Basic Circuits & Network Laws

Network Theory-EE 1
CHAPTER-1
BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS & THEORY
1. INTRODUCTION TO CIRCUIT ELEMENT: Unit of conductivity: mho/m or siemens/cm

The circuit elements can be divided into two parts:  If length of wire is doubled and Radius is
1. Active Elements: When the element is halved, then resistance of wire becomes 8
capable of delivering the energy, it is called times larger.
active element.  Resistivity of wire is materialistic property
Example: Voltage source, Current source, i.e. It does not vary with circuit geometry.
Transistor, Diode, Op-amp etc  Extension of wire result in increase in length
2. Passive Elements: When the element is not & decrease in cross-sectional area therefore
capable of delivering the energy, it is called resistance of wire increases.
passive element.  When circuit is short circuit means, R  0.
Example: Resistance, capacitor, inductor etc. When circuit is open, R  .
Resistance: The ohm’s law can be given as:
Example: A 4 resistor has a current
The voltage across a two terminal of a network is
i  2.5sin( t ) A. Find the voltage, Power and
directly proportional to the current flowing through it
energy over one cycle.   500 rad/sec
as:
V I Solution: Given that i  2.5sin( t ) A
V  iR
or, V  IR
V  2.5sin( t )  4  10sin( t ) volt
This constant of proportionality is called ‘resistance’.
P  i 2 R  [2.5 sin( t )] 2  4
Key Points:
 Power in resistor is given by P  25sin2 (t ) W
v2
P  vi  i 2 R 
t2 t2
Energy E   Pdt   25sin 2 t dt
R t1 t1
 Energy is then determined as the integral of 1

1  cos 2 t  dt
t2
E  25 
instantaneous power as : t1 2
t2 t2 1 t2 2  t sin 2t 
E   Pdt  R i 2dt 
R t1
v dt E  25   J
4 
t1 t1
2
 Resistance consumes energy and converts
electrical energy into heat energy. The plot of i, P and E is as shown:
 Resistance depends on the geometry of
material and also on nature of material as:
l
R
A
Where  = Resistivity (.m)

 = 1/ ( = conductivity)
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Network Theory-EE 2
8.854 r A
C pF
d
(b.) The charge q on capacitor results in an
electric field in the dielectric which is the
mechanism of energy storage.
(c.) Power and energy relation for capacitance
are as:
This illustrate that P is always positive and
dv d  1 2   cdv 
that the energy is always increasing. This is P  vi  vc  cv i  
the energy dissipated by resistor. dt dt  2   dt 
d 1 2 
P cv 
2. CAPACITANCE: dt  2 
The circuit element that stores energy in an electric t2 t2
field is called capacitor. When variable voltage is Energy wc   P dt   v c dv dt
dt
applied to a terminal of capacitor, the energy is stored t1 t1
during one part of cycle and discharge during next 1

half cycle. wc  c v22  v12 
2
The charge across the capacitor is directly
proportional to the applied voltage: (d.) The energy stored in the electric field of
Q V 1
capacitance is wc  cv
2
Q  CV 2
Q (e.) Ideal capacitor:
C Unit of C  Farad
V
Key Points:
(a.) Capacitors retain the charge & thus
electric field after removal of the source Practical capacitor:
applied. (While inductors do not retain
energy). For parallel plate capacitor, the
capacitance can be given as:
Example: In the interval 0 > t > 5 ms, a 20 f

capacitor has a voltage V  50sin 2(t )V . Obtain
the charge, power and energy. Plot work wc
assuming w = 0 at t = 0.   100rad . / sec
Solution: q  cv  20  50sin 2t
or A
C q  1000 sin 2 t  C
d
dv
Where A = cross-sectional area of plate ic  0.2cos 2t A
r  Relative permittivity of dielectric
dt
P  vi  50sin 200t  0.2cos2t
o  Permittivity of free space
P  5sin 4t W
d = distance between plates
Network Theory-EE 3
t2 t Voltage induced across the inductor is
wc   P dt   5 sin 400t dt di
t1 0
V L ………….. (A)
w c  12.5 1  cos 400 t  m J
dt
{Voltage is induced when flux is varying}
(c) For an inductor of N no of turns:

M0 N 2S
L
l
S = Cross sectional area
l = Length of coil
(d) Proof of equation A: According to
This indicates that in the internal 0 > t > 2.5 ms, the faraday’s law, the emf induced across a
energy is stored to value of 25 mJ and then it returns inductor is directly proportional to the rate
to zero, as the energy is returned to the source. of change of flux through it.
d
e  N {N = no of turns in the coil}
3. INDUCTANCE: dt
The circuit element that stores energy in a magnetic d  LI 
field is called an inductor. e  N  
dt  N 
dI
e  L
dt
-ve sign indicates the opposition caused by
emf to change of flux (Lenz’s Law)
(e) The power across the inductor is:
di d 1 
P  vi  L i   Li 2 
dt dt  2 
When voltage is applied across a inductor, the flux is
t2 t2
induced in the conductor which is proportional to
current flowing through it, i.e.
(f) Energy: w  P dt   Li dt
t1 t1
N  i
1
N   Li w  L i22  i12 
2
N
L Energy stored in magnetic field by inductor
i
1
L Inductance is w  Li 2
2
Unit Henry
Key Points:
(a) The flux linkage across inductor is N. Thus
N   LI
Example:
(b) Inductor do not store energy when the  
connected source is removed In the interval 0  t    s, a 30 mH inductance
 50 
has a current i=10sin50tA. Obtain the Voltage, Power
& Energy for the inductance.
Network Theory-EE 4
di Voltage & Current Source:
Solution: vL  15 cos 50 t V
dt The sources are of two types, one is independent
p  vi  75sin(100t )W sources and other is dependent sources:
t t Independent sources:
w   P dt   75sin100t dt
0 0 The voltage or current source in which the value of
w  0.75(1  cos100t ) J voltage or current remains constant, and does not
vary with other circuit element.
Ideal voltage and current sources:
The Plot indicate that the energy is zero at t = 0 and


t sec. Thus while energy transfer occurred over
50
the interval, this energy was first stored and later
returned to the source. Non ideal voltage and current sources:
Relationship of parameters:
Element Units Voltage Current Power
Ohms v  Ri ( v P  vi
i
() ohms R  i2 R
Resistance law)
(a) In non ideal voltage source, the internal
Henry v  L di i  1  vdt P  vi resistance of voltage source is of finite value
dt L
(H) Ldi and is always in series with voltage source.
inductance
i
dt (b) In non ideal current source, the internal
resistance of current source is of finite value
Farad & is always in parallel with current source.
1 i  c dv P  vi
c
(F) v idt dt (c) V-source in series
Capacitance
 vc dv
dt
Network Theory-EE 5
Distributed and Lumped Network:
In Lumped network, we can separate resistance,
inductance, and capacitance separately or single
element in one location is used to represent a
distributed resistance.
Example: A coil having large number of turns of
insulated wire has resistance throughout the length of
wire but only resistance at single plane represents the
distributed resistance.
In Distributed network, the circuit elements are not at
one location rather they are distributed.
Example: Transmission line, the resistance,
(d)
inductance and capacitance are distributed
throughout the length of Transmission line.
Note: In distributed network, the circuit elements
are represented as per unit length.
(e) Non Linearity of circuit elements:

1. Resistance Non Linearity: If the current
voltage relationship in an element is not
linear, then the element is modeled as non
linear resistor.
Example: Diode, filament lamp (This at
Dependent Voltage and Current Sources: higher voltage droves proportional less
These are voltage and current sources whose value do current) etc.
not remain constant, rather varies with circuit (a) The non linear resistance can be given as:
elements or independent sources: V
R
I
Note: Ohm’s law is valid for linear circuit

elements. Also it is not valid for open circuit
element because for open circuit:
I = 0, R = 
So V = 
V  IR
2. Inductors non linearity: When the
inductance of inductor depends on the
current magnitude, then the inductor is
called non linear inductor:
Example: Iron core inductor.
Only air core inductor linear
Network Theory-EE 6
Key points:
N
(a) N   LI  L   Variable
I
 a  As the slope of the curve in both cases is C (inductance)
L    and C is variable. So, the curve is not linear.
 l 
MMF  l 
 S  Reluctance=  Average and rms (effective value):
S  a  Average value: The general periodic function y(t)
with period T has an average value Yav given as:
NIa N 2 a
  L Self T
l l 1
Yav   y (t )dt
inductance TO
(b) Also we know; Rms Value: The general periodic function y(t) with
di V period T has rms value Y rm s given as:
V L  L  Variable
dt di / dt T
1
T O
Yrms  y 2 (t ) dt
Example: Find the average and rms value of

following sine series
y (t )  a0  b1 sin  t  b2 sin  t  ......
Solution:
1  
T
Yav     a0  b1 sin t  b2 sin t  ...... dt 
As the slope of the curve in both cases is
T  0 
L (inductance) and L is variable. So, the 1
curve is not linear.
Yav  a0T  0  0......
T
The second curve shows that after certain Yav  a0
value of current, the flux does not
T
increase due to saturation of iron core. 1
  a0  b1 sin  t  b2 sin  t  .......
2
Yrms  dt
3. Nonlinearity in capacitance: When the T 0
capacitance of capacitor depends on voltage T
1  2 1 2 
magnitude, then capacitor is called non linear Yrms  
T 0 2
 

a0  b1  b22  .....  ..... dt
capacitor.
Q 1 2 1 2
Q  CV  C   Variable Yrms  a 02  b1  b2  .....
V 2 2
dv i Example: A single circuit element has the current

iC C  Variable and voltage functions graphed in figure below.
dt dv / dt
Determine the element.
Network Theory-EE 7
V
Thus L   3mH .
di / dt
Thus the element is inductor. (Examine the interval 4
< t < 6 ms L must be same)
Example: Obtain the voltage V in the branch shown

in figure for
(a) i2  1 A (b) i2  2 A (c) i2  0 A.
Solution: v  10  v x for
Solution: The element cannot be a resistor since V

and I are not proportional. In a capacitor V is integral
of i, but in interval 2ms < t < 4msec, V is not integral
of i, hence element cannot be capacitor.
Ldi (a) i2  1 A
For inductor V 
dt V  10  15  25V
For interval 0 < t < 2ms: (b) V  10  15  2  20V .
di (c) V  10  15  0  10V .
V  15V and  10 / 2  5
dt
Network Theory-EE NETWORK THEORY 8
CHAPTER-2
NETWORK LAWS AND THEOREMS
For any closed path in a network, Kirchhoff Voltage
1. SOME BASIC TERMS:- Law (KVL) state that the algebraic sum of the
voltage is zero.
1. Node:- Any point in a circuit where the Key points:
terminals of two or more elements are (a) å v (t ) = 0 Closed Path
connected together.
(b) While going in direction of current,
2. Branch:- A branch is a part of circuit
voltage drop is taken as –ve
which extends from one node to other. A
branch may contain one element or several
elements in series. It has two terminals.
3. Essential Node: -If three or more elements
are connected together at a node, then that
V - iR = 0
node sometimes called essential node.
4. Mesh: -Any path which contains no other (c) While going opposite to direction of
paths with in, called mesh. current, voltage drop across resistor is
5. Loop: -A path which contain more than two taken as positive (+ve)
meshes, called a loop. Thus a loop contains

meshes but a mesh does not contain loop.
Example 1: Consider the following circuit:-
iR - V = 0
(d) This law applies equally to DC, time

variable sources.
Example : Write KVL equation for the circuit
(a) Point 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are nodes. shown:-
(b) a, b, c, d, e, f and g are branches.

(c) Meshes are:- 1 2 5, 2 3 5, 3 4 5
(d) Loop are:- 1 2 3 5 1, 2 3 4 5 2
(e) Essential mode:- 2, 3
2. KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:
+Va - V1 - Vb - V2 - V3 = 0 (a) Equivalent Resistance:- When element is
Or Va - iR1 - Vb - iR2 - iR3 = 0 resistance :

v = i ( R1 + R2 + R3 )
Va - Vb = i ( R1 + R2 + R3 )
v = i R eq .
3. KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW :
KCL states that the algebraic sum of currents at a R eq. = R1 + R2 + R3
node is zero. Alternatively the sum of currents
entering a node is equal to sum of currents leaving
that node.
Key Points:
(a) It is based on the conservation of
electric charge.
(b) å i (t ) = 0
(c) Sign convention is arbitrary.
(d) Current entering node ® are assigned (b) Equivalent Inductance:- When element in
+ve sign and current leaving node ® are above circuit is inductor then :
assigned –ve sign. di di di
v = L1 + L2 + L3
Example : Write the KCL equation for the principal dt dt dt
node shown in fig below:- di
v = ( L1 + L2 + L3 )
dt
Leq = L1 + L2 + L3
For any number of inductance:

Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + ........
Solution : Principal node:- Same as essential node. (c) Equivalent Capacitance :When the circuit
i1 - i2 + i3 - i4 - i5 = 0 element is capacitor in above circuit then,
i1 + i3 ± i2 + i4 + i5 . 1 1 1
v=
c1 ò i dt + ò i dt + ò idt
c2 c3
æ1 1 1ö
4. CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN SERIES:- v = ç + + ÷ ò idt
The 3 passive circuit elements in series connection è c1 c2 c3 ø
have same current i. The voltages across elements 1
Ceq ò
v= i dt
are v1 , v2 , v3 .
Total voltage v = v1 + v2 + v3 . 1 1 1 1
Then = + +
Ceq c1 c2 c3
5. CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PARALLEL:- This concept is applicable to n number of resistance.

The 3 element are connected as shown in figure R1
v1 = v
(a) Equivalent Resistance:- i = i1 + i2 + i3 R2 + R3 + R1
v v v R2
i= + + v2 = v
R1 R2 R3 R1 + R2 + R3
é1 1 1ù
i = vê + + ú
ë R1 R2 R3 û 7. CURRENT DIVISION :
A Parallel arrangement of resistors results in a
1 1 1 1
Then = + + current divider.
R eq R1 R2 R3
v v v v
i= + + and i1 =
R1 R2 R3 R1
1
i1 R1
=
i 1 1 1
(b) Equivalent Inductance : + +
R1 R2 R3
1 1 1
= + + ..... R2 R3i
Leq L1 L2 Thus i1 =
( R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 )
L1 L2 For two branch current divider:-

For two inductance L eq =
L1 + L2
R2 i
i1 =
(c) Equivalent Capacitance : R1 + R2
C eq = c1 + c2 + ...... · For 2 branch circuit, the current in one
This is of the same form as resistor in series branch is equal to the :
. Resistance of Other Branch
Totalcurrent ´
Total Resistance
6. VOLTAGE DIVISION :
A set of series-connected resistor is referred as a · Note:- while in voltage divider:-
voltage divider. Resistance of Other Branch
Current across one branch = Total voltage ´
Total Resistance
Example : 1: Find all branch currents in the network

shown below :-
120 - 30 I - 2VA - 15 I = 0; VA = -15I
120
Thus I= = 8 A.
15
P120V = -8 ´ 120 = 960w
P30W = i 2 R = 82 ´ 30 = 1920w
Solution : Circuit can be simplified as
RL =| zg + jx L |
P15W = 82 ´ 15 = 960w
Total power absorbed
= -960 + 1920 + 960 -1920 = 0W .
Note: Power absorbed by source = – (Power
delivered by source)
12 ´ 8
Req. (Left) = S + = 9.8W
20
Example : 3: Twelve identical wires of resistance
6´3
Req. (Right) = = 2W 6L each are connected in form of a cube. Find the
9
effective resistance of network acrosss LD.
Using current divider theorem:-
Solution :
2
I3 = ´ 13.7 = 2 - 32 A
9.8 + 2
9.8 ´ 13.7
I4 = ´ 11 - 38 A.
9.8 + 2
I 3 = I1 + I 2
8 ´ 2 - 32
I1 = = 0.93 A, T2 = 2.32 - 0.93 = 1.39 A.
12 + 8
I 4 = I5 + I6
3 ´ 11.38 Current distribution of circuit if as shown in figure
I5 = = 3.79 A. I 6 = 11.38 - 3.79 = 7.59 A
3+6 applying KVL across A - B - C - D : ®
i i i
Example : 2:- In the circuit shown, what is the V = R+ R+ R
3 6 3
power absorbed by each element.
é5 ù
V = R ê iú
ë6 û
5
Thus Req. = R
6
5
Solution : Wnting KVL for the loop:- Req. = ´ 6 = 5 R
6
8. STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION (D«Y)
Ra Rc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Rb Rc
R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
(b) Star to Delta Transformation:-
Also (I to II transformation)
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra =
R3
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb =
R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
(a) Delta to star Transformation:- Rc =
R1
Also (II to I transformation)
9. SOURCE TRANSFORMATION :
Voltage source in series with resistance can be
converted to equivalent current source in parallel
with resistance.
and
Solution : Applying source Transformation
theorem:-
Transformation of voltage source to current source.

Transformation of current source to voltage source.
Note:For dependent sources, source Transformation Appling KVL:-
can also be applied. However, the dependent 10 + 1 - Vn / 2
I=
variables should be kept intact, since the operation 5
of the dependent source depends on it. Vn = + I
Example : 1:- Do the source transformation of the
following circuit:-
Note:-
Solution : and
I
Example 2: In the following circuit, find the current 10 + 1 -
I= 2
flowing through 2W resistor. 5
I = 2A
NETWORK THEOREMS:
1. Super Position theorem:-
A linear network which contains two or more
independent sources can be analyzed to obtain the
various voltages and branch currents by allowing the (3 + 4)2
Req. = + 4 = 5.5W
source to act one at a time then super posing the 9
20
results. I= = 9.9 A.
5.5
Key Points:-
20 - 4I - 2i = 0
· This theorem is applicable to linear network
20 - 4 ´ 9.9
and time varying or invarying network. i= = -9.8 A
2
· Voltage source are replaced by SC and
So I 1 = 19.7 A.
current source by open circuit.
Step-2: Replacing 20V voltage source with SC and
· It is also applicable for circuit having initial
finding current through 3W resistor:-
condition.
· With dependent source, super position can
be applied only when the control function
are external to the network containing the
source, so that controls are unchanged, as
16
the source act one at a time. ´2
I 11 = 3 = 1.2 A
· This theorem directly can not applied to 16
+3
computation of power because power is non 3
linear. Thus current through 3L Resistor is
I = I 1 + I 11 = 20.9 A.
Example : -Compute the current in the 3W the
resistor by applying the super position theorem. Example : 2 :
By using which of the following theorem is possible

Solution :
Step-1: Replacing 2A current source with open to find the current through inductor:
source and finding current through 3W resistor:-
1. Thevenin theorem 3. When circuit has dependent source, then

2. Super position theorem connect 1A source at terminal a–b and find
3. Millman theorem V. This voltage Vab is equal to Rth.
4. Norton’s theorem · For circuit consisting of only dependent
Solution : If the sources have some frequency, it is sources, Vth = 0 but Rth ¹ 0.
easy to get solutionby using will man theorem.
While if sources have different frequency, then Example : Find the Thevenin equivalent of the
current through inductor is find out by using super following circuit:
position theorem.
2. Thevenin’s Theorem :
A linear, active and resistive network which contains
one or more voltage and current source, can be
Solution : Vth = Vab
replaced by a single voltage sauce of voltage called
Vab - 20 Vab - 10
Thevenin voltage and series resistance called + =0
3 6
Thevenin resistance Rth.
Vab = 10V .
Rth Can be obtained by shoestring voltage

sources:-
Key Points:-
· The resistance Rth can be computed by 3
methods:-
Rth =
Vth
Vth = Open 6´3
1. circuit voltage Rth = + 3 = 5W.
IN 6+3
(VOC) Example : For Case 2:- Determine the current
IN = Short circuit current at through 1W resistor across x-y in the circuit shown
terminala-v. using Thevenin’s theorem:-
2. In the absence of any dependent sources,

the Rth is equivalent to resistance at terminal
a-b while making all voltage sources SC and
current source open circuit.
Sol:To find Vth, remove 1L resistor a cross x, y

terminal and calculate Vxy as:-
3. Norton’s Theorem:-
Any two terminal linear bilateral network containing
active and passive elements can be replaced by a
equivalent current source in parallel to an equivalent
impedance. Current source is equal to the shout
circuit current through given terminals.
KVL at left most loop:-
18 - V0 - 2V0 = 0
V0 = 6V
VA = 2V0 = 12V
VA - 15 1
I= =- A Key Points:-
9 3
· I N ® Norton equivalent current
Vxy = VA - 5I = 13.67V .
Vth
To find Thevenin Resistance, open circuit the 5A IN =
Rth
current source and short circuit 18V and 15V voltage
source. Inject a 1A current in to network at x, · To find RN , it follows the 3 methods as
given for Thevenin circuit.
· RN Can be obtained in same manner as Rth.
Example : - Find the current flowing through
3Wresistor using Norton’s theorem.
Solution :
V0 = 0
VA = 0
VA - 5i = V xy
-5i = Vxy ........(1)
Andvxy = 4(i + 1)
Step-I:- Replace lord resistor by short circuit
-5i = 4i + 4
and find I S .C
4
i = - A.
9
4
Vxy = 5 ´ = 2.22V .
9
2.22
Thus Rth = = 2.22W
1A
Q I SC = 5 A.

Basic Circuits &amp; Network Laws

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Basic Circuits &amp; Network Laws

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Network Theory-EE 1

BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS & THEORY

1. INTRODUCTION TO CIRCUIT ELEMENT: Unit of conductivity: mho/m or siemens/cm

 Energy is then determined as the integral of 1

Where  = Resistivity (.m)

during one part of cycle and discharge during next 1

Example: In the interval 0 > t > 5 ms, a 20 f

(c) For an inductor of N no of turns:

The Plot indicate that the energy is zero at t = 0 and

(e) Non Linearity of circuit elements:

Note: Ohm’s law is valid for linear circuit

Example: Find the average and rms value of

dv i Example: A single circuit element has the current

Example: Obtain the voltage V in the branch shown

Solution: The element cannot be a resistor since V

meshes, called a loop. Thus a loop contains

(d) This law applies equally to DC, time

(a) Point 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are nodes. shown:-

(b) a, b, c, d, e, f and g are branches.

2. KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

+Va - V1 - Vb - V2 - V3 = 0 (a) Equivalent Resistance:- When element is

Or Va - iR1 - Vb - iR2 - iR3 = 0 resistance :

For any number of inductance:

5. CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PARALLEL:- This concept is applicable to n number of resistance.

L1 L2 For two branch current divider:-

Example : 1: Find all branch currents in the network

120 - 30 I - 2VA - 15 I = 0; VA = -15I

8. STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION (D«Y)

Transformation of voltage source to current source.

linear. Thus current through 3L Resistor is

By using which of the following theorem is possible

source and finding current through 3W resistor:-

1. Thevenin theorem 3. When circuit has dependent source, then

Rth Can be obtained by shoestring voltage

terminala-v. using Thevenin’s theorem:-

2. In the absence of any dependent sources,

Sol:To find Vth, remove 1L resistor a cross x, y

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Basic Circuits & Network Laws

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