- Uo),resulting
in For a measurement distance
lessthan approxi-
mately0.5skindepththesource
term,whichisprop.
R(u)
=-1 +2u(1
+u2)
1/2-2u
2 (18)erlyaccounted
forin thecomplex
image
theory,
where R is now considereda function of the new dominates.It is in the rangeof approximately0.5-4.0
dimensionlessvariable u, definedby skin depthswhere the use of the singlecomplex
image approximation leads to erroneous results.
UodTE
2
(19) However,
theerrorsencountered
areusually
nomore
than 20% [-Bannister,1979]. One way to improvethe
For I u l <<1, a power seriesof R(u)is accuracyis to add the first correctionterm of the
seriesdevelopedby Wait andSpies[1969-1.This term
R(u)= - 1 + 2u-- 2u2 + u3 + '" (20) corresponds
toa multipole
image
located
atthesame
and for lut >> 1, depthD as the singleimage.That is,
Ri2(u)= -- exp(-- 2u)(1+ u3/3) (25)
R(u) = - • + (21)
4u2 •'• whosepowerseriesin u agreeswith that of (20)upto
The
simplest
complex
image
approximation
isthat theu3term.
The inclusionof this multipole term will usually
given
byWait
andSpies
[1969]
as reduce
theimage
theory
errors
encountered
inthe
R•(u) = -exp (-2u) (22) rangeof 0.5-4 skin depthsto lessthan 5%.
whose
powerseries
inuagrees
withthatof(20)
upto Metwally andMahmoud [1982]
have shownthat
thesquare
term,andforlul>>1 it decays
towardthefollowing
continuous
plus
discrete
imagerepre-
zero.
Thisrepresents
a single
image located
at a sentation
leadstoavery
small
error
(less
than1%)in
(complex)
depth D(= h+ dxE)
below theearth's
sur- evaluating
thefields
atanyheight
above theearth.
It
face.
Despite
itssimplicity
thissingleimagerepre-is
sentationhas been successfully
used in many appli- [1 -exp (-2u)] 2 u2
cations
involving
quasi-static
aswellashigher-
Rt3(u)= 4u
2 +•-exp(-3u) (26)
frequency behavior of sources located near the
earth's
surface [Bannister,
1978a,1979,
1982; Ban-which isquite
asimple
expressionandismanageable
nister
etal.,1980]. upon integration
forcalculation
ofthereflected
field.
Because theWaitandSpies[1969]
singleimageThisform(equation(26))
meets therequirement
of
solution
isanasymptotic
approximation,
it isonly -1/4u2 behavior
forlul>>1 (see(21))andagrees
strictly
valid for with(20)uptothecubictermforlul<<1.Theadded
discrete image is a multipole source located at a
R•3>>Idt•.l3 (23) depthequalto h + 3dTE/2.
Mittra et al. [1979] have presented some exact
for the homogeneous earthcase.Restriction
(23)re- Sommerfeld integration results
for theHED 0II,•and
quiresthat the measurement
distancebe greaterthan FI: Hertz vectors(i.e.,the correctiontermsto the
approximatelyfour skin depths.For the caseof a perfectlyconducting groundsolution)forfrequendes
stratified
earth,(23)isreplaced
by of 3-30MHz.Fortheircase,
R1---10m, O -- tan-•
R•>>
IQd.rEI
3 (24)II/(ico%)
[p/(z + h)]= 10ø,qb = 0ø,andthequantity
is normalizedto unity.
I0=
whereQ is thefamiliarcorrection
factoremployed
to The(single)
imagetheorysolutions
of FI• and011•
account
forthepresence
of stratification
in theearth areprovided
by Bannister
[1982].A comparison
of
[Wait, 1970].For a two-layerearth,I Q I variesfrom the imagetheoryand exactSommerfeld
integration
BANNISTER: COMPLEX IMAGE THEORY 609

ate rangeswhen c•/cosxis somewhatless than unity.


This correspondsto sufficientlyhigh frequenciesor
high overburden resistivity,which make the exci-
tation of low-attenuation waveguide modes favor-
able. Including the waveguidemodes will widen the
range of validity of the new solution without much
sacrificeof the simplicityof the compleximagesolu-
tion, since the waveguidemode computation does
not involvelengthynumericalintegration.
It is important to note that all of their previous
trials to improve the complex image solution result
only in obtainingbetter approximationsto the main
branch cut at Uo= 0, either by including more than
one image, by using multipole images, or even by
using a continuous spectrum of images [Mohsen,
1980; Mahmoud and Metwally, 1981a, b; Metwally
and Mahmoud, 1982].
It is worth noting that exact continuous image
Fig.
3. Comparison
ofcomplex
image
theory
andexact
Som-solutions
havebeen
recently
obtained
byLindell
and
merfeld
integration
results
fore,
r = 40,o-•= ! S/m,andf= 3-30 Alehen[1984a,b, c], but theirsolutionsapplyonlyto
Maz. the homogeneousearth. In the caseof a multilayered
earth the polesof the reflectioncoefficientwill have
results
forthesituation
wheresr= 40 andcx= 1 tobeaccounted
forin taking
theLaplace
transform.
S/mis presented in Figure 3. For this situationthe
quantitycr•/co• variesfrom 150 at 3 MHz to 15 at 37,
30 MHz. Note that the agreementbetween the two 36,
ß

solutions is excellent. e
35.
Presentedin Figure 4 is a comparisonof the image
34,
theoryand exact Sommerfeldintegrationresultsfor
thecasewhere•-- 10 and •rx• 10-2 S/m. For this 33,

case,crx/co•varies from 6 at 3 MHz to 0.6 at 30 32.


MHz.Note that whenthe ratio of •rzto coszis of the 31

orderof (or lessthan)unity (i.e.,Rt/2 • 0.4 in Figure 3O

4),the image theory resultsstart to deviate from the


exactSommerfeldintegrationresults.
Zg eJ dTE
Mahmoudand Mohsen [1985] have recentlycom- 280 •ß
o,• oI•'- ' o• •o -
paredthe exactand compleximagetheory solutions R•tx
EXACT
fortheelectromagnetic fieldsexcitedby a line source © IMAGE THEORY
•0
abovea two-layerearth.They showedthat the image
solution for the fieldsin air is merely a good approxi- 49 ß ß ß ß ß
mationto onepart of the completerigoroussolution. 48 ß
Thispart is the main branch cut at Uo= 0, which
dominates in the far zone, while other branch cuts
andthetrappedwaveguidemodesare completelyig-
nored. - 46
45
44
dTM
= • - 1/n•
Theimagesolutionis thereforeasymptoticin the
43 ß •..
sense
that it requiresa source-receiver
separation o o:• o• o16 o;• •.o
largeenoughthat the ignoredfieldsare negligible.
Mahmoud
andMohsen
[1985]suggest
thatthecorn- Fig.
4. Comparison
ofcomplex
image
theory
andexact
Som-
pleximage
solution
becomplemented
by thetrapped merfeld
integration
results
for •-- 10,trt = 10-2 S/m,and
waveguide
modes,which can dominate at intermedi- f= 3-30MHz.
610 BANNISTER: COMPLEX IMAGE THEORY

Z
For a cable oriented in the x direction whose
length is much greater than the measurementdis.
tancey, cableelevationh, and earthskindepth6, the
AIR
-L/2h L•y +L/2 broadside magnetic fields at the earth's surface
(z = 0) may be expressed
as(for h <<6)

2nr2 •r i /
whereC• • • for r < 6 and
Fig. 5. Geometryfor derivationof longgroundedcablemagnetic
field components.
c•4• •- 4 J •0•
This amounts to the inclusion of the waveguide
modes. for r/6 > 0.1. Furthermore,
For the case of the homogeneousearth the wave-
guidemodesceaseto exist,and hencethe rigorous (31)
solution reduces to two branch cuts at Uo= 0 and
u• = O.The compleximagesolutionin thiscasestill where
approximates
thefirstbranch
cutandneglects
the r2= y2q_
h2 rt,•/.2q_
d2=/.2_ i262
second.For at > roe1 this neglect will be justified
whenR• >>I dtE13.For ½x< coe•thisneglect
willbe r• ~ r2q_•2 • ----
Idl= 21/2•
justified
whenRe[(y•
- y•)x/2Rx]
>>1. Actually,
Thefactors
C1andC2were
derived
byadding
the
under
theseconditions
theimagesolution
isalsoan firstcorrection
termoftheseries
developed
byWait
excellent
approximation
to theUo
= 0 branch
cut,andSpies [1969](also
seeParke/.
[1982]
andOlsen
andthusit becomes
almostexact
[Mahmoud andand Pankaskie[1983]).
Mohsen,
1985]. Presented
inFigures
6 and7are78-Hz
theoretical
plots(for variousearth conductivities)
of the broad-
SOME
SPECIFIC
APPLICATIONS sidemagnetic
fieldsproduced
by the original
In this section,for the sake of simplicity,we will Sanguine/Seafarer
ELF test antenna.This 175-kin-
assumethat a• is muchgreaterthancoe•,sothatthe long,15-m-high
antennawasorientedin theNE di-
imagedepthd isgivenby rectionbetweenLookoutShoals,North Carolina,
2
d-•--• 61(1 - i) (27)

where6 (• (2/(D/lOrrl)
x/2)is the skin depthin the -so
earth. •.a=4 X10-4
Thegeometry
for thederivation
of themagnetic -70 •..a=lx10-4
induction field componentsproduced by a long •-.. -90 .•o'=4
1)•10
....0.= 10-õ
-5

grounded
can
be
cable
(personal
the is
shown
calculated
in
Figure
communication,
fields
ofafinite
length 5.A.D.
horizontal
(employing
Watt
electric <•
1962)demonstrated
that g
antenna
Ampere's
law)by
sum-
z"-1lO
-laø
r
o'=1

a=4
x1o-a
X

0'=1X10-2
0'=4 X 10 -2

ming
the
fields
produced
equivalent bythe
elements
ofthe_15oF
loop.(Element
1 is theactual
antenna; --170•........' ........' 0.=4x1,•-•s
elements2, 3, and 4 are images.)The resultingindue-
......... IEIMI
• lO
IEI
INI
•'
lO2
a=l
103
X10 104 10•
tion field componentexpressions are summarizedby PERPENDICULAR
DISTANCE
FROMLINE
(meters)
Bannister
[1979],Bannister
et al. [1980],andBallet Fig.6. Broadside
horizontal
magnetic
fieldcomponent
versus
al. [1966]. range.
BANNISTER: COMPLEX IMAGE THEORY 611

-40
This result is considerablymore accuratethan the
-60
singlecompleximagesolution.The correctionterm is
alsoessentialfor restoringthe proper height depen-
-80 denceat closespacings,as givenby the widely dis-
seminatedformula recommendedby the Internation-
-100 al Telegraphand TelephoneConsultativeCommittee
(CCITT) [1963] and Sunde[1949]. That is, when the
-120 measurementdistanceis small in comparison with
-140 the skin depth,(33) reducesto
-160

-180
E•~-•-• In--
\7•ro/ +•7,(z+ h) (34)
10 102 10a 104 105
PERPENDICULAR
DISTANCE
FROMLINE
(meters) whichis virtuallyidenticalwith the CCITT formula
of
Fig, 7. Broadsideverticalmagneticfield componentversus

range. iCO#o
Ex~--•-• Ink•lro/
• +•7x(z+h) (35)
andAlgoma,Virginia.
It wasusedperiodically
from Thecorrectiontermalsoeliminates a discrepancy
1962until1970andwasreferred
to asSiteAlpha. recognized
by Bannister[1968]in the associated
The78-Hzeffective
conductivity
inferred
fromthe horizontal
magnetic
fieldforsmallseparations.That
Site
AlphaH/I inductive
measurements
wasapproxi-is,whenthemeasurement distan•is smallin com-
matdy
10-aS/m[Bannisfer,
198•]. parison
withtheskin
depth,
The classical solution for the horizontal electric

field
produced
tained by
by Carsonalong
[1926] grounded
in cable
the United wasob-
States
and H=- •iW•o•E•
•• •4•_(z- h)• (36)
independently
by Haberland[1926] and Pollaczek which is the correct result, while the single image
[1926]in Europe.
Sincethen,extensive
detailedsolution
analyses
of specificaspectsof the problemhavebeen

conducted byhasmany
Carson's result investigators.
withstood the test ofIn
time.general,
How-

ever,
hissolutionas wellas mostotherrepre-iserroneous bya factor
of• whenz = h= 0 [Ban-
senrations
hasa complexity
thatisawkwardtoira- nister,
1968].
plement
onhand-held
calculators. Another usefulapplication
of complex image
The(single)
compleximagetheorysolution
forthe theoryisin determining
theexternal
impedance per
horizontal
electric
fieldproducedby a longline unitlength of a longhorizontal
wirelocated at
source
is[Bannister,
1970a] height
h (ordepth-h) above(orbelow)theearth's

E••-• i•oIn(r•) surface[Bannister,


1970a,
(32)theexternal 1976,
1978b].
For
impedanceh•0
perunitlength
tainedfrom (33) and
canbeob-
wherer•=y2+(z-h) 2 andr•=ye+(d+z+h) •.
This
remarkably
simple
expression
isaccurate
to
within4% for closespacings
and 20% for inte•edi- Z•t=lim(-•) (38)
atespacings.
BothParker[1982]andOlsen
andPank-
askie
[1983]have
shown
thatthesingle
image
resultwhere
aistheradius
ofthewire.
Therefore
canbe improvedby addingthe first correctionterm

oftheseriesdevelopedbyWaitandSpies[1969].
the
heights
depth,
aresmall theskinZ•ti•o[(d•2h)
incomparison
with 1(d•f
E•-• In -•kr2/• --•JJ (33) =• In k7•a/ +• • l+•h' (39)
612 BANNISTER: COMPLEX IMAGE THEORY

NUMERICAL INTEGRATION RESULT

ß-,,-,-, iMAGE THEORY RESULT

!.7

!.6

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1

1.0
0

Fig. 8. Z/Z ofor verticalcoplanarloops.

If theheightis smallin comparison


withtheskin bothsingle-layered
andmultilayered
earths[Ban-
depth(i.e.,ly•hl<<1),(39)reduces
to nister,
1969,1970b,
1979;Bannister
et al.,1980;Met-

Z•xt
~• ia,•o
[In\(1.84•
• +4y__•
yta/ 1 (40)Lindell,
wally
andMahmoud,
Weaver,
1975'
1984; et1982,1984a,
Vickers
Lindell al.,1985]. b.
and Morgan, Thomson
1979'
Alenen
and
whileif the longwire is buried(h_<0)[Bannister, The singlecompleximageexpression for the
1978b], mutualimpedance betweentwo verticalcoplanar
loopslocated
at height
h abovethegroundis [Ban-
Z•xt
•-•--• In\•a I -• + (41)nister,
1969,
1970b,
1979]
and
ifthelong-wire
burialdepth ismuch
more
than Z ..•1+• (43)
askin
depth
(i.e.,
h>>•J), Zo (R[)
3

iCO#o
[ (1.85•
- •1
Z•t~-•--• In--
\y•a/ whereR[=[P2+(d+2h)2]
(42) A comparison
ofthemagnitude
ofthenumerical
integrationwith image theory expressions
for the
Compleximagetheoryhasalsobeenemployed in mutualimpedance
ratiofor vertical
coplanarloops
determining
themutualcoupling between loopan- overa homogeneous
ground ispresentedinFigure8.
tennas
locatedat or abovethe earth'ssurface,
for Themaximum errorencountered in employingthe
BANNISTEI•:
COMPLEX
IMAGETHEORY 613

•ol-
- .... • .....
H; z/B = 1.0

•-I0

•OL I•AL
ME• INTEGRATION
- I M•IFIED
IMAGE
THEORY
I (,-•, ..o,.) ..
] •ODIFI D•AG•ORY

-40
• (,:
0.4,
b=
0.96)
/
0.1
i
0.2
i
0.5
i
1,0
i
2.0 5.0 i0,0

Fig.9. Comparison
of modified-imgge
theory
g•d •umedcg]
integratio•
results
fo• themgg•ctic
fields
produced
by • burled•ED (•/• = - 1.0,z/• = 1.0).

singlecomplex imagetheoryexpression (43)is ap- air,airto surface,andsurface to surface


propagation
proximately10%whenbothantennas arelocated at cases [Bannister,
1984].The onlyrestriction on the
theearth'ssurfaceandincreasinglylesswith increas- useof theseformulasisthattheindexof refractionbe
ingvalues of 2hi&Thisis not an unexpected result, large.Theyare validat any frequency and at any
sincethesingleimagerepresentation (equation (22)) rangefor thefiat earthcase.In termsof computer
isonlystrictlyvalidfor measurement distances Ep2 timethese newformulas canbeevaluated in fractions
+ (2h)2]
z/2 greaterthan approximately four skin of a minutein comparison withhoursfor the com-
depths(equation(23)). pletenumericalevaluationof the exactSommerfeld
It shouldbe noted that including the first correc- integrals.
tionterm(25)in theseries
developedby Waitand Mostofthecomplex imagetheoryapplications to
Spies[1969]willnotsubstantially
decrease
thecom- datehavedealtwithsources in the air. Whenthe
pleximagetheoryloopmutualcoupling erroren- source
is buried(h< 0), thefactorexp(uxh)is en-
countered
intherange
ofapproximately
0.5-4.0
skin countered,
whereu•= (,•2+ y•)m.Thisfactorcan
depths.
However,
if thesingle
image
representation
is severely
complicate
theanalytical
evaluation
of the
complemented
by a set of continuous
images,or if Sommerfeld
integrals.
(26)is employed,
the complex
imagetheoryloop Bannister
andDube[1978]havesuccessfully
ap-
mutual
coupling
erroris substantially
reduced
[Met- proximated
exp(uzh)by
wally
andMahmoud,
1982,
1984a,
b]. e.•h~ e•,.he
•b• (44)
Compleximage theory techniques
have recently
been
employed
todetermine
newformulas
forthe witha= 0 andb= 1forR(= (p2+ z2)X/:z)
<<6and
electric
andmagnetic
fields
producedbythefourele- Ihi<<6; a = 0.4andb= 0.96forR/6lessthanap-
mentary
dipole
antennas
fortheairtoair,surface
to proximately 1;a = 0.96andb= 0.4forR/6between
614 BANNISTER: COMPLEX IMAGE THEORY

H,
z h/8---1.O

IO

- 30
--Xz/8
=
I.O
MX ODIFIED IMAGE THEORY \ '\
(COMPOSITE)

I i j
O. 0.2 0,5 I,O 2.0 5.O I0,0

Composite
oœcomposite
modified-ima8e
theory
aridaumerica]
integration
results
forthemasnetic
fields
inairproduced
bya buriedI-IED(h/6: - !.0,z/6: 1.0).

approximately
1 and10;anda = 1.0andb= 0 for arewithin
approximately
1dBofthenumerical
inte-
R>>c•andR> 13hi. gration
results
overthecomplete
range
ofp/t5
(0.1-
Asanexample,consider
themagnetic
fields
ata 10).
Infact,
themodified-image
theory
evenpredicts
height
ofoneskin
depth
(z/t5
= 1.0)
produced
byan theHpcomponentamplitude
dipattheright
place
HEDburied
at a depthof oneskindepth(h/t5- (p/•= 1.5).
-1.0).Thenumerical
integration
results
forthenor- It isworth
noting
thattheexact
compleximage
malizedamplitude
ofeachcomponent
H',where theory, recently
developed
forcalculation
offields

H,__4rc62H/Ii•sin:
[cos} reflected
from
(45)geneous aplanar
media, interface
hasnow between
been two
extended homo-
toinclude
transmitted
fieldcalculations
[Lindellet ai., 1986].
are presentedin Figures9 and 10. The normalization
factor(0 dB) is the numerical
integration
valueof
eachcomponent
at p/t5= 0.1. CONCLUSIONS
Also presented
arethemodified image
theoryre- In thispaper wehave presented
a tutorial
over-
suits
[Bannister
andDube, 1978].From Figure
9 we view ofcomplex image theory.
Particularattention
seethatthecrossover
pointforthisparticular
exam-hasbeen paidto thedetermination
of theimage
ple is p/t5 = 1.5 (R/t5-- 1.8).That is, if depth andtotherange ofvalidity
ofcomplex image
0.1< p/t5
< 1.5,a= 0.4 andb= 0.96;whileif theory. Some specific
applications
havealsobeen
1.5< p/c5
< 10,a= 0.96andb- 0.4.A comparison presented.(Manyadditional
applications
areinclud-
of thecomposite modified image theoryresultsedinthelistofmore than40references.)
Thesimple,
(Figure!0) withthenumerical integration
resultsyetaccurate,formulas obtained
fromthistheory
shows thatthemodifiedimage theorycalculations
make it a very
strongtoolanda promisingonefor
BANNISTER:COMPLEXIMAGE THEORY 615

determining the couplingbetweenantennaslocated reid half-space


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