Histology is The Study of Tissues

A. Tissues are composed of cells and the products of cells

B. Basic Tissues
1. Epithelial Tissues
Tissue that covers and lines organs and organisms, found on the surface
2. Connective Tissues
Tissue that Supports and connects, not found on the surface
3. Muscle Tissue
Tissue that contracts and produces motion and/or locomotion
4. Nerve Tissue
Tissue that respons to stimuli and conducts impulses, communication
of information

Cell Membrane Structure and Function

A. Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell membranes

1. Phospholipids are in two layers (fluid lipid) with cholesterol and other
lipids depending on the tissue
2. Hydrophilic heads are exposed to the extracellular fluid and the cytosol
3. Cholesterol is dissolved in the phospholipid layer
4. Proteins are associated with the inner surface (peripheral proteins)
5. Proteins are embedded in the membrane (integral proteins, transport
channels) and form channels for communication
6. Specialized Membrane structures, including
a. Gap junctions
b. Tight Junctions
c. Desmosomes
d. Hemidesmosomes
e. Microvilli
f. Stereocilia
B. Cell Membrane Functions
1. Boundry between cell contents and external environment
2. Regulates communication between the two environments
a. Diffusion
b. Osmosis
c. Filtration
d. Pinocytosis
e. Pinocytosis
f. Receptors for regulation
C. Intercellular Communication (Cell Junctions)
1. Functions:
a. Impermeable Junctions (tight junctions)
b. Communicating Junctions (gap junctions)
 c. Adhering Junctions (zonula adherens, desmosomes, and
hemidesmosomes)
2. Types of Junctions:
a. zonula adherens - continuous bands of epithelial sheets to maintain
structural stability.
b. desmosomes (macular adherens) - button like points of contact.
braces to maintain structural stability.
c. tight junctions (zonula occludens) - barriers to prevent diffusion
between cells
d. gap junctions - clusters of protein channels that allow small ions
and molecules to pass between cells ex. synchronize contractions of
heart muscle cells, rapidly spread action potentials (nerve cells)
e. hemidesmosomes - half desmosomes
f. Junctional Complex. = tight junctions, zonula adherens &/or
desmosomes, gap junctions

Nucleus

1. Structure: Membrane bound region of

the cell
2. Chromosomes (DNA & Protein)
a. Site of genetic information
coded in DNA (information
molecule)
b. Seen only during cell division
(Mitosis)
c. Interphase, thread-like,
Chromatin
3. Nucleolus (RNA) (Not shown)

a. Function: Site of Ribosome

Synthesis

Internal Membranes Membrane structure, Fluid Mosaic Model

1. GER - Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum,

(Ribosomes), At Left

a. Structure: Internal membrane system like

SER only with ribosomes attached
b. Function: Protein synthesis for export
from the cell.
c.
 1. SER -Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Not shown)
a. Structure: Foldings of double membranous channels in the
cytoplasm
b. Function: lipid synthesis, detoxification

Golgi body

1. Structure: Stacks of double membranes, droplets budding off edges

2. Function:
a. Packages cell products for export from the cell
b. Extrcellular coat
c. Digestive enzymes
d. hormones,

Membrane Bound Organelles

Mitochondria - Power House of the cell

1. Double membranous walls, Inner wall with many folds

2. Matrix with DNA, RNA, ribosomes
3. Functions: ATP production
a. Kreb Cycle, Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron
Transport)
b. Beta Oxidation

Membrane Bound Droplets

1. Lysosomes - produced in the Golgi, Droplets of digestive enzymes

a. Function:
Used for Intracellular Digestion
Used outside the cell, exocytosis

Nonmembranous Organelles
Ribosomes

1. Free in cytoplasm or on GER

2. Structure: ribonuclear protein particle (r-RNA
& protein)
3. Function: Site of protein synthesis
a. Receives protein structure information
from DNA (m-RNA)
 b. Polysome, group of ribosomes making
protein (Photo at left)

Microtubules and Microfilaments

Microtubules

1. Small, hollow tubes

2. Composed of the protein tubulin
3. Lengthened or Shortened by adding or taking away tubulin subunits
4. Found in:

a. Centrioles
b. Cilia & Flagells
c. Mitotic apparatus used to separate chromosomes during
division

Microfilaments

1. Long, solid, fiber-like strands of protein

2. Component of the Cytoskeleton (cell framework)
3. Can be assembled and disassembled

Centriole

1. In most animal cells, not plant cells

a. Centrosome, region near nuclear membrane

b. Basil body, at base of Cilium or Flagellum

2. Two sets of microtubules at right angles

3. 9 microtubules in a ring

Cilia and Flagella

1. Organelles of motion or locomotion

a. Cilia, short & many

Example: Paramecium
b. Flagella, long & few
Example: Euglena

2. Microtubules in 9 + 2 arrangement
a. 9 microtubules in a ring + 2 microtubules in the center
Epithelium I Epithelial Components

Basic Tissues

1. Epithelial Tissues
Tissue that covers and lines organs and organisms, found on the surface
2. Connective Tissues
Tissue that Supports and connects, not found on the surface
3. Muscle Tissue
Tissue that contracts and produces motion and/or locomotion
4. Nerve Tissue
Tissue that respons to stimuli and conducts impulses, communication of
information

Major Tissue Components

1. Cells
2. Fibers
3. Matrix (ground substance)

Epithelial Cell Organization

Classification of epithelia based on cellular component

1. Cell shape
a. Squamous cells
Flat or thin cytoplasm, the nuclei bulge above the cytoplasmic thickness
Functional characteristic: thin cytoplasmic adaptation for "diffusion "
b. Cuboidal cells
Square cells with round centrally located nuclei
Functional characteristic: Organelles for energy production and
secretory activity
c. Columnar cells
Tall or "column like" cells, normally oval shaped nuclei located near the
attached surface.
Functional characteristic: Organelles for energy production and
secretory activity
2. Cell layers
a. Simple Epithelium = Single layer
Diffusion membranes
b. Stratified Epithelium = Two or more layers of cells Basal layer:
generative (mitosis), Surface layer : mature cell type
Specializations of Epithelial cells:

a. cilia: contain microtubules, used to move materials across the surface of a

cell
b. microvilli: increase surface area for absorption.
c. flagella: contain organized microtubules, used to move a cell from one
area to another.
d. cellular junctions: gap, desmosomes, tight junctions etc.

Fibers

1. Reduced in Epithelium
2. Basement membrane, fibers secreted by epithelial cells at their attached
surface

Matrix

1. Extremely reduced

Epithelium II Simple Epithelia

Classification of Epithelia

1. Simple Squamous Epithelium ,

Single layer of cells, mesothelium lining body cavities, endothelium lining
blood vessels internal surface with friction:
Simple Squamous epithelium can be found in Bow's capsule of the renal
corpuscle in the kidney cortex and Henli's loop. All capillaries are Simple
Squamous epithelium as well as the lining of the heart and blood vessels.
The alveolar sacs of the lung are also lined with simple squamous. The
nuclei bulging in to lumen of these structures can be clearly seen.

2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Single layers of "cube like" cells can be found in the follicles in the thyroid
gland, form the proximal and distal tubules of the nephrons in the kidney.
 They form the secretory epithelium and ducts of many glands such as the
salivary glands and the pancreas. Note the rounded nuclei. A Brush
border is found in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule of kidney. What is this
brush border? Hint see specializations of cells.

3. Simple Columnar Epithelium

Single layer of tall, column like cells. Note the oval shape of nuclei and
their rather regular positions in respect to the length of the cell. Cell
membranes are clearly distinct. In Intestinal epithelium, a striated border
is found on free surface. The attached margin of each cell is irregular and
meshes into the fibers of the underlying tissue of the basement membrane.

4. Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar photo at top right on this page

Columnar cells appear to be in layers but are not. all cells are attached to
the basement membrane
The layered appearance is due to the different positions of the nuclei of
these cells.
1. Basal cells are short and irregular with their nuclei near the
basement membrane
2. Pyramidal cells have their nuclei about in the center of the cell,
midway between the base and the free epithelial surface
3. Columnar cells extend from the basement membrane to the free
surface; their nucleir are closest to the free surface. Only cells that
reach the free surface have cilia.

Some Pseudostratified epithelia have only 2 layers of cells. In

Respiratory epithelium there are all three types of cells. Single mucous
secreting gland cells are found scattered among these. The vas deferens
contains two types of cells and the free surface contains stereocilia
[branched microvilli, not true cilia].

Glands - All Glands [exocrine and endocrine} are produces by epithelial

tissue.
1. Endocrine Glands = secret into tissue spaces & blood vessels, ductless
glands, secrete hormones into the bloodstream
2. Exocrine Glands secrete onto epithelial surfaces, ducts: carry exocrine
secretions to surfaces
Gland types
a. holocrine gland: cell breaks down completely, releasing
cytoplasmic contents, produces a lipid, sebum, sebaceous glands
are examples
b. merocrine gland: cell secretes through exocytosis; watery,
electrolyte solution, eccrine sweat gland
c. apocrine gland: cell sheds distal cytoplasm; viscous, odorous
secretion

Secretions

d. serous secretions are watery and contain enzymes;

e. mucous secretions are viscous and provide lubrication
3. Simple unicelinar glands
These are found scattered among the epithelial cells. The goblet cells in
intestinal epithelia and the mucous cells in the respiratory tract are
simple Unicellular Glands. The goblet cells are nearly filled by a large
mucous drop and the "stem" contains the displaced nucleus which
extends to the basement membrane

Note: Mucus in goblet cell from intestinal epithelium

4. Multicellular Glands These glands result from the ingrowth of the

epithelium into the underlying connective tissue and are connected to
the epithelial surface by a duct. The cells in the lower portion of the
 gland become secretory in nature, producing either mucus or a watery
secretion(serous).

The secretory portion may be tubular or acinar, simple or branched, or

a combination of these. Note the position of the nucleus and the
staining reaction of the mucus in mixed glands (serous cells and
mucous cells). Mucous and serous cells Note the difference in staining
note the secretory granules in the cytoplasm of the differentiated
secretory cells.

Epithelial Cell Membranes (epithelium & underlying Connective tissue)

1. Mucous membranes:
viscous secretions, line passageways connected to the exterior.
ex. GI tract, esophagus, trachea
2. Serous membranes:
watery fluid secretions, line internal cavities to reduce friction
ex. pericardium, peritoneum, endocardium, endothelium, pleura
Blood and Bone Marrow

Connective Tissue functions

1. Protection, connection, support

2. Provide and maintain body form
3. Functions through extracellular components
a. Fibers
b. Cells
c. Matrix

Connective Tissue Composition

1. Cells - diverse morphology of cell types, plastic!

2. Fibers - protein fibers, produced by cells found in matrix
3. Matrix - amorphous ground substance

Connective Tissue Origin

Connective Tissue Types

1. Classified by Matrix
a. Fluid - Blood
b. Soft - Connective Tissue Proper
(Loose Irregular, Dense Irregular, Dense Regular, Adipose, Reticular)
c. Semi soft - Cartilage
d. Solid - Bone
TYPE CELLS FIBERS MATRIX
1. Blood,Lymph blood cells, dissolved watery
lymphocytes
2. Loose irregular fibroplasts collagen elastin, hyaluronic acid
connective tissue macrophages reticular
mast cells
plasma cells
3. Adipose adipocytes collagen elastin, hyaluronic acid
reticular
4. Dense regular fibroblasts primarily collagen viscous due to
connective tissue hyaluronic acid
5. Cartilage chondrocytes collagen, elastin, chondroitin
tissue reticular sulfate
6. Bone tissue osteocytes collagen mineralized,
calcium
phosphate and
calcium
carbonate

Blood and Lymph

1. Blood contains red cells, white cell populations and plasma

2. Lymph normally contains only one type of white cell, lymphocyte. Fluid
passes from the blood into the tissues, and the lymphatic vessels return
that fluid to the circulation
3. Blood is a Connective Tissue with a Fluid Matrix (plasma)
4. Ability to form fibers - Fibrinogen -> Fibrin
5. Formed Elements (contains cellular component of tissue)
6. Wrights Blood Stain [Eosin, RED acid stain, Methylene Blue, basic stain]
a. Erythrocytes
b. Neutrophilic Polynuclear cells
c. Eosinophilic Polnuclear cells
d. Basophilic Polynuclear cells
e. Large lymphocytes, small lymphocytes
f. Monocytes
g. Platelets.
Red Blood Cells

1. Enucleated, Biconcave Disk 7.2um

Macrocyte diameter greater than 9um
Microcyte diameter less than 6um
2. Mature = Filled with hemoglobin, Transports Oxygen, No mitochondria,
NO protein synthesis
3. Flexable - to fit varible capillary diameter
4. Normal count Female = 4.5-5 x 106, Male = 5 x 106
5. 120 day life span then Death of RBC, removed by spleen & bone marrow
6. Produced in the RED Bone Marrow
Embryonic mesenchyme cell -> Hemocytoblast! (stem cell)
Adult, Flat bones (sternum, vertebrae, ribs, clavicles, bones of pelvis, skull)
Newborn, all bone marrow is red
7. Bone Marrow - Reticular connective Tissue (Reticular cells, sinusoidal
capillaries, adipose cells, RBC maturation cells [FREE cells]], remain in
groups, one cell predominates in different phases of development
8. RBC maturation in Bone Marrow Myeloid element

White Blood Cells - Leukocytes [7-9 X 103] Myeloid & Lymphoid elements

1. Neutrophilic Polynuclear cells

a. 60% - 70% circulating WBC. diameter 12um
b. Lobed nucleus, 2-5 shape variable, drumstick
[heterochromatin]
c. Granules,
1. purple with Wrights stain, [staining varies among mammals
2. [0.3-0.8um] size limit of light microscope
3. Formed by Golgi
4. azurophilic, 1st promyelocyte, lysosomal enzymes & peroxidase
5. neutrophilic, 1st myelocyte, alkaline phospahtase, bacterialcidal
substances, Phagocytins
d. Acute infection, highly mobile, highly phagocytic
Spherical in the blood, amebiform [forms pseudopodia]on solid
substrate
e. both types of granules fuse with phagosome, granules decrease in
number after phagocytosis
f. Functions in anerobic enviroment of necrotic tissue
g. Terminal cell, once it uses its proteins, can not be replaced
h. Myeloid element
2. Eosinophilic Polnuclear cells
a. 1% - 4% circulating WBC. diameter 9um
b. Bilobed nucleus
c. Granules,
1. Ovoid
2. Red with Wrights stain, Eosinophilic
3. Larger than neutrophils
4. No lysosome, acid phospahtase, ribonuclease, cathepsin
5. Elongated crystalloid [phospholipids & unsaturated fatty acids]
surrounded by unit membrane
d. Not highly mobile or phagocytic
e. Phagocytosis of Selective Antigen antibody complexes
f. Increses in number in allergic reactions and parasitic infections
g. Myeloid element

3. Basophilic Polynuclear cells

a. 0% - 1% circulating WBC. diameter 12um
b. Large twisted s shaped nucleus
c. Granules,
1. Irregular in size and shape
2. Blue/metachromatic staining Basophilic
3. Larger than other granuocytes
4. Histamine & Heparin
5. Released in the presence of certain antigens
6. Surrounded by unit membrane
d. Not very active or phagocytic
e. Myeloid element

4. Large lymphocytes, small lymphocytes

a. 25% - 40% circulating WBC. diameter 6-8um
b. Heterogenous population of cells, small, medium, &
large
c. Round nucleus
d. Cytoplasm, some times small azurephilic granules
e. Origin Bone marow in later fetal and post natal life
1. Become immunocompetant out side of the bone marrow
2. Differentiate into B cells & T cells
3. Colonize other organs
f. B Cell Funtions [matures in Bursa in birds]
1. Activated by antigen
2. Differentiates into Plasma cells
3. Produces antibodies
4. Produces Memory cells
 g. T Cell Funtions [matures in thymus gland]
1. Cell mediated immunity
2. Binds to foreign cells
3. Graft rejection
4. Produces Memory cells
5. T Helper & Surpressor cells
h. Lymphoid element

5. Monocytes
a. Nucleus - oval, kidney, horseshoe; chromatine stains
lightly, less condensed, 2-3 nucleoi
b. Basophilic cytoplasm with azurophilic granules
(lysosome)
c. Highlt mobile, highly phagocytophilic
d. Major cell of chronic infections (100 bacteria per cell)
e. Moves into the tissues from the blood after a few days, becomes a
histiocyte
1. Mononuclear phagocytic system (reticuloendothelial system)
2. Receptors on the plasma membrane for complement &
immunogloublins

6. Platelets "thrombocytes!"
a. Fragments of megakaryocyte cytoplasm
b. central zone - purple granule, granulomere
c. transparent zone blue stained, hylomere
d. Releases
1. serotonin - constricks blood vessels
2. thromboplastin - converts prothrombin -> thrombin
3. thrombosthenin - causes contraction of the clot

Bone Marrow and Hematopoiesis

1. Yellow marrow, storage and reserve, rich in adipose (fat) cells

2. Red marrow rich in RBC, Hematopoiesis
a. Newborn - all marrow is red
b. Adults - flat bones (sternum, vertebrae, ribs, clavicles, bones of pelvis,
skull
3. Structure
a. fixed cells, reticular cells, sinusoidal capillaries, macrophages, adipose
cells
b. free cells, RBC & WBC maturation series
remain in groups, one cell type predominates, in different phases of
development
4. Formed elements in the blood have a relatively short life span.
5. Their constant disappearance from the blood is balanced by a continual
production of new cells (Hematopoiesis).
6. These begin with undifferentiated stem cells and go through the processes
of differentiation and mitosis.
7. The stem cell (hemocytoblast!) or CFU is formed only the bone marrow.
8. The morphology of the developmental stage in the erythrocytic and
granulocytic series in the bone marrow is diagramed in color (page xi) and
black and white (page 294) of your text book, Basic Histology.
9. Erythrocyctic series [RBC maturation ] = Intermediates in the
developement of Red Blood cells (Erythrocytes)
a. Proerythroblast
b. Basophilic erythroblast
c. Polychromatophilic erythroblast
d. Normoblast
e. Reticulocyte
f. Erythrocyte
10. Granulocytic series = Intermediates in the developement of granulocytic
White Blood cells
a. Promyelocyte
b. Metamyelocytes - Neutrophilic Basophilic and Eosinophilic
c. Mature granulocytes.
11. Platelet Production = Megakaryoblast (2n, 4n, 8n, 16n, ), develops into
Megakaryocyte
a. (32n) in the bone marrow. Platelets are cytoplasmic fragments of the
Megakaryocyte.
12. Lymphocytic series
a. Originate mainly in Lymphatic organs and to a lesser extent in the
bone marrow
b. Circulating stem cells are indistinguishable from nature Lymphocyte.
c. Lymphoblast, largest cell of series with 2 or 3 nucleoli,
d. Prolymphocyte, smaller nucleoli not easily seen.
13. Monocytic series - Originates in bone marrow and terminates in
connective tissue as a macrophage.
a. Promonocyte
b. Monoblast? cannot be identified accurately in the normal person but
are clearly seen in the circulation of patients with monocytic leukemia.
Connective Tissue II

Connective Tissue Proper

1. The Matrix - soft

2. Fibers
3. Fixed & Wandering cells
4. Types of connective tissue proper
a. Loose irregular connective tissue: mesentaries, lamina propria
b. Dense regular connective tissue:
1. ligaments:connect bone to bone,
2. tendons connect muscle to bone
3. harness the contractile force generated by muscular contraction
c. Dense irregular connective tissue, dermis of skin, submucosa etc.
d. Specialized connective tissues
1. Adipose connective tissues
2. Elastic connective tissues
3. Reticular connective tissues

Fibers

1. Are synthesized by Fibroblasts

2. Three types can be distinguished, morphologically and histochemically
different
3. Collagenous fibers (White)
a. 30% of body weight
b. Produced by the fibroblast
c. Tropocollagen - side to side, end to end
d. High in glycine 33.5%, hydroxyproline 10%, proline
12%
e. 1% hexose
f. Synthetic process, see text
g. Most mumerous
h. Thick wavy bundles, never branch
i. Striated
j. Acidophilic - blue, aniline blue; green in sometrichrome, yellow with
safronin
4. Elastic fibers (Yellow)

a. These are solid, single fibrotubules with amorphous center region

Mature amorphous material predominates
b. Thinner than a collagenous fiber
 c. Branch extensively and unite
d. Non-striated
e. Scleroprotein - elastin, hydrolyzed by elastase
f. Can stretch to 1 and 1 half its lenth and returns
g. Special stains (orcein, resorcin-fusin) are used
5. Reticular Fibers
a. Produced by Reticular cells
b. Not visible in H & E preparations
c. Extremely fine, argyrophilic fibers (need silver
preparations, right)
d. PAS+, high hexose content 6-12%
e. Predominate in Lymphoid Organs ( Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus,
bone marrow)
f. Abundent in embryo and replaced by Collagen in the adult

Matrix.

1. Fills space between cells and fibers

2. Secreted by fibroblast
3. Acid mucopolysaccharides, glycoproteins, water, minerals
4. Stains, PAS+, metachromatic with Toluidine Blue
5. Tissue fluid minimal, except in Edema (venous or lymphatic obstruction,
starvation)
6. See chart in text

Cells

1. General characteristics
a. Found in the spaces between the meshwork of fibers.
b. Many C.T. cells develope from the fibroblast of C.T. proper
c. Many different types of cells found in areolar (loose irregular) tissue
2. Fibroblast.
a. Form fibers
b. Cytoplasm clear
c. Irregular cell shape
d. Nuclei, easily seen, slightly elongate lightly stained
3. Histiocytes (macrophages)
a. Next most common cell.
b. They can be best seen in tissue
c. taken from experimental animals which have been injected with
certain vital stains.
d. Related to monocytes (blood.)
e. Distinguished from fibrocytes by their more darkly staining nuclei
f. See table below

Cell type Fibroblast Histiocyte

 Long, flat to spindle Flat, round to spindle
Cell shape
Processes 1-several Sometimes branched
In groups or among
Location Near collagenous fibers fibroblasts. Near
vascular areas.
Smaller, heavy membrane
Large, oval, slightly slightly folded
Nucleus folded and delicate Irregularly oval or
membrane lightly stained kidney shaped, darkly
stained.
Chromatin Dust-like Coarse & dark
Nucleoli One or many, large No Large
Cytoplasm Poorly staining R Stains dark

4. Mast cells
a. Centrally located nucleus
b. Basophilic granules (similar to Basophil of circulating blood)
1. Heparin (redish purple stain with toluidine blue)
2. Histamine, release triggered by membrane binding of IgE
from plasma cell
3. Contraction of smooth muscle, mostly in bronchioles
4. Dilates blood vessels, increases premeability of capillaries
5. SRS-A, slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis,
release triggered by membrane binding of IgE from plasma
cell
contraction of smooth muscle
6. ECF-A, eosinophil chemotactic factor,
release triggered by membrane binding of IgE from plasma
cell
attracks eosinophils
5. Plasma cells, antibody producing
a. Oval cell
b. Nucleus, :clock face", off center,
toward one end
c. Basophilic cytoplasm
d. Few in number, increases in
chronic infection
e. Area of bacterial penetration
f. Develops from activated B lymphocyte
6. Adipose cells, fat cells
a. Fibroblast cytoplasm becomes filled with
fat(triglycerides).
1. White fat - unilocular, contain a
single large fat droplet.
2. Brown fat - multilocular, contains
many smaller fat droplets
7. Leukocytes
a. Lymphocytes small B & T cells found in lamina propria, migrate into
lumen
life days to weeks, some months to years
b. Eosinophils
8. Chromatocytes, pigment cells

Connective Tissue Types

1. Embryonic Connective Tissue

a. Mesenchyme.
1. Embryonic tissue from which most of the mature connective
tissues develop.
2. Three dimensional network of stellate cells.
b. Mucoid Connective Tissue in Umbilical Cord
1. Wharton's jelly
2. Matrix - chiefly of hyaluronic acid,
3. Fibers-collagen, with few elastic or reticular fibers.
4. Cells - mainly fibroblasts.
2. Connective Tissue Proper.
a. Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue
1. Flexable
2. Not very resistant to stress
3. Mostly amorphous ground substance (Matrix)
4. All connective tissue compounents , cells & fibers, found here
5. Supports epithelial tissue, serosal linings of peritoneal and pleural
cavities, encircles blood vessels & lymphatics, between muscle
fobers and sheaths
b. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
1. Stress resistant in all directions
2. Less flexable than loose areolar C.T.
3. 3d network of fibeers
4. Fewer cells than loose areolar C.T.
5. More collagen fibers
6. Fibroblast, most common cell type
7. Dermis of skin, submucosa if intestines, capsules around Spleen,
Lynpg nodes, and Ganglia
c. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
1. Also called Collagenous or Fibrous connective tissue
 2. Coarse collagenous fibers all running parallel with the fibrocytes
in a linear arrangement
3. Stress in ONE direction
4. Great resistance to traction forces
5. Tendons: Primary bundles bound into larger bundles,
surrounded by loose C. T. with blood vessels & nreves
6. Sheath of Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
d. Elastic Tissue
1. Yellow, highly elastic
2. Bundles of parrallel elastic fibers, fibroblasts between fibers
3. Similar to tendon, but the collagenous fiber bundles are replaced
by coarse elastic fibers.
4. Aorta, Ligamentum nuchae, yellow ligaments of vertebral column
3. Connective Tissue with Special Properties
a. Reticular tissue.
1. Framework of many organs, particularly glands.
2. Characteristic fiber, argyrophil reticular fiber
3. Reticular fibers produced by Reticular cells (specialized
fibroblasts)
4. Stellate cells with long processes, large nuclei, fine chromatine, 1
or more nuclei
5. Cytoplasmic processes resemble those of primitive mesenchymal
cells
6. Free cells characteristic of the organ found in the reticular
framework
7. Bone marrow, Lymph nodes, Spleen, Thymus, Framework of
hematopoietic tissue
b. Adipose tissue.
1. Function
1. Storage of neutral fat (triglycerides)
2. Energy reservation, thermal insulation
3. Body shape, subcutaneous connective tissue
4. Shock absorbers, pads on palms & soles
2. Color; white to dark yellow
3. Reticular fiber network around each cells
4. Tissue metabolically active, continously renewed
5. Highly vascular, not apparent
6. Distribution density determined by age and sex
7. Lipid sources
1. Fatty acids in chylomicrons
2. Fatty acids in in triglycerides synthesized in the liver
3. Synthesized from glucose in the adipose cell
4. From neutral fats from adiposecyte metabolism
8. Mesenchyme -> Lipoblast -> adipose cells
9. White Fat Tissue
1. single large vacuole filled with triglyceride,
 2. signet ring cell,
3. "hairnet"
10. Brown Fat Tissue
1. Polygonal cells, smaller than "signet ring" cells
2. Resembles endocrine gland, closely packed masses of cells
3. hibernating animal(heat generation), new born infant
4. No formation after birth
5. One type not transformed into the other

Cartilage

1. The Matrix semi-solid

2. Fibers Collagen & Elastic
3. Cells, Fibroblasts of perichondrium, Chondroblasts and Chondrocytes
4. Types of Cartilage
a. Hyaline Cartilage
b. Elastic Cartilage
c. Collagenous/Fibrocartilage
5. Characteristics of Cartilage
A. Highly perfected for Support and Protection
B. Only bone has more weight bearing capacity
C. Support for soft tissues
D. Sliding surface for bones
E. Smooth and resilient
F. composition
a. Devoid of blood vessels
1. nutrition by diffusion through the matrix
b. hardness: glucosaminoglycans
c. See hyaline cartilage below
d. Special properties:types of fibers (Collagen, elastic)
6. Embryology
0. Precartilage develops from mesenchyme
1. Cells are packed together due to rapid Mitotic activity
2. Embryonic skeleton
7. Adult
0. Tracheal rings,
1. Costal cartilage
2. Articulating surface of long bones
8. Types of cartilage based on matrix & fiber type
0. Hyaline
1. Elastic
2. Collagenous
General Structure

A. Perichondrium, outer layer of similar to connective tissue proper

1. Outer layer, fibrous layer
2. Layer next to cartilage, chondrogenic (cartilage forming) layer,
contains chrondrobasts
a. Fibroblasts are chondrogenic (apositional growth)
b. Chondrocytes, mature cartilage cells found in lacuna (space in
semi-solid matrix)
c. Chondroblasts, developing Chondrocytes, from fibroblasts of
perichondrium
B. Growth and repair of cartilage
1. Apositional growth,
a. Fibroblasts of the perichondrium differentiate into chondroblasts,
flat cells, rounded ends
b. Chondroblasts secrete cartilagenous matrix and becom "trapped"
in lacunae
2. Interstitial growth by mitosis of mature chondrocytes

Types of cartilage

A. Hyaline Cartilage
1. Matrix "Glassy"
a. Collagen Fibers, (40% of dry
wt)same refractive index. index as
matrix, not seen!
b. Sulfated Proteoglycans protein core
1. with short, unbranched
mucopolysaccharides, "bottle
brush like"
2. chondroiten 4-SO4
3. chondroiten 6-SO4
4. keratin sulfate
c. Hyaluronic acid - long unbranced chains
d. Gucosaminoglycans cross linked with Collagen fibers provides
rigidity
 2. Chondrocyters
a. Chondrocytes synthesize all matrix components
(B in Photo at right)
b. Located in Lacunae (C in Photo at right)
c. Capsule, matrix area around the lacuna (A in
Photo at right)
1. Collagen poor
2. Glucosaminoglycan rich
3. More basophilic
4. PAS+
5. Metachromatic
d. Note: histological preparation causes shrinkage
of chondroctes
B. Elastic Cartilage
1. Yellow
2. Elastic fibers in matrix
3. Higher cell density
4. External ear, epiglottis, a few larynegeal cartilages
5. Orcein elastic stain to "see" fibers (photo, top of page)
6. Degenerates less than Hyaline cartilage
C. Collagenous/Fibrocartilage
1. Coarse Collagen fibers embedded in matrix
2. No perichondrium
3. Lacuna with chondrocytes
4. Seems a mixture of cartilage and fibrous connective tissue

Bone

A. The Matrix - Solid

1. Osteoid, organic matrix, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, collagen
2. Minerals, calcium & phosphate, hydroxyapatite [CA10(PO4)6(OH)2]
3. ppt from blood based on solubility product of calcium & phosphate
4. Highly vascular
B. Fibers Collagen type I
C. Cells, Fibroblasts of periostium, osteoblasts osteocytes and osteoclasts
1. osteoblasts, derived from fibroblasts,
a. synthesize organic matrix,
b. cuboidal to columnar shape when producing matrix,
c. basophilic cytoplasm
2. osteocytes, mature bone cells,
a. flattened, oval with filopodial processes (in canaliculi) that extend
through matrix
b. maintain matrix, if the die matrix is resorbed
3. osteoclasts, large motile cells,
 a. produced by fusion of blood monocytes,
b. acidophilic cytoplasm,
c. secrete acid, collagenase, proteolytic enzymes,
d. liberate calcium from matrix,
e. found in Howships lacunae
D. Types of Bone
1. Structure
a. Primary, Immature or woven
1. 1st formed in embryo or during bone repair
2. ramdom deposition of collagen,
3. less mineral content
4. replaced in adults,
b. Mature or lamellar
1. Collagen fibers arranged in lamallae/layers
2. Layers around a central canal (haversian system, osteon
2. Osteogenesis
a. Membranous Bone, Intramembranous
b. Endochondral Bone, Intracartilagenous

Characteristics of Bone

A. Highly perfected for Support and Protection

B. Organs: Bones
C. Functions:
1. Support & Protection for soft body parts
2. Points of attachments for muscles (Makes movement possible)
3. Red & Yellow marrow -> Blood cell production

Bone Structure

A. Membranous Bone
1. Ossification directly from C. T. Membranes
2. Bones of the Skull
B. Endochondral Bone, Long Bones
1. Medullary (marrow) Cavity
a. Cavity in Shaft of bone filled with marrow
(diagram=pink)
b. Red Marrow - Blood forming connective tissue
c. Yellow Marrow - Fatty connective tissue
2. Epiphysis (Ends of Long Bone)
a. Spongy Bone
1. Meshwork of bone, spaces filled with marrow
(diagram=Black & white)
2. Osteocytes in lacunae connected by canaliculi
3. No Osteons/Haversan Systems
b. Epiphyseal Plate (Closure of Growth region, diagram=Black Line)
c. Covered with Hyaline Cartilage (diagram=red)
 3. Diaphysis (Shaft of Long Bone)
a. Medullary Cavity (see above)
b. Compact Bone (diagram=Blue,
photo=pink)
1. Osteons (Haversan Systems)
a. Rings of Osteocytes
(Lamella)
b. Central Canal (Blood vessels,
nerves)
c. Osteocytes in lacunae connected by canaliculi
Transfer of nutrients from Haversian canal and cell to cell
d. Lamellar Layers of Collagen Fibers up to 5 Rings

Ground bone, Low Magnification left, High

Magnification, right (note osteocytes)

2. Volkman Canals, no rings of oteocytes

3. Interstitial lamellae fill the spaces between Haversian systems
4. Periosteum (osteogenic)
a. Tough connective tissue membrane around shaft of bone
b. Cells, fibroblasts, are osteogenic
c. Sharoy's fibers penetrate bone
5. Endosteum (osteogenic)
a. Tough connective tissue membrane lining marrow cavities of bone
b. Cells, fibroblasts, are also osteogenic

Bone Development

A. Intramembranous Osteogenesis
1. most of the cranial/flat bones, increase in
diameter of long bones
2. develop directly out of mesenchyme
3. Primary Ossification centers (starting point)
4. Fibroblast - Osteoblast - Osteocyte
5. Matrix is produced and calcified
a. Matrix sysnthesis results using 3H-
glycine
1. 30 min in osteoblast
2. 4 hours in osteoid
 3. 35 hours in calcified bone
b. Calcification is dependent on the blood levels of calcium and
phosphate

6. bone spicules formed

7. Cuboidal osteoblasts along the outer surface
8. Osteoclasts sculpture the bone [found in large depressions (Howslip's
Lacuna) ]

9. Ossification centers expand and fuse to form completed bone

B. Endochondral Osteogenesis
1. Bone preformed in embryo as hyaline cartilage
2. Cartilage is replaced by bone in the following steps
3. The low power magnification of the developing long bone
at the right is from the lower leg of a mouse. It gives an
overview of the whole process
1. Zone of Proliferation
a. Mitotic division of chondrocytes
b. Area of bone growth in length by
increase in cell number
c. small size and arrangement of the cells
d. In the magnified view of the bone
below, note the Area of bone growth.
The cells are very flattened.

2. Zone of Maturation
. Chondrocytes are arranged in columns parallel to
the long axis of the bone
a. Growth occurs by increase in cell size
 b. In the enlarged photo above maturation is taking
place darker blue area above the light blue area.
3. Zone of Hypertrophy(and cartlaginous
calcification)
. Chondrocytes enlarge and become
vacuolated
a. Lacunae enlarge
b. In the enlarged photo above
(maturation) note the light blue area
of hypertrophy
c. In the high magnification photo at the right. Note:
the hypertrophy in the lower cells compared to
those at the top of the photo
4. Zone of Calcified Cartilage
. Cartilagenous matrix becomes calcified
a. Blocks flow of nutrients
b. Chondroncytes die, leaving spicules of calcified
cartilage
c. Connective tissue from periostium growths in
d. Blood vessels and capillaries grow
in
5. Zone of Ossification
. Osteoblasts form along the
trabeculae of calcified cartilage
a. Osteoblasts secretion bony matrix
over the calcified cartilage
b. Detail show in photo at the right. Dark blue
spicules in the center of the cavity
6. Periosteal Bone Formation
. Periosteum forms a bony collar around
the central portion of the developing
bone
a. Periosteal collar supports the developing
bone structure
b. Periosteal collar detail in photo at right.
note light blue bone and the red of the
osteoblasts
7. Secondary Ossification Center
. Starts in one of the epiphysis
a. Starts in the other epiphysis
b. Epiphyseal plate (proliferating cartilage ) forms
c. Growth zone between the epiphysis and the shaft
Muscle Tissue

A. Types of muscle tissue

1. Skeletal Muscle cells, Striated, voluntary
2. Cardiac Muscle Cells striated, involuntary, only in the heart.
3. Smooth Muscle Cells, nonstriated, involuntary
B. Functions:
1. Contraction, Locomotion
2. Breathing
3. Body form & shape
C. Organs:
1. Skeletal, voluntary muscles of the body
2. Cardiac, only in the heart.
3. Smooth Muscle, walls of blood vessels, organs, G.I. tract etc.
D. Contractile Molecules - Actin and Myosin System
1. Actin
a. G-actin - monomer, binding site for myosin, polimerizes into
strands
b. F-Actin - long polymer, two strands of twisted G-actin,
2. Myosin

a. Found in all Eukaryotic Cells

b. Actin and myosin inside plant cell (cyclosis)
c. Invertbrate Muscle
1. Coelenterates - Myoepithelial Cells
(Myoneme Arrow, right)
2. Round Worms - Longitudinal Muscles ONLY, whip like
motion!
3. Earthworms - Circular and Longitudinal muscle layers
4. Arthropods - muscle attached inside skeleton
E. Relaxing Molecules
1. Troponin
a. inhibits actin myosin interaction
b. binds calcium
2. Tropomyosin
a. thin filaments, 2 polypeptide chains (40nm)
b. Found between the 2 twisted strans of actin
c. bind 1 Troponin complex

Skeletal Muscle tissue

A. Connective Tissue Support

1. Composition
a. Endomysium - Reticular fibers and delicated C.T. surrounding
individual muscle fibers
b. Perimysium - Dense irregular C.T, bindin groups of fibers into
Fascicles
c. Epimysium - Dense irregular C.T, bindin groups of Fascicles into a
muscle (organ)
2. Functions
a. Unites forces generated by all the cells
b. support for blood vessels and nerves (capillaries between fibers)
c. Collagen fibers insert into foldings of the sarcolemma, juntion
with tendons
d. Series Elastic Component - Connective Tissue, tendons, muscle
sheath etc
B. Skeletal Muscle Tissue Organization
1. Motor Unit - all muscle fibers innervated by a single neuron
a. Innervation ratio (motor neuron:muscle fibers, 1:100 to 1:2000)
b. Eye motor neurons 1:23, Gastrocnemius 1:1000
2. Myoneural Junction
a. Synapse between motor neuron & muscle
fiber
b. Neurotransmitter - acetylcholine
c. Motor end plate - specialized area of
sarcolemma under axon terminal (Arrow in
Photo at right)
C. Skeletal Muscle Fiber
1. Fiber = Long multi nucleated cell
a. Sarcolemma = cell membrane, plasmalemma
b. Nucleus located Under Sarcolemma (see x
section at right)
c. Sarcoplasm = cytoplasm of the muscle cell
d. Sarcosome = mitochondris of the muscle cell
e. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum = smooth
endoplasmic reticulun
 f. Transverse Tubule System (T tube)
g. Myofibrils (long filamentous cylinders)
2. Striations: Myofibril banding, tandem arrangement
3. Myofibril Organization
a. Parallel to length of the muscle cell
b. Banding Pattern
1. I Band (isotropic, do not alter polarized light) light
band
2. Dark line in mid I band = Z line ( seen with EM)
3. A Band (anisotropic, birefringent in polarized light),
dark band
4. H band = lighter zone in center of A Band

c. Sarcomere
1. Extends from Z line to Z line
2. Basic unit of contraction
3. Composed of of Thick & Thin filaments
1. Thick filaments - myosin (A band)
2. Thin filaments - actin (I band) with "relaxing
protein" troponen & tropomyosin
3. Z line - Thin filament attachment point
4. Sarcoplasmic reticulum wrapped around sarcomere of
myofrbril, sequesters calcium
5. T tube form triad with sarcoplasminc reticulum at A I
band junction (mammals)
D. The sliding filament theory of contraction
1. Sliding filaments produced by cross bridge formation
a. Actin / myosin not attached at rest (Binding blocked by troponen
tropomyosin complex)
b. Globular heads of myosin, act as myosin ATPase, ATP => ADP +
Pi
1. ADP + Pi remain bound to myosin, required before
binding with actin
c. Myosin heads bind to specific binding site on Actin
1. ADP & Pi are released
2. Conformational change in myosin producing POWER
stroke
2. Excitation contraction coupling
 i. Motor Nerve Impulse initiates an End Plate Potential
(EPSP of muscle cell)
ii. Impulse travels across the sarcolemma & down the t
tubes to SR
iii. Action Potential stimulates the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
to release sequestered Ca++
iv. Ca++ binds to Troponen and displaces Tropomyosin,
unblocking binding sites
v. Actin myosin cross bridges occur and muscle contracts.

Cardiac Muscle tissue (Myocardium)

A. Branching, tightly knit fibers

B. Rich blood supply, capillaries between cells
C. Single cells with 1 or 2 nuclei, centrally located
D. High concentration of mitochondria around nucleus, and between
myofibrils
E. Striations similar to Skeletal Muscle
1. A and I bands and sarcomere as in Skeletal Muscle
2. T tube forms Diad with sarcoplasminc reticulum
at Z-line
3. High concentration of glycogen
F. Intercalated disks
1. Junction between two cells
2. Junction has both a vertical and horizontal plane (along length of
cells)
a. horizontal plane
1. contains Gap junctions, ionic continuity, signals pass
from cell to cell
b. vertical plane
1. anchors actin filaments
2. has Desmosomes to keep cells from pulling apart
G. Involuntary Muscle (initiates its own contractions)

Smooth Muscle tissue

A. Cellular Organization
1. Single, non striaed cells that taper at their ends
a. Contracted - short and fat with folds in membrane
b. Relaxed - long and thin
2. Wrapped in a network of reticular fibers (helps to combind contraction
force)
3. Single, centrally located nucleus
4. No T tubes
5. some Sarcoplasmic reticulum
B. Contractile Elements
1. Bundles of myofilaments criscross through the cell forming a network
 2. Ratio of thick filaments to thin filaments 16:1
3. Long myosin filaments have heads along the whole lenth with clear
regions at the ends (reverse of skeletal muscle)
4. Ca++ binds calmodulin (No troponen)
a. Activates myosin light chain kinase
b. Latch state, maintains contraction (low energy) not well
understood
c. Graded depolarization
C. Single unit - large number of Gap junctions, function as a single unit
D. Multiunit - innervation of a group of cells

Nerve Tissue I Neurons

I. Neural Tissue Types

A. Neuroglial cells, supportive cells of the nervous system.
B. Neurons, functional cells of the nervous system. (Photo CNS
pyramidal cells)
II. Human Nervous System
A. Anatomical Organization
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) Organization

Embryonic Adult Cavities

Brain

Forebrain Cerebral hemispheres Lateral

Thalamus/Hypothalamus Ventricles
Third
Ventricle

Midbrain Midbrain Acquiduct

Hindbrain Pons Fourth

Cerebellum Ventricle
Medulla oblongata

Neural tube Spinal Cord Spinal

Canal

2. NERVOUS SYSTEM ORGANIZATION (Review)

A. CNS Protection
1. Bones of the Skull
2. Cranial Meninges: Dura mater, Arachnoid Space, Pia
mater
3. Cerebrospinal Fluid
 B. Anatomical Organization
CNS
a. Brain - Five Regions (See Chart)
b. Spinal Cord - Cervical, Thoracic,
Lumber (Level of Vertebras) Photo right

PNS

c. Cranial Nerves [12]

d. Spinal Nerves
3. HISTOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
0. CNS - Gray Matter [Nerve cell bodies], Brain Peripheral, Central "H" of
Spinal Cord (#2 in Photo above) Below Arrow points to Motor neuron in the
grey matter

1. CNS - White Matter [Axon bundles, tracts], Brain Central, Spinal cord
Peripheral (#1 in Photo above) Below Arrow 1 points to the axon and Arrow 2
points to the myelin (blue), both in the white matter.

2. PNS - Ganglia [Nerve cell bodies]Isolated &mp in organs

3. PNS - Nerves [Axon bundles]Cranial &mp Spinal
III. Nerve Tissue
A. Supportive Cells = Neuroglial (GlialCells) Next class
B. Neurons = Functional Cells of the Nervous System
1. Receptor - receives the stimulus, generates Action Potential
2. Cell Body (Cyton, Perikaryon )supports the cell
3. Dendrites receives the Action Potential
4. Axon - Transmitts the Action Potential
5. Terminal Knob end of axon with Neurotransmitters (Chemical
that crosses synapse)
6. Synapses - (between neurons) Types Electrical - Gap Junctions,
Chemical - Neurotransmitter Release
 7. Functional Types of Neurons
. Sensory - impulses to the CNS
a. Motor - impulses away form the CNS
b. Interneurons - between other neurons
8. Morphology of neurons
0. Multipolar - one axon, many dendrites
1. Bipolar - one axon, one dendrite
2. Pseudounipolar - one process containing both axon & dendrite
C. Neuronal organization
1. Neurotransmitter to Muscle (Motor Neuron)

2. Autonomic NS neurotransmitters

D. Neuronal Cytology
1. Nucleus
. finely dispersed chromatin, nucleolus
(female, Barr body) pale staining
2. Cytoplasm
. Nissl substance - RER & Free Ribosomes,
varies with neuron and functional state
0. RER highly developed, free
ribosomes in "rosettes (polysomes)
1. structural proteins, proteins
for transport
2. extends into dentrites
1. reduced amount -
Injury/Exhaustion, nucleus
migrates to perifery
a. Golgi - arround nucleus, only
in perikaryon
b. Mitochondria - in perikaryon, concentrated mostly in Teerminal Knobs
c. Neurofilaments, Microtubules - abundent in karyon, criscrossing
isolates RER, free ribosomes into Nissl substance
3. Dendrites
. Normal distribution - 3D arborization
a. Receptor areas - 200,000 in purkinje cell
b. Size & Shape - short & many, tapered toward end
c. contain
0. Nissl substance
1. Mitochondria
2. Neurofilaments and microtubules (more than axons)
3. Thorny spikes (gemmules) for synaptic contact
4. Axon
 . One per cell, long process from thickened
Hillock
a. short to 40 inches long
b. constant diameter, does not taper
c. Few organelles, low synthetic activity, almost NO ribosomes
d. Mitochondria
e. Neurofilaments, Microtubules
f. Do not branch profusely, collaterals at right angles
g. Terminal Knob
0. Mitochondria
1. Neurotransmitter vessicles that fuse with the presynatic membrane to
release
5. Synapse Types
0. Axon to Dentrite - Axodendritic
1. Axon to Perikaryon - Axosomatic
2. Between axons - Axoaxonic
3. Between dendrites - Dendrodendritic
4. Between Axon and Effector (muscle or gland)
5. Electrical Synapse = Gap Junctions join neurons
0. Gap Junctions allow ions & small
molecules to move from cell to cell
1. Coordinates contractions of large masses of muscles (heart, smooth
muscle)
2. Embryonic tissues - disappear after specialization occurs
3. Neurons of the Brain - possible 2 way transmission!!
4. Neuroglial cells - No impulses!!
6. Chemical Synapse
0. Components:
1. Presynaptic membrane, with
neurotransmitter vessicles
2. Space
3. Postsynaptic membrane
1. Neurotransmitter
diffuses across synapse
E. Neuron types (examples)
1. Pyramidal cells (Motor) of the cerebral cortex
2. Spinal motor neurons in the grey matter of the spinal cord

spinal motor neuron from spinal smear

 3. Spinal Sensory ganglion (Posterior root ganglion)
4. Purkinji Cells of the Cerebellum
F. Receptors of Sensory Neurons
1. Pacinian (Lamellated) corpuscle
2. Meissner's corpuscle (skin)
3. Tactile nerve ending in ground mole(above)
Sister Anna Catherine doctoral research slides
4. Autonomic Ganglion [Auerbach, Meissners plexus in small
intestine] or other tissue.

Pacinian (Lamellated) Meissner's

corpuscle corpuscle Tactile nerve
(skin) endings

IV. Myelinated nerve fiber

1. Central axis cylinder = Axon
2. Periodic contrictions = "nodes of Ranvier"
3. Oblique cuts in medullary sheath = incisures of Schmidt-Lantermann
(telescope effect to the sheath)
4. Surface membrane = neurilemma
V. Meninges Membranes covering the CNS
0. Dura mater
1. Dense Connective tissue Layer
2. In the skull, Continous with the periosteum
3. In the spinal cord, Separated from the periosteum of the
Vertebrae (Epidural space)
1. Arachnoid
1. Connective Tissue, without Blood vessesl
2. Sub Arachnoid Space with Cerebral Spinal Fluid
3. Arachnoid villi or granulations, push through the Dura mater
4. pass Cerebral Spinal Fluid into veins
2. Pia mater
1. Loose connective tissue, highly vascular
2. Follows the convolutions of the brain
3. Neuroglial processes separate brain tissue from Pia mater

Nerve Tissue II
Neuroglea & Nerves

ORGANIZATION OF NEURAL TISSUE ---- Cells of the Nervous

System

I. Neuroglia (nervous System Support Cells)

Developmentally related to neurons

Carry no nerve impulses
Accessory cells to the neurons.

A. Central Nervous System

1. Oligodendrocytes:
a. Long processes Form myelin around Axons
in the CNS
b. Myelin: layers of glial cell membrane
around an axon
c. Small glial cells in between nerve fiber
bundles in white matter.
d. One cell myelinates many axons
2. Microglial Cells
a. Originate in the mesenchym
b. Are phagocytes, remove pathogens & or
debris
3. Astrocytes
a. "star shaped" Long processes with feet on
blood vessels
b. Control ionic and chemical environment of
neurons
c. Nutrition of neurons
d. Neurotransmitter breakdown
e. Feet help the Blood brain Barrier
f. Gap junctions between Astrocytes
g. Secrete neuroactive molecules (angiotensin
peptides, enkephalins etc.)

1. Protoplasmic Astrocytes found

(mossy cells)in the In Grey matter
processes are numerous, short and
lumpy
2. Fibrous Astrocytes found in the In
White matter
 Processes are numerous, longer and
smoother than mossy cells
"feet" at the end of their long
processes inserted along blood
vessels.
4. Ependymal cells
a. Columnar cells, sometimes ciliated
b. Line spinal central canal & ventricles
c. Form choroid plexi
B. Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System
1. Schwann Cells
a. Produced myelin: layers of glial cell
membrane around PNS axons
b. Many cells around one axon
c. Increases the velocity of action potential
conduction
d. Schwann Cells run from node to node.
e. Periodic contrictions = "nodes of Ranvier"
2. Satellite cells (Amphicytes)
a. Support cytons in ganglia

Circulatory System

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

1. Organs: Heart, blood vessels, blood)

A. Functions:
1. Transportation of substances: Nutrients, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hormones, minerals, etc.
2. Second defense against microbial invasion. WBC =
phagocytosis, antibody formation
2. Vessels of the Circulatory System
A. Vascular Tissue = Three layered structure
1. Tunica Intima
a. Endothelium (processes that extend into the
muscle layer)
b. Loose Connective Tissue with occasional smooth
muscle cell
c. Internal elastic membrane (Arteries only)
2. Tunica Media
a. Variable amounts of Collagen, Proteoglycans, and
elastic fibers
b. Circular Smooth Muscle cells
c. thickness, number of layers and type of tissue
varies
with the diameter of the vessel and its distance
from the heart.
 d. External elastic membrane, thiner than Internal,
found in some (Arteries only)
3. Tunica Adventitia
a. Connective tissure support, fuses with CT of organ
b. Vasa vasorum (small vessels for nutrient supply of
vessel walls),
c. Nerves, myelinated, sensory fibers reach to intima
Nonmyelinated vasomotor, network in adventitia.
end amonug muscle cells
B. Arterial system
1. Elastic (Conducting)
a. Major arteries
leaving the heart
b. Elastic recoil =
diastolic pressure
c. Tunica Intima - [A
in photo] post mortum changes, folded
endothelium
highly active endothelial cells, microvilli,
pinocytotic vessicles
constant turnover by mitosis
Subendothelium - thick, ;ongitudinally arranged
CT fibers.
Internal elastic usually not seen due to elastic
tissue of Media.
d. Tunica Media -
40(newborn) - 70
(adult) layers of
elastic membranes
Some smooth
muscle cells, Few
collagen fibers, chondroitin sulfate
Fibers and amorphous material
e. Tunica Adventitia - [B in photo] relatively
underdeveloped, elastic and collagen fibers
2. Muscular (Distributing) medium to small
Note:Internal elastic membrane in photo
a. Large vessels that carry blood from the aorta
b. Nutrient arteries to organs, Directs flow, controls
volume & pressure
c. Tunica Intima - Internal
Elastic Membrane
d. Tunica Media - Thick
muscular layer, to 40
layers of smooth muscle
cells
 e. Tunica Adventitia - External elastic Membrane
may be present (larger)
3. Arterioles (Resistance vessels)
a. Control blood flow to capillary beds.
b. Regulate volume and pressure in the arterial
system
c. Tunica Intima - no sub endothelial layer
No (rarely) Internal Elastic Membrane
d. Tunica Media - 1 - 5 layers of smooth muscle
e. Tunica Adventitia - NO External Elastic Membrane
4. Metarterioles
1. Branch into capillaries
2. Discontinous layers of smooth muscle
3. Sphincter at junction of capillary
C. Capillary (exchange vessels)
1. Diffusion membrane = simple squamous epithelium
(endothelial tubes), with basal lamella
2. 7,000 sq meters in the adult, Not found in cartilage, hair,
nails, cuticle, or cornea of the eye
0. Tunica Intima, endothelium only
1. Tunica Media - None
2. Tunica Adventitia - None
3. Number and type vary with tissue type and metabolism
. Continuous (closed) blood brain barrier (brain, thymus, testicular,
ocular)
No pores through cells
Occluding (tight) Junctions, (zonula occludens)
a. Perforated (continuous with pores) = most capillary beds
Pores through cells
Some with sieve-like diaphragms
b. Sinusoidal capillary (discontinuous) = maximal exchange (Liver, bone
marrow, spleen)
Large diameter, discontinous vessel
gaps without cells, without basal lamella, with phagocytic cells
4. Pericyte = supportive cell of capillaries and small
arterioles
with long cytoplasmic processes, undifferentiated
connective tissue cells
5. Endotheliun, possible contractility, microfillaments
within cells, opens cell junctions
6. pinocytotic vessicles cross cells in 2 - 3 minutes
7. Permeability varies, in kidney 100 times more permeable
than muscle capillaries
D. Venous system
1. Veins (Capacitance vessels) = Contain 75% of total blood
volume
 2. Venous return due to contraction of skeletal muscle
3. Large Veins
0. Tunica Intima - well developed
1. Tunica Media - Thin
2. Tunica Adventitia - Thickest, may contain longitudinal smooth muscle
4. Small & Medium Veins
. Valves, 2 semilunar folds,
elastic tissue lined with endothelium, Most numerous in limbs
prevent backflow of blood
a. Tunica Intima - thin endothelium
b. Tunica Media - few muscle cells
c. Tunica Adventitia - well developed collagenous layer
5. Venules thin walls
. Formed by coalescence of capillaries (Exchange vessels)
a. Tunica Intima - endothelium
b. Tunica Media - small bundles of smooth muscle cells mixed with
collagen
c. Tunica Adventitia - well developed collagenous layer
6. Heart Anatomy
. Two hearts (pumps in one): Right heart, Left heart
a. Heart Structure = Atria and Ventricle,
b. Heart Layers = Epicardium, Myocardium, Endocardium
1. Endocardium (intima) endothelium with
subendothelial layer
2. Myocardium Heart (cardiac) muscle 2
populations of cells
1. Contractile cells, major myocardial
contractions
2. Conducting cells, (Purkinji cells )
reduced myofibrils, full of glycogen,
gap junctions at discs
Conduction System = Controls Heart
Beat
3. Epicardium, serous membrane with
subepicardial connective tissue(adipose
tissue accumulates
c. Fibrous Skeleton
1. Fibrous central region for attachment of
myocytes
2. Thick collagenous fibers in various
directions
3. Nodules of fibrocartilage
d. Valves (Control direction of Blood Flow)
Tricuspid valve, Bicuspid valve (Mitral), Semilunar valves

Lymphoid Organs
 Organs/Tissues of the Immune System/Lymphatic

A. Function
1. Potection of the Internal Environment
2. Distinguish Self from Non Self
3. Distroy or inactivate Foreign or Non Self
B. Lymph vessels - One Way Transport
1. Begins in Lymph capillaries (porous)in the tissues, carry excess
fluid
2. Thin vessel lined by endothelium
3. With valves as in Veins
4. No clear cut separation between, tunica inta ma, media and
adventitia
5. Lymph Vessels in Intestines form from Lacteal (Lymph
capillary) in villus, carry lipids
6. Fluid filtered by Lymph nodes (below)
7. Vessels empty into the subclavian Veins
C. Lymphatic Ducts
1. similar to large veins
2. Media - longitudinal and circular muscle
3. Adventitia - underdeveloped, vava vasorum, rich neural
network
D. Lymphoid Tissue
1. Loose Lymphoid Tissue - Fixed cells predominate
2. Dense Lymphoid Tissue - Free cells predominate (mainly
lymphocytes)
3. Nodular Lymphoid Tissue - Free cells predominate
Found in all lymphoid tissue except Thymus
a. Mobile Cells - lymphocytes and free macrophages
b. Fixed Cells - reticuloendothelial (RE) cells, fixed
macrophages, plasma cells
E. Lymphoid Organs
1. Lymph Nodes/Gland
2. Tymus
3. Spleen
4. Oganization:
1. Encapsulated in connective tissue
2. Network of reticular cells
3. Lymphocytes, macrophages, plasma cells, & small #'s of
immunocompetent cells

Histology of Lymphoid Organs and Tissues

A. Lymph Nodes/Glands
1. Function
a. Divided into Nodules filled with lymphocytes and Macro
phages
 b. Filters Lymph fluid
c. Macro phages remove infectious organisms and debris
2. Location
a. throughout the body, along lymph vessels
b. In axillary and groin regions, along great vessels in the
neck
c. in thorax and Abdomen, especially in the messentaries
3. Shape
a. Kidney shaped
b. Smooth surface where lymph vessels enter (afferent)
c. Hilum - arteries, veins, nerves enter; Lymph vessels leave
(efferent)
d. Cortex and medullary regions with paracortical region
inbetween
4. Histology
a. Connective Tissue organization
1. Dense connective tissue
capsule
2. Partitioned by connective
tissue trabeculae
extending from capsule
through the cortex to the hilum
3. Reticular framework (stroma) "Filtration
apparatus"
retucular cells, reticular fibers
4. Forms system of Lymphatic sinusus from sub
capsular sinus
b. Free Cells [proportions depend on antigenic stimuli]
1. lymphocytes - part of circulating pool,
lymphopoietic activity (minimal under normal
circumstances)
2. macrophages - relatively stable, not in efferent
lymph
3. plasma cells - Static, not in efferent lymph
Not in blood, lymph, only a few in bone marrow
precursors in efferent lymph stimulate
plasmcytopoiesis in other nodes
4. Infection = node increases in size due to increase in
number of cells
5. Organization
a. Subcapsular region - large number of free cells
 b. Cortex - Primary and seconday lymph nodules, B cells
(see lymphoid nodules below)
c. Paracortical region Thymus
dependent zone
d. Medulla (photo right)
1. Medullary sinuses, loose
lymphoid cells
2. Reticular cells and fibers bridge sinuses
3. Medullary cords rich in plasma cells, & fixed
macrophages
B. Lymphoid Nodules
1. Function
a. Filtration of lymph
b. 99% of antigens and debri removed by macrophages
c. Antigens recognized by immunocompetant cells
d. Active cell proliferation enlarges nodules
e. Plasma cells (antibody producing) produced
2. Location
a. Scattered through many areas of the body, neck, groin
etc.
b. Scattered through lamina of digestive tract, respiratory
tract, urinary passages
c. Peyer's Patches (Ileum) and Appendix (aggregates of
nodules)
d. Tonsils (aggregates of nodules)
e. Some temporary structures - may disappear then
reappear in the same place
3. Histology
a. No connective tissue capsule
b. Primary Lymphoid nodule
1. Spherical mass of small lymphocytes
2. No germinal center
3. Found only in new born, aseptic conditions
c. Secondary Lymphoid nodule
1. Periferal ring of small lymphocytes, dense
population, highly basophilic
2. Germinal Center
1. Less densly stained, antibody producing
2. Activated lymphocytes
(lymphoblasts/immunoblasts) large active
nucleus, large pale staining cytoplasm
3. Mitotic Figures, intense proliferation
4. Large macrophage population
5. Plasma cells
6. Intense immunoactivity reflected in all sizes
of lymphocytes
 C. Thymus
1. Function
a. differentiation of primitive lymphocytes into
immunocompetent T-cells
b. Produces a hormone, thymosin (Aides in T cell
maturation)
c. expansion of antigen-stimulated T-cells
d. Larger in children than adults
2. Location - Mediastinum at the level of the great blood vessels
3. Histology
a. Capsule
1. Connective tissue, arteries, veins
2. NO afferent lymphatics
3. NOT a filter
b. Cortex
1. Partitioned by connective tissue "trabeculae" into
"Lobules"
2. Incomplete separation of "Lobules"
3. NO Lymphoid Nodules
4. No reticular fibers
5. Mostly small lymphocytes in comtinous layer
6. Epithelial reticular cells around blood vessels
forming Blood Thymic Barrier (cortex only)
7. Epithelial reticular cells, long thin processes,
linked by desmosomes (make up for no reticular
fibers)

c. Medulla
1. Hassell's corpuscles,
concentric layers of
Epithelial reticular cells
(light stain), inner cells
degenerate (right
photo)
2. Fewer lymphocytes than cortex
3. Lymphoblasts and young lymphocytes
4. NO Blood Thymic Barrier
5. No reticular fibers
D. Spleen
1. Function
. Complex Filter
a. Antibody forming organ
b. Defense against infection in the blood (Largest mass of Lymphoid
Tissue)
c. Production of RBCs (fetal)
d. Distruction of RBCs
e. Blood Reservoir (assists in Blood pressure maintenance)
2. Location in mesentary, abdominal cavity
3. Histology

. Capsule of dense connective tissue

1. "trabeculae" of
connective
tissue divide
organ into
compartments
2. Nerves and
arteries carried
into the splenic pulp by "trabeculae"
3. Few small smooth muscle cells
4. Veins from "trabeculae", leave through the hilum
[medial, posterior surface (human)]
a. Splenic Pulp (fresh = red "Red Pulp" R; with white spots "White Pulp"
W) right photo
b. Complex blood circulation
1. Splenic Artery (hilum) branches into trabecular
arteries to
2. Central Artery (actually eccentric in nodule)
White pulp artery surrounded by lymphocytes
(periarterial lymphatic sheath, PALS)
3. Branches through the lymph nodule like lymphoid
tissue, leaves white pulp
4. Penicillar(straight) arterioles to arterial capillaries
to
5. Sinusoids between Red Pulp cords (possibly open
circulation)
6. to Red Pulp Veins to Trabecular Veins to Splenic
Vein
c. White Pulp

1. Nodular like
sheaths around
"Central
Artery"
(periarterial
sheath) NOTE:
central artery
in enlarged
white pulp
nodule.
2. Lymphoid cells directly around artery - T Cells
3. Lymphoid nodules, outside PALS, mainly - B Cells
 4. Marginal zone, between Red & White pulp
Many active macrophages,
Dendritic cells trap and present antigens to
immunocompetent cells
Remove B cells & T cells from blood
5. Activate B cells move to center of the nodule &
differentiate into Plasma cells and memory cells
6. Plasma cells move to the splenic cords and release
antibodies into the blood
d. Red Pulp
1. Splenic cords
1. Elongated structures of cells between
sinusoids
2. reticular cells and fibers
3. Lymphocytes, Plasma cells
4. Blood elements (RBCs, platelets,
granulocytes)

2. Sinsoids
1. Note: Red blood Cells free in Sinsoids of ren
pulp
2. Long endothelial cells supported by
reticular fibers
3. Hoop like rings of basement membrane
4. Macrophages present, as in Liver sinusoids
5. Large lumen with 2-3 µ spaces for flexable
cells to pass through.
E. Tonsils
1. Aggragations of incompletely encapsulated lymphoid tissue
associated with the gut
2. Lie beneath the epithelium
3. Densely packed lymphocytes, (most B cells)Produce
lymphocytes
become plasma cells
 4. Mouth and Pharynx ( forms "ring" of lymphoid tissue)
. Palatine Tonsils, nodules with germinal centers, numerous (10-20)
crypts, posterior walls of oral cavity
stratified squamous may be infiltrated by lymphocytes from here.
a. Pharyngeal Tonsils, diffuse lymphoid tissue and nodules, back of
nasopharynx
b. Lingual Tonsils, base of the tongue, small and numerous
5. Gut: Intestinal tonsils
. Peyer's Patches in lamina propria of the Ileum
a. Vermiform appendix
F. Bone Marrow
1. Function (Storage organ, hematopoietic tissue)
. Original site of all Blood cells
a. Stem cells that produce all blood cells
b. Production of RBC, Granulocytes, Monocytes.
c. Development of immature T cells (migrate to thymus) & B cells that
migrate to non thymus lymphoid tissue
d. RBC distruction
e. Storage of iron (ferritan & hemosiderin) in Reticular cells and
macrophages
Iron also stoered in hepatocytes, spleen macropgages, skeletal muscle fibers
f. Rich in adipose cells (Yellow marrow)
2. Histology
. Reticular cells & fibers form "sponce" transversed by sinusoids
a. Sinusoids, lined by endothelium, basement membrane
b. Free cells: RBC, moncytes, granulocytes, platelets, developmental
stages of all, and some plasma cells
c. Remian in groups, one cell type predominates in different stages of
maturation

Digestive System I

Oral Cavity

I. Organs and Function of the Digestive System

1. Organs
A. Mouth: tongue, teeth
B. Digestive Tract: esophagus, stomach (cardiac, fundic,
body, pyloric), small intestine (duodenum, jejunum,
ilium), large intestine (ascending colon, transverse colon,
descending colon, sigmoid colon, appendix, rectum) anus
C. Glands: Salivary glands, Pancreas, Liver
2. Functions:
A. Preparation of food for absorption - mechanical and
chemical break down, (digestion, hydrolysis)
B. Absorption of nutrients
C. Elimination of undigested & unabsorbed food
II. Histology of the Digestive System - Oral cavity
1. Teeth : histoloty of the enamel, dentine, and cementum.
A. Enamel
1. Produced by ameloblasts (epithelial)
2. Enamel prisms or rods. Perpendicular to tooth
surface.
3. No collagen
4. Calcified ground interprismatic substance makes
up the thinner layer between adjacent prisms.

B. Dentine (D)
1. Produced by odontoblasts
2. Calcified ground substance.
3. Dentinal tubules. . (Black arrows, Enlarged photo
at right ) What occupies the tubule ?
4. Granular layer of Tomes. An area of dentine just
under the cementum where the canal system is
very irregular.
C. Cementum, hardest tissue, essentially bone, but lacks
Haversian systems, blood vessels, cementocytes
D. Pulp
1. Loose C.T with many blood vessels
2. Rich in nerves (myelinated)
3. Unmyelinated fibers (some) extend into dentine
tubules
E. Peridondal membrane
1. Special type of Dense ConnectiveTissue
2. Fibers penetrat cementum and bind to bone wall
(periostium of alveolar bone)
F. Alveolar bone
1. Immature bone structure, (Not lamellar)
2. forms socket, blood vessels, nerves penetrat into
pulp cavity
3. Bundles of Collage penetrate bone and cementum
G. Gingiva
1. Mucus membrane
2. Cells bound to basement membrane by
hemidesmosomes
3. Bound firmly to bone and tooth enamal (cuticle)
4. Epithelial attachment of Gotlieb (cuticle)
H. Summary Table
 Enamal Dentine Cementum
ameloblasts odontoblasts Cementoblasts from
(Enamal organ0 Line pulp cavity mesenchyme
Thin columnar Procollagen => Cementocytes in
=> Cuboidal cells collagen lacunae, canaliculi
=> Atrophy Mineralizes Bone W/O
Lost before tooth (Tomes fibers in Haversian systems
erruption dentine tubules) & blood vessels
No Collagen Nerve fibers in
dentine, a few
Collagen

2. Tongue
A. Mucosa - Upper surface
1. Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
2. Papillae, some with taste buds

a. Filaform - cone shaped, Keratin, NO taste

buds
b. Fungiform - mushroom shaped, scattered
taste buds on the surface
c. Foliate - Closely packed folds, numerous
taste buds, lateral margins
d. Circumvallate - Large circular, taste buds
on lateral margins

- serous and mucous galnds at base

- wash food out of taste buds
- 7-12 in V position, posteror of
tongue

3. Lamina propria, very dense ( connects to muscle

layers.)
B. Mucosa - Lower surface
1. Non-keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
2. NO papillae
3. Lamina propria connects to sub mucosa
C. Submucosa.
1. Not on the upper surface
2. well developed on the under side (layer of loose
fibroelastic connective tissue)
3. Glands, mucous and serous
 4. Lingual tonsils - single grypt at base of tongue,
numerous lymphoid nodules
D. Muscularis externa.
1. Skeletal muscle fibers
2. Muscle bundles which run in three planes. (Major
characteristic)

3. Salivary glands - Later, with Digestive System

Digestive System I Esophagus & Stomach

Digestive Tract Basic Plan

Basic Tissue organization [see specific organs for variations] Esophagus,
Stomach

A. Mucosa
1. epithelium
2. lamina propria
3. muscularis mucosa
4. function
1. Permeability barrier
2. Mucus production for lubrication
3. Enzymes for digestive processes
4. Absorpyion membrane
5. Lymph nodules prevention of bacterial invasion
6. Independent movement of mucosa (muscularis mucosa),
keeps incontact with food
B. Submucosa
1. Dense irregular connective tissue, nerves, blood vessels,
lymphatics
2. Sub mucosal glands
3. Meisner's nerve plexes (parasympathetic ganglia)
C. Muscularis externa.
1. Smooth muscle
2. 2 layers, inner circular, outer longitudinal
3. Auerbach's plexes (myenteric)
D. Serosa, Adventitia
1. Mesothelium
2. Simple squamous & C.T.
3. Rich in blood vessels, lymph and some adipose
4. Adventitial - loose irregular C.T.
Summary of Digestive Tract Anatomy

A. Oral Cavity (Mouth)

Tongue, gums, teeth, lips

Salivary Glands (Parotid, Sublingual, Submaxillary)

B. Pharynx 3 openings mouth, nose, middle ear

Ring of lymphoid tissue - Palatine, Lingual, pharyngeal tonsils

C. Esophagus - muscular tube 23-25 cm long

Penetrates the diaphragm & joins stomach in Abdominal cavity

(level of xiphoid process)
Collapsed until distended by food

D. Stomach - J shaped when empty

Cardiac, Fundic, Pyloric divisions

Rugae, gastric crypts, no villi Glands (branched tubular) with
Parietal cells (HCl) and Chief Cells (Pepsinogen)

E. Small intestine - 7 meters (~20 feet) long

Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum (Peyer's Patches)

Circular folds, villi, glands (simple tubular)

F. Large Intestine - 1.5 meters (5 feet) long 6.3 cm wide

Caecum with Appendix

Ascending, Transverse, Descending, & Sigmoid Colon, Rectum
Haustra, no villi, no folds

G. Abdominal Accessory structures

Mesentery - covers all abdominal organs, carries blood vessels &

nerves
Omentum - fatty apron

H. Accessory Glands

Pancreas - Endocrine gland (Insulin, Glucagon) Exocrine gland

(digestive enzymes)
Liver - gall bladder, bile

Digestive Tract - Esophagus

 Function food transport to Stomach

A. Mucosa
1. Epithelium = Stratified Squamous
2. lamina propria
3. muscularis mucosa
B. Submucosa
1. Small mucus secreting, submucosa.
esophageal glands
2. Human = numerous compound
mucous glands
3. [cat, the horse and rodents usually do
not have them these]
C. Muscularis externa
1. Top third Voluntary, striated muscle tissue for swallowing
2. Lower third smooth muscle
3. Middle third mixed smooth and striated
meshed with connective tissue fibers.
D. Adventitia
1. Areolar Connective tissue and binds the esophagus to other
organs.
2. Replaced by a thin serosa in abdominal cavity
connective tissue covered by mesothelium.

Digestive Tract - Stomach

Three main regions Cardiac, Fundic and Pyloric stomachs

Fundic Glands Pyloric Glands

A. Mucosa, very thick

1. Surface folds - Rugae
2. Surface Simple Columar epithelium; mucous secreting
different composition and mode of secretion from intestinal
 goblet cells
Mucous nect (MN) cells eextend into branched
tubular glands
3. Lamina propria, scanty, loose, areolar
connective tissue.
4. Thick layer of gastric (principal) glands
(surface covered with "Gastric Pits"
a. Glands: simple, branched tubular
glands
b. Cardiac Glands
1. Mucous glands
2. Lysozyme production
3. Ferquently coiled terminal portion,
c. Fundic Glands produce digestive enzymes and HCl
1. Ismus mucous cells
2. Mucous neck cells
3. Parietal cell
1. Scattered rounded or Pyramidal cells
2. Eosinophilic
3. Produce HCl, Intrinsic Factor
4. found more numerous near top of gland

4. Chief cells - (Zymogen) pepsinogen, more in lower

region of glands
5. Argentifine Cells, enterochromaffin
a. Found throughout stomach
b. Few in number
c. Abundent dense granules
d. Release Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptophane) into lamina propria
e. Stimulates smooth muscle motility
f. Affinity for Chromium and Silver salts

6. Paneth cells
. Found throughout stomach
a. Enteroendocrine Cells
b. Base of Gastric glands
c. Large eosinophil granules
d. Serous cell - Complex protein, carbohydrate, lysozyme
e. Lysozyme present
f. May control Intestinal flora
d. Pyloric Glands -
1. Deep gastic pits
2. Mucus and some Lysozyme
3. Gastrin (G) Cells
5. Muscularis Mucosae: trilaminar
1. two layers of muscle, sometimes a third an inner circular, outer
longitudinal.
2. heavily meshed with connective tissue fibers.

Histophysiology of parietal cell secretion and Hormonal control.

Contains animation of cellular
events.http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/
stomach/gibarrier.html

The GastroIntestinal Barrier: Link coontains histology and

histophysiology of both the stomach and intestinal lining.
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/stomac
h/parietal.html

B. Submucosal connective tissue

1. Dense concentration of collagen and elastic fibers.
2. Infiltrated with Lymph and Mast Cells
3. Meissner's Plexes [cytons near the muscularis externa].
C. Muscularis externa

Three layers of smooth muscle

0. inner oblique
1. middle circular
2. outer longitudinal.
D. Serosa
1. mesothelium
2. thin connective tissue
E. Endocrine Production of Gastric Mucosa
1. Pyloric Mucosa
. Gastrin
a. Stimulated by Amino acids(tryptophane & phenylalanine) and
peptides
b. Stimulates Parietal cells [HCl] and Chief cells {Pepsinogen]
c. Maintains gastric mucosa
d. Inhibited when pH falls below 2.5
2. Paneth cells ( See cell description above)
3. Argentifine Cells, enterochromaffin ( See cell description above)
Digestive System II Intestines

I. Digestive Tract - Small Intestine

A. Three main regions Duodenum, Jejunum, & Ileum
a. General Histology of the small intestine is
presented first.
b. Followed by specific Modifications found in each
region
2. Intestinal Cell Types
1. Absortive Cells
a. Striated borderMicrovilli
b. About 3,000/cell
c. 20 fold increase in absorptive surface
d. Disaccharidase bound to microvilli
e. Terminal Bar forces absorption through
membrane
f. Active transport of amino acids &
monosaccharides
g. Pinocytosis in new born, not adults
h. In SER, monoglycerides, long chain fatty
acids glycerol = Lipid synthesis
i. In GER Chylomicrons formed from Proteins
and Lipids
j. Released into lacteal
2. Goblet Cells
a. Mucous Cells
b. Increase in number toward Ileum
3. Argentifine Cells
a. Release Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptophane)
into the blood (More in stomach)
b. Silver "loving"
4. Paneth Cells
a. Basal portion of crypts
b. Serous cell - Complex protein,
carbohydrate, lysozyme
5. Ganglion cells
a. Plexi of Parasympathetic Nervous system
b. Auerbach & Miesners
3. Mucosa [ photo 1 M]
. Semi circular folds Placae circularis
a. Goblet cells in the epithelium
b. Villi are characteristic of all small intestinal
mucosa
c. Lacteal or lymph capillary, and capillaries.
d. Lamina propria (loose connective tissue)
core of the villi and the tissue between the crypts.
e. Simple tubular intestinal glands, crypts of Lieberkuhn, at base of the
villi.
f. Two 2 types of epithelial cells
g. Mitotic cells in base of glands/crypts
h. Paneth Cells are common in the crypt base (lacking in some mammals
including dog and, cat.)
i. Muscularis mucosa (crypts rest on this thin layer) an inner circular and
an outer longitudinal layer.

The GastroIntestinal Barrier: Link coontains histology

and histophysiology of both the stomach and intestinal
lining.
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/dige
stion/stomach/parietal.html

4. Submucosa [ photo 1 SM]

. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
a. Ganglia of the submucosal plexus of Meissner
5. Muscularis externa. [ photo 1 ME]
. Smooth Muscle Layers, an inner circular and an
outer longitudinal layer.
a. Between these two layers - Ganglia of the
mesenteric plexus of Auerbach
6. Serosa
. Thin: compact layer of connective tissue
a. Covered by mesothelium, outer surface (simple squamous epithelium)
B. Duodenum
1. Mucosa
. Sphincter of Oddi. [ photo 3 S] pushes from outside through layers and
opens into lumen
a. Entrance of the common Bile Duct (Liver, Pancreas)
2. Submucosa
. Brunner's Glands [ photo 2 B]
a. Alkaline Mucous Glands
b. Urogastron, hormone that prevents HCl secretion
c. Compound tubular glands extend down into the
submucosa.
d. Found no where else in Intestines
C. Jejunum
1. Mucosa
. Large Plicae
a. Large, long slender villi
b. More goblet cells.
c. NO submucosal glands
D. Ileum
1. Mucosa
. Many more goblet cells
a. Peyer's patches or intestinal tonsils (aggregates of lymph nodules)
b. Nodules disrupt the overlying epithelium
c. NO submucosal glands
II. Digestive Tract - Large Intestine Main Regions Ascending Colon,
Transverse Colon, Descending Colon, Sigmoid Colon, Appendix
attached to Ascending Colon
A. General Histology of the
Large Intestine Colon
1. Mucosa
. No Villi in any part of the large
intestine.
a. Many MORE Goblet cells
b. Deeper intestinal cryptsthan in the
small intestine.
c. Abundent Lymph nodules
2. Submucosa as in small intestine
3. Muscularis externa.
. Tenia coli. 3 thick bands of Longitudinal Muscle
4. Serosa as in small intestine
B. Histology of the Appendix.
1. Mucosa
. Large number of lymph nodules push into
the lumen of the organ
a. Lumen almost if not actually blocked
b. Human appendix = Paneth Cells at the
bottom of the intestinal crypts.
c. Acidophilic granules in their cytoplasm. (function not been
determined)
C. Endocrine Production of Intestinal Mucosa
1. Secretin
. Produced by upper small intestine mucosa
a. Stimulates release of secretion #1 from pancreas (water & bicarbonate)
2. CCK (cholecystokinen)
. Produced by small intestine mucosa
a. Stimulates contraction of gall bladder,
b. Secretion #2 from pancreas (enzymes)

Digestive System III

Glands

Glands Associated With The Digestive Tract

Summary Table
Salivary Glands Pancreas Liver

Parotid
Serous secretion 100%
 Sublingual Exocrine gland Bile
80% Mucous secretion Serous secretion Metabolic Waste
5% Serous secretion Digestive enzymes Stored in Gall Bladder
Submaxillary
60% Serous secretion Endocrine gland
30% Mucous secretion Insulin
Glucagon

A. Salivary Glands
1. Capsule rich in Dense Connective tissue
2. Divided into Lobules
3. Connective tissue septa with blood vessels and nerves
4. Ducts (Photo, right, top)
a. Conducting ducts (intercalated ducts)
Low cuboidal, enter at hilum of gland
b. Striated ducts (interlobular) Tall cuboidal
cells, similar to kidney tubules
c. Extralobular ducts (in septa)
5. Secretory Portion
a. Serous Acinus, (top, right) central located
nucleus
b. Myoepithelial cells
c. Mucous Acinus, (bottom, right)
clear cytoplasm, nucleus compressed at bottom of the cell
d. Mucous Acinus with Serous Demilune (half moon)
[sublingual]

Parotid

5. Produces 25% of Saliva

6. Branched Acinous gland
7. Lumen not conspicous
8. Striated ducts, very
apparent
9. Serous secretion 100%

Submaxillary Sublingual

1. Produces 70% 4. Produces 5%

of Saliva of Saliva
2. 80% Serous 5. 60% Mucous
secretion secretion
 3. 5% Mucous 6. 30% Serous
secretion secretion

C. Liver.
1. Lobule
0. Hepatic cords of liver cells radiating single large central vein.

1. Cords separated by hepatic sinusoids

2. Kupffer cells found in sinusoids
2. Triad (at corners of Lobule) -
Branches of Hepatic artery,
Hepatic Portal Vein & Hepatic duct
interlobular arteries, interlobular veins and interlobular bile
ducts
D. Gall bladder.
1. Pear-shaped organ that Stores and concentrates bile from the
liver.
2. Mucosa, Epithelium
0. Extensively folded into rugae. ( depends on amount of distension)
1. Large simple columnar cells with oval nuclei.

2. Covered with stereocilia

3. Post mortum changes easily breakes it down
 3. Lamina Propria
0. Alveolar glands ( simple cuboidal
epithelium)
1. Loose and Dense connective tissue
4. Muscularis externa.
0. Three irregular layers of smooth muscle.
5. Adventitia (or serosa)
0. Dense connective tissue.
6. ducts
0. Hepatic ducts
1. Cystic duct
2. Common Bile Duct
1. gall bladder to the duodenum
2. Sphinctor of Oddi in duodenum

E. Pancreas
1. Exocrine glandular tissue.
0. Serous acinar gland
1. Produce Enzymes
2. Pyramidal shape cells
3. Centro-acinar cells
4. Wall of the intercalated duct
[characteristic of the pancreas]
2. Interlobular ducts, simple cuboidal or columnar epithelium,
0. Secret Primary Pancreatic secretion (neutralizes acid chyme)
3. Endocrine glandular tissue.
0. Islets of Langerhans (clusters of 5 to 50
cells), randomly scattered
1. Surrounded by Reticular fibers
2. cords of polygonal cells surrounded by
capillaries
3. Stain lighter than acinar cells
4. 3 types of cells, alpha, beta and delta cells (need special stains to see
differences)
1. Beta Cells 60-80% (Proinsulin => Insulin + C
protein)
Hemtoxylin and Phloxine Blue Granules
2. Alpha Cells 20% (Glucagon), cells larger, less
numerous, perfiery of Islet
Hemtoxylin and Phloxine Red Granules
3. Delta and "F" cells few
5. Capillary networks in the Islets
6. control, blood glucose levels, Sympathethic and Parasympathethic
nerve ending
 4. Pancreas (Endocrine Function)
. Insulin (Pancreas, Ilets of Longerhans, Beta cells)
1. Promotes cellular uptake of glucose and synthesis
of glycogen
2. Promotes cellular uptake of amino acids & protein
synthesis
3. Stimulates fat storage, Promotes lipogenesis
4. Stimulates lipoprotein lipase activity (Depressed in
Obesity)
A. Glucagon (Pancreas, Ilets of Longerhans, Alpha cells)
1. Stimulates Glucogenolysis
2. Stimulates Gluconeogenesis (use amino acids)
B. Pancreatic (Secretion)Enzymes
1. Pancreatic Secretion #1 Increase of pH
Stimulated by hormone, CCK (cholecystokinen)
2. Pancreatic Secretion #2 Enzymatic
Stimulated by hormone, Secretin
a. Trypsin and Chymotrypsin secreted as
Trypsinogen and Chymotrypsinogen
(Inactive)
b. Trypsin activated by Enterokinase from
intestinal Glands
c. Chymotrypsin activated by Trypsin
C. Digestive Tract Short Summary of Digestion

Food Enzyme Products

Starch Amylase Maltose
Protein Trypsin Polypeptides
Protein Chymotrypsin Polypeptides
Glycerol, Mono &
Lipid Lipase
Diglycerides
Nucleic
Nucleases Nucleotides
Acids

Respiratory System

Respiratory System Function

1. Gas exchange between organism & air/water

2. Requires a Moist Internal Membrane

Upper Respiratory Track

A. Nasal and Nasopharynx,

1. Nares,
 a. Sebaceous and sweat glands
b. Short thick hairs (vibrissae)
c. Transition from Stratified Squamous to Respiratory
epithelium
2. Nasopharynx, Respiratory epithelium
3. Nasal septum & Conchae (3 bony projections)
a. "swell bodies" in lamina propria contain venous plexi
(swell every 20 to 30 minutes)
b. Cut air flow
c. Releave desication
d. Upper - Olfactory epithelium
e. Mid & Lower - Respiratory epithelium
4. Rich Vascular System, counter current for warming the air
B. Protects moist membrane of lungs (Air conditioning!)
1. Warm Air
2. Filter Air
3. Moisturize Air

Respiratory Epithelium Track

A. Five cell types

1. Ciliated columnar cells (~300 cilia/cell), most abundant
2. Goblet Mucous Cells, next abundant
3. Brush cells, columnar Microvilli
a. Sensory receptors, dendritic synapses on basal surface
4. Basal cells, Immature cells that under go Mitosis & differentiate
5. Small Granular cell, Endocrine like cell, same size as basal cell, (
small granules with dense core)
B. Respiratory Epithelium changes
1. From Trachea to Alveolar Sacs
a. decrease in size
b. change in cell types
c. decrease in complexity
2. Pseudo Stratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium, W/goblet Cells
3. Ciliated Columnar Epithelium, No goblet Cells
4. Ciliated Cuboidal Epithelium, No goblet Cells
5. Simple Squamous Epithelium

Lower Respiratory Track

A. Larynx
1. Laryngeal Cartilages held together by ligaments
a. Large(Hyaline Cartilage) &
b. Small (Elastic Cartilage)
c. Keep air way open
d. Valve to prevent food from entering the airway
e. Sound production
 2. Lamina Propria
a. Epiglottis on rim of Larynx
b. False Vocal Cords 1st pair of folds

covered by respiratory epithelium

c. True Vocal Cords 2nd pair of folds

1. covered by stratified Squamous epithelium
2. contain Vocal Ligaments, parallel bundles of
elastic fibers
3. Vocalis muscles (Skeletal) control tension of folds, producing
sounds
B. Trachea

1. Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

2. Abundant Mucous goblet Cells (white arrow)
3. Lanima Propria Glands Present
4. Rings of Hyaline Cartilage
5. Some Elastic Fibers
6. Fibro elastic Ligament binds Trachealis Muscle to cartilage rings
C. The Root (Pulmonary) Bound in connective Tissue
1. Primary bronchus
2. Pulmonary arterys, enters
3. Pulmonary Vein , leaves
4. Lynphatic Vessels, leaves
D. Bronchial tubes

1. Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

2. Mucous goblet Cells, Large, many; Medium, present; Small, few
in number
3. Smooth Muscle under epithelium, Spiral, crisscross, bundles of
smooth muscle
4. Mucous and Seromucous glands
5. Plates and Islands of Hyaline Cartilage, irregular
 6. Abundant Elastic Fibers
7. Lymphoid Nodules at branch points
E. Bronchioles
1. 5mm or less
2. Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
3. Scattered goblet cells
4. No Hyaline Cartilage
5. No submucosal Glands
6. Lamina propria, Smooth muscle & Abundant Elastic Fibers
7. Smooth Muscle better developed than Bronchus
8. Autonomic neural control
F. Terminal Bronchioles
1. Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium
2. Clara cells, no cilia, dome shaped, secrete glucosaminoglycans,
epithelial protection
3. No Hyaline Cartilage
4. Abundant Elastic Fibers
5. Spiral bundles (crisscross)of smooth muscle
G. Respiratory Bronchioles

1. Ciliated Simple Cuboidal Epithelium, distal portions, No cilia

2. No Mucous Goblet Cells
3. Interrupted by alveloi (Squamous cells) Arrows
4. No glands
5. Abundant Elastic Fibers
6. Spiral bundles (crisscross)of smooth muscle
H. Alveolar ducts
1. Distal to Respiratory Bronchioles, opens into 2 or more alveolar
sacs
2. Alveoli lining walls of duct, simple squamous
3. Abundant Elastic Fibers (Important for contraction during
expiration)
4. Lamina Propria, Sphincter like bands (Knobs) of smooth muscle
 I. Alveolar sacs

1. Alveolar Sacs as Diffusion Membranes, (modified simple

Squamous cells)
2. Fused basement membrane between endothelium and alveolar
cells
3. Abundant Elastic Fibers (Important for contraction during
expiration)
4. Capillaries in walls (RBCs in photo)
J. Functional Cells in Alveolar sacs
1. ... pneumocyte Type I, simple Squamous epithelium(diffusion)
a. 97% of alveolar surface
b. thin 25nm thick
c. organelles grouped around nucleus
d. abundant pinocytotic vessicles
e. desmosomes and occluding junctions between cells to
prevent leakage into alveolar space
2. ... pneumocyte Type II, "Great alveolar Cells" secretory cells
a. Cuboidal cells in groups of 2 or 3
b. organelles grouped on their free surface
c. Produce Surfactant (dipalmityl lecithin)
d. Reduces surface tension & Prevents collapse of Alveoli
e. Bacterialcidal effect
3. ... Dust cells, macrophages
a. develope from monocytes in the blood
b. found on the surface of the alveolus, in the alveolar
septum
c. phagocytize debris, (blood and RBCs in heart failure)
d. carried in Surfactant up the mucocillary elevator to the
esophagus
4. ...Other cell types (in alveolar septum)
a. Fibroblasts, collagen and elastic tissue synthesis
b. Mast cells
c. Contractile Interstitial cells, reduce volume of alveolus
1. affected by epinephrine, histamine (When?)

Endocrine System I
Pituitary & Thyroid

I. Endocrine System - System of "ductless" glands

 A. Secrete Hormones = Chemical Control Messengers
B. Local Hormones, "Target" cells near. ex. Neurotransmitters
above
C. General Hormones, "Target" cells at a distance. Carried in Blood
D. Target cells have "receptors" that allow them to respond to the
Hormone
E. Polypeptide Hormone receptor is on the cell surface
1. Hormone binds to the surface receptor
2. Triggers the production of a "second" messenger (usually
cAMP)
3. Activates an enzyme cascade
F. Steroid Hormone receptor is inside the cell
1. Acitvates DNA
II. Pituitary gland.
A. Anatomy

1. pars distalis (anterior lobe), stains darkly (right)

2. pars nervosa(posterior lobe), stains lightly (left)
3. pars intermedia, narrow tissue between the two
4. attached by the infundibular stalk, to the floor of the
brain
5. pars tuberalis, a continuation of the pars distalis on the
anterior surface of the infundibular stalk.
B. Formation
1. Floor of the diencephalon(Hypothalamus), Evagination -
Infundibulum
2. Roof of the Oral Ectoderm, Evagination - Rathke's Pouch
C. Pars distalis (Anterior lobe)
1. Blood sinusoids, abundant a venous portal system
connects to the hypothalamus.

Hypothalamus to Anterior pituitary => Releasing

Hormones
 2. Five hormone secreting cells!, Only 3 Histological cell
types.
3. Alpha or acidophil cells.
a. Cytoplasmic
granules stain pink
with eosin.
b. Predominate at the
periphery of the gland.
c. GH, Prolactin!
4. Beta or basophil cells.
a. Cytoplasmic granules stain blue with Delafield's
hematoxylin.
b. More toward the center of the gland
c. ACTH, FSH, TSH, LH !
5. Chief or chromophobe cells.
a. Cytoplasm stains poorly
b. .EM=some with few very small granules, others,
none
c. Star shapped, between capillaries
d. Center of the gland.
D. Pars intermedia (Posterior lobe)
1. Cords of weakly staining basophils, few secertory
granules, small barely visible
2. Intraglandular cleft, reminant of Rathke's Pouch,
Rathke's cysts, (front of the pars intermedia), cuboidal
epithelium, with colloid
3. Amphibians - MSH
4. Function not well understood
E. Pars nervosa (Neurohypothesis,
Posterior lobe)
1. No Secretory cells,
Neurosecretory cells in the
hypothalamus.
2. Processes into the pars
nervosa ( fibrous appearance, right photo )
3. ~ 100,000 unmyelinated axons
4. Rich capillary plexis.
5. Pituicytes 25% (glial cell) numerous cytoplasmic
processes that end in perivascular spaces
F. Pars tuberalis
1. Cells aranged in cords along blood vessels
2. Secrete mostly FSH & LH
III. Pituitary Gland (Master gland) Hormone Production
1. Hypothalamus Releasing Hormones (Control Anterior Pituitary
Function)
1. GBH- Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
 2. LRH- Luteinizing Releasing Hormone-Both for FSH and
LH
3. PIH- Prolactin Inhibitory Hormone, Suppresses Prolactin
in non Pregnant
4. CRH, Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone, stimulates
release of ACTH
5. SRH( GRH) -Somatotrophin (Growth Hormone )
Releasing Hormone
6. Somatostatin, Somatotrophin and TSH Inhibitory
Hormone
2. Anterior Pituitary Gland
1. Somatotrophin = Growth Hormone (Stimulates Cell
division, Bone growth and Protein synthesis)
2. FSH - Stimulates Follicular Growth in Ovary,
Spermatogenesis in the male
3. LH - Stimulates Corpus luteum in Ovary, ICSH in male.
4. ACTH - Stimulates Adrenal Cortex
5. TSH - Stimulates Thyroid Gland
6. Prolactin, secretion of milk
3. Posterior Pituitary Gland
1. Vassopressin, Vasoconstrictor, ADH
2. Oxytocin , Stimulates uterine muscle contraction,
mammary gland milk release
IV. Thyroid gland
. Anatomy
1. Two lobes and isthmus
2. Cervical region
3. Anterior, inferior to Larynx
4. Extremely vascular
A. Capsule
1. Narrow layer of dense connective tissue
2. Wide external layer of loose areolar tissue.
B. Lobules

1. Scanty fibrous septa

2. Lobules of follicles. (T above)
C. Follicles
1. Round, oval, or irregular in
outline, completely closed
2. Simple cuboidal
epithelium with a hollow
centers
3. May be enlarged with
epithelium stretched thin. (hyperactivity of the gland)
4. Follicular cells
a. Cuboidal ( depending upon activity)
b. Thin basement membrane
c. Surrounded by fenestrated capillary networks.
(arrow)
5. Colloid
1. Clear, acidophilic material (stored secretion, 10 months supply!)
D. Thyroid gland functions (T3 & T4)
1. Metabolic rate of all cells (body heat production,
Catabolism)
2. Increases Glucose Utilization & carbohydrate absorption
from the gut
3. Maintains growth hormone secretion
4. Affects CNS development, RBC production, muscle tone
5. Maintains cardiac rate, force, output
6. Disorders - Hypothyroidism & Hyperthyroidism, Goiters
E. Parafollicular cells or C (clear) Cells
1. Small isolated clusters outside of follicles
2. Pale staining cells(Calcitonin)
0. PTH antagonist, blocks osteoclast activity
1. Promotes both Ca++ & PO4- loss from the kidney
2. Inhibits Vit D activation in the kidney
3. Granules contain catecholamines.

Endocrine System II
Parathyroid & Adrenal

I. Parathyroid Gland
A. Histology
1. Two pair in posterior
surface of the Thyroid
2. Separated from
thyroid by a separate
membrane.
3. Capsule of connective
Tissue
4. thin septa, collagen and elastic fibers
5. Principal Cells
1. Polygonal cells with vesicular nucleus
 2. Pale stain, slightly acidophillic cytoplasm
3. EM secretory granules
4. Inactive cells, masses of glycogen granules
5. Most numerous, most Mammals, only cells
6. Oxyphil Cells,.acidphilic cytoplasm
1. Large Polygonal cells, larger than Principle cells
2. Many acidophillic granules in the cytoplasm
7. Adipose Cells, increase with age (older 50% of all cells!)
B. Parathyroid hormone
1. maintains blood level of calcium
2. absorbtion of calcium from intestines
3. mobilizes calcium from bones (osteoclast)
4. decreases renal reabsorbtiom of phosphate
5. activates Vit D3 in kidney
II. Adrenal Gland
A. Capsule
1. Layer of Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue
2. The outer portion is fused with the mesothelium (serosa)
in some areas.
B. Cortex
1. Cortex cord-like arrangement of 3 concentric layers of
cells
continously secrets, hypertrophy in stress
2. Zona glomerulosa
a. Narrow layer just under the capsule
b. Cells columnar or pyramidal, in clusters,
around capillaries
c. Dome-shaped or rounded arrangement of
closely packed cells.
d. Rounded nuclei with a round nucleolus
e. Acidophilic cytoplasm, basophilic granules,
and lipid droplets.
f. Sinusoids
g. Septa which separate the cells.
h. Mineral corticoids, aldosterone
1. SER acetate=> cholesterol
2. Mitochondria, cholesterol=> pregnenolone
3. SER pregnenolone +. Progesterone,
deoxycorticosterone
4. Mitochondria, Deoxycorticosterone =>
corticosterone =>18 hydroxycorticosterone
=> Aldosterone
 3. Zona fasiculata
. Thickest layer
a. Straight columns, 2 cells thick, separated
by septa which contain capillaries.
b. Cells are polyhedral, centrally located
nucleus
c. Large number of Lipid droplets give
them a fasiculated appearance.
d. Glucocorticoids, deoxycorticosteroids, 17-ketosteroids (sex hormones)
4. Zona reticularis
. Cells smaller than in other layers
a. Irregular network of cords of cells rich in
capillaries.
b. Cells similar, smaller, than those in the
other zones, differ ultrastructurally
c. Some irregular shaped cells with
pyknotic nuclei (degenerating cells!)
d. Glucocorticoids, 17-ketosteroids (sex hormones)?
5. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
0. Glucocorticoids - Increases blood glucose
a. Stimulates Gluconeogenesis (use amino acids), glycogenolysis
b. Stimulates hepatic enzymes synthesis for Gluconeogenesis
c. Stimulates protein catabolism
d. Increases circulation of aminio acids, fatty acids, ketone bodies, glucose
e. Lipolysis & Ketogenesis
f. Anti inflammatory
1. Mineralcorticoids (Adrenal Cortex) - Aldosterone
2. Sex Hormones(Adrenal Cortex) - Estrogens, Progesterones, Androgens,
Testosterone
C. Medulla
1. Histology
. Medulla irregular arrangement of
masses and network of cords of cells.
a. Between and around Blood sinusoids
and venules
b. few Sympathetic gangilon cells
c. "chromaffin cells" stain for
Catecholamines
2. Stores secretion in granules,
Continously secretes small amounts
Large quanties in response to stress
3. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
0. Epinephrine & Norepinephrine = "fight or flight" mobilization
1. Human 80% Epinephrine
III. Other Glands
A. Pineal Gland
 1. Connected to the roof of the diencephalon by a short stalk
2. Convered by pia mater
3. Irregular lobules of cellular cords and follicles
4. Unmyelinated nerve endings
5. Cell types
0. Pinealocytes, irregular nucleus, slightly basophilic cytoplasm
Produce melatonin, serotonin, pineal peptides (Neuroendocrine transducer)
Rhythmic changes in gonads and hypothesis
1. "Brain sand" calcified bodies, x-ray reference point
2. Interstitial cells, elongate nucleus, stain dark, between cords of
Pinealocytes,
resemble astrocytes (Astroglial)
B. Interstitial Cells of the Testis. See Testis
C. Follicular Cells of the Ovary. See ovary.
D. Corpus Luteal Cells of the Ovary. See ovary.

Urinary System

Human Excretory (Urinary Tract) Functions

A. Filtration with Active Secretion and Active Reabsorption

B. Maintaining Homeostatic Balance in the Internal Environment
C. Waste removal via blood filtration

Nitrogenous Water products

1. Ammonia - Highly Toxic, Highly Water Soluble

2. Urea - Less - Toxic Less, Water Soluble
3. Uric Acid - Least Toxic, Poorly Water Soluble, Semisolid,
conserves body water
D. Water and Osmotic Regulation
E. Electrolyte Balance
F. pH Balance
G. Hormone production

Renal Circulation

A. Renal Arteries, Arcuate Arteries, Afferent Arterioles

B. Glomerulus (filtration Site)
C. Efferent Arterioles, Peritubular Or Vasa Recti
D. Venules, Arcuate Veins, Renal Veins

Anatomy of (Urinary Tract) Organs

A. Kidney
 1.

Cortex Medulla

Medullary Rays Renal Pyramids of Malpighi

Renal columns of Bertin
Medullary Rays

2. Renal Pelvis - Calyces ( Major & Minor)

3. Hilum - Blood vessels Enter and Leave
B. Ureter - Peristaltic contractions, Transport of filtrate
C. Urinary Bladder - Muscular, storage
D. Urethra - Transport of filtrate to outside

Kidney Histology and Histophysiology

A. Nephron = Kidney Functional Unit

Afferent arteriole and Efferent Arteriole

Renal Corpuscle

Glomerulus
Bomans Capsule

Proximal convoluted tubule

Descending Loop of Henle, thin
Ascending Loop of Henle, thick
Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting Duct

B. Renal Corpuscle - Glomerulus (filtration)+ Bowmans Capsule

1. Histology
a. Glomerulus (Tuff of capillaries)
1. Capillary, thin
walled,
fenestrated
with large
pores, no
diaphragm in
pores
 2. Pores larger and more numerous than other
porous epithelia
3. Mesangial Cells, between capillaries, under
pododcyte layer, processes supporting Capillaries
b. Bowmans Capsule
1. Visceral Layer (contact with glomerulus)
1. Podocytes - a Primary process & secondary
processes; cell body does not touch capillary
The Secondary processes wrap around the
capillary
Contacts the basement membrane (fusion of
capillary & podocyte bm) directly
Form filtration slits ~25nm wide
2. Parietal Layer (external, outer wall)
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium
3. Basement membrane with a thin layer of elastic
fibers
2. Funtion
. Highly Permeable To Small Solutes
a. Selectively Permeable To Large Solutes,
b. Charged Molecules Blocked
c. Neutral Passes More Easily
d. 180 liters per day
C. Proximal Convoluted Tubule, PCT
1. Histology
. Cuboidal epithelium with round, centrally loacted nucleus
a. Cytoplasm, acidophilic
b. Cell margins difficult to see
c. Lumen, large in living, collapsed(reduced) in fixed tissue
d. Brush border ( Microvilli
e. Base of cells folded with many mitochondria.
2. Funtion
. Reabsorption (90% of solutes)& Secretion
a. 100% of glucose reabsorbed
b. Water reabsorption by osmosis
c. Active Transport & Passive Diffusion
D. Loop Of Henle
1. Histology
. Descending limb, thin with wide lumen
a. Ascending limb, thin segment,
squamous epithelium
Thick segment resembles DCT
2. Funtion
. Counter Current
a. Produces Sodium concentration gradient
in renal medulla
 E. Distal Donvoluted Tubule, DCT
1. Histology
. Cuboidal Epithelium
a. Smaller than PCT, more cells per cross section
b. Less Acidophilic cytoplasm
c. No Brush Border, Larger Lumen
d. Poor lateral margins
2. Funtion
. Secretion of uric acid, ammonia, creatinine
a. Aldosterone Na+ in and K+ out
F. Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JD)
1. Histology (photo right, JD arrow )
. Includes Macula Densa, below
a. Modified smooth muscle cells of the
Tunica media of Afferent Arteriole
b. More epithelial like
c. Nuclei, flattened oval, cigar shaped,
d. Internal Elastic membrane not present in
this area
e. Granular cytoplasm, stains with PAS
f. EM, characteristics of protein secretion
2. Function:
. Enhances Blood Pressure
Control Renal Blood Flow and Glomerular Filtration
a. Renin (hormone) Production (produces Angiotensin, vasoconstrictor)
b. Acts on Angiotensin => Angiotensin I (10 amino acids)
c. Lung endotheliun produces a converting enzyme
d. Acts on Angiotensin i => Angiotensin II (8 amino acids)
G. Macula Densa
1. Histology (photo right, longitudinal cut, cells MD arrow )
. Region of DCT that passes between the Afferent and Efferent Arteriole
a. In contact with Afferent Arteriole
b. Next to Juxtaglomerular Cells, see Above
c. Cells: Columnar, Closely packed, Transfers data on filtrate
osmolarity??
Note Photo at right, labeled and Photo under Renal corpuscle above)

Collecting Tubules (ducts)

1. Histology
a. Straight throug Cortex and Medulla, open in a renal papilla
b. Small collecting ducts = Cuboidal Epithelium
c. Large collecting ducts, near Papilla = Columnar Epithelium
d. Cytoplasm stains weakly, clear halo around nucleus
e. Clear Lateral margins
2. Funtion
 a. Impermeable to water
b. ADH controls permeability to water
c. Transports filtrate and Empties into Calyces of renal pelvis

Calyces, Renal Pelvis, Ureter, Urinary Bladder

1. Simular Histologcal Structures

a. Mucosa - Transitional epithelium
b. Lamina Propria - Loose and Dense Connective tissue
c. Smooth Muscle - woven sheath, helical arrangement
2. Ureter Histology
a. Mucosa - Transitional epithelium
b. Smooth Muscle - woven sheath, helical
arrangement
c. Smooth Muscle becomes logitudinal as it
reaches the Bladder
3. Urinary Bladder Histology
a. Mucosa - Transitional epithelium (note folds of contracted
bladder below)
b. Smooth Muscle - woven without distinct layers, runs in all
directions

Near neck, 3 distinct layers

c. Superior surface = Serosa (far right surface)
d. Inferior Surface = Adventitia

Urethra Histology

1. Female (4-5 cm)

a. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Some Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
b. Midpart - External Sphincter Muscle, Striated Muscle
2. Male ( 4 parts)
a. Prostatic Urethra - Transitional Epithelium
 b. Membranous Urethra (1 cm) - Stratified or Pseudostratified
Columnar Epithelium
External Sphincter Muscle, Striated Muscle
c. Bulbous Urethra - Pseudostratified Columnar to Stratified
Squamous Epithelium
d. Pendulous Urethra - Pseudostratified and Columnar, some
Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Male Reproductive System

Gross Anatomy of Male Reproductive System

A. Testis Located in the Scrotum, tunica vaginalis (mesothelium sac,

peritoneum)
1. Seminiferous tubules - Produce Sperm
2. Interstitial Cells - Produce Androgens
B. Epididymis - Sperm Storage
C. Vas Deferens - Duct, transports Sperm from testis to the Prostate Gland
D. Seminal Vessicle - Secrets Fluid, rich in Fructose, part of Semen
E. Prostate Gland (Ejaculatory Duct) Milky Alkaline Fluid (assists Sperm
Activation)
F. Cowpers Gland [Bilbourethral Gland] - Contributes Mucus to Semen
G. Urethra (Penis) - Organ of Copulation

Histology of the Male Reproductive System

A. Testis
1. Capsule, Tunica Albuginia, dense connective tissue
2. Divided into 250 lobes by fibrous connective tissue
3. Testicular Tubule, Duct System
1. Coiled Semineferous tubules (sperm production) in Lobes
2. Tubuli recti
3. Rete Testis
4. Ductus Efferentes
5. Epididymis, coiled out side testis
6. Ductus Deferens, Sperm to Prostate etc.
B. Seminiferous Tubules [coiled tubes with germinal epithelium]
1. Sperm production Begins at time of Sexual maturation
2. Meiotic Cells in Seminiferous tubules
a. Spermatogonia - Reproducing Stem Cells (#1 in photo)
b. Primary Spermatocyte - Undergoes Meiosis I [Reduction Division] (#2
in photo)
c. Secondary Spermatocyte - Undergoes Meiosis II
d. Spermatid - Haploid cell that matures into spermatozoa (sperm cells)
(#3 in photo)

e. Mature sperm. spermatozoa, heads in sertoli cells, tails project into

lumen
3. Sertoli Cells - Sperm Nutrition and Release
4. Interstitial Tissue, Connective tissue in Lobes outside
Seminiferous tubules
. Nerves, Blood vessels (Blood Testicular Barrier), Lymphatics
a. Ledig Cells (Interstitial Cells, I-cells) - Produce Androgens
[Testosterone]

Produce & Maintain secondary sex characteristics

Stimulates Spermatogenesis
5. Tubuli recti
. Straight tublues
a. Abrupt termination of germinal epithelium
b. Cuboidal epithelium
c. Dense Connective tissue sheath
6. Rete Testis
. Anastomosing network of Tubules
a. Cuboidal epithelium
7. Ductus Efferentes
. 10-20 tubules connecting to Epididymis
a. Mixed Ciliated and Non Ciliated Cuboidal epithelium
b. Ciliated Cuboidal epithelium, Cilia beat toward Epididymis
c. Non Ciliated Cuboidal epithelium, Absorb fluid secreted by
Seminiferous Tubules
d. Smooth muscle layer, thin, outside epithelium
C. Epididymis - Sperm Storage
 1. Coiled tube, 4 - 6 meters long!
2. Pseudostratified Columnar epithelium (2 layer of nuclie)

. Stereocilia - Long, branched microvilli

a. Rounded basal cells, replacement cells
b. Columnar cells
c. Helps remove and digest Residual bodies
3. Basement membrane
4. Smooth muscle
5. Sperm in Lumen
6. Surrounded by Blood vessels, C.T.
D. Vas Deferens - Duct, transports Sperm from testis to the Prostate
Gland
1. Straight Tube
2. Mucosa
. Longitudinal folds

a. Pseudostratified Columnar epithelium with Stereocilia

3. Muscle layer
4. Thick Muscular Wall *major characteristic
5. Spiral arrangement of 3 Layers
. Thin longitudinal Muscle
a. Circular Muscle
b. Thin longitudinal Muscle
6. Ampulla, upper dilated portion
. Epithelium, Thicker & extensively folded, "lace like"
a. Seminal Vessicles joins Ductus deferens
b. Ductus deferens Becomes Ejaculatory Duct
1. Ejaculatory Duct,
2. Simple columnar epithelium
3. No Muscle layer
4. Loose connective tissue
E. Seminal Vessicle - Secrets Fluid, rich in Fructose, 70% of Semen
1. Mucosa
 . Folded
a. Pseudostratified Columnar epithelium
b. Low columnar or Long cuboidal
c. Rich in secretory Granules
2. Lamina propria, elastic fibers
3. Smooth muscle layer, thin
4. Adventitia
F. Prostate Gland (Ejaculatory Duct) Milky Alkaline Fluid (assists
Sperm Activation)
1. Capsule of Fibro Elastic Tissue with smooth Muscle
2. 3 layers/regions around Prostatic Urethra
3. Stroma (body tissue of Gland)
4. Elactic fiber network and Blood vessels
5. 30-50 Tubuloaveolar Glands, open into Prostatic Urethra

0. Epithelium, mostly columnar with a few basal cells

1. Apical secretory Granules
2. Lumen - prostatic concretions
a. Lamellar sturcture of Glycoprotein
b. May become calcified
c. Increases with age
d. Rich in amino acids, citric acid, alkaline and acid phosphatase and
enzymes
G. Urethra (Penis) - Organ of Copulation
1. Prostatic urethra
. Pseudostratifed Columnar Epithelium
a. Mucosal and submucosal glands hypertrophy with age
2. Membranous urethra
. Stratified columnar epithelium
a. surrounded by striated muscle
3. Spongiosa urethra
. Stratified squamous
a. Mucous glands
H. Cowpers Gland [Bilbourethral Gland]
1. Tubuloalveolar glands
2. Membranous urethra
 3. Contributes Mucus to Semen

Female Reproductive System

Anatomy - Female Reproductive System

A. Ovary
1. Paired ovoid bodies, Pelvic Cavity, lateral to uterus
2. Suspended by mesovarium, Ovarian ligament- Ovary to Uterus
B. Fallopian Tubes (uterine tubes, oviduct)
1. From ovary to uterus, (4" long)
2. Expanded funnel - shaped, w/Fimbriae (finger like ends)
C. Uterus (Pear shaped organ 7.5cm (long), 5cm (wide), 2.5cm (thick))
1. Supported behind the bladder by 8 ligaments
2. Fundus- broad upper Body- Tapering region between Fundus
Cervix
D. Vagina
1. 8 cm long
E. Mammary Glands

Histology of the Female Reproductive System

A. Ovary
1. Surface, Germinal Epithelium, Simple
Squamous or Cuboidal epithelium
2. Tunica Albuginia, dense layer of connective
tissue under the Germinal Epithelium, poorly
defined
3. Stroma, internal tissue of the Ovary
4. Ovarian Follicles - Ova and Follicular Cells
a. Primordial Follicles (Small cells, left in photo)
1. Primary Oocyte wrapped in Single layer of
flattened Follicular cells
2. Small, 25 µ m in diameter found along external
cortex surface
3. Basal lamina separates follicle from stromal cells
4. Nucleus of Oocyte in arrested in Prophase I prior
to birth
 5. 500,000 to 400,000 at birth (Menopause- Only
Scars)

b. Primary Follicles
1. Monolayer (Photo 1) to Multiple layers of cuboidal
Follicular cells (Granulosa cells)
2. Follicular cells (Granulosal cells) develop into
cuboidal cells, no blood vessels
3. Proliferate forming Several layers (Photo 2)
4. Develop microvilli, gap junctions
5. Zona pellucida forms (gel-like, protein
polysaccharide) around Oocyte

6. Stromal cells around the Follicle begin to

differentiate into Thecal cells
7. Theca Interna (steroid synthesizing cells), rich in
capillaries
8. Theca Externa, Mainly connective tissue
9. Boundries between these layers not clear
c. Secondary Follicles
1. Multiple layers of cuboidal Follicular cells
(Granulosa cells)
2. Follicle grows, Antrum forms (fluid filled cavities),
to one side
3. Cumulus Oophorus, Small Hillock of Granulosal
cells form. contains Oocyte
4. LH receptors develop on Thecal & Granulosal cells
5. Thecal (Interna) cells produce testosterone,
6. Granulosal cells convert testosterone to Estrogens
d. Graafian (Mature) Follicles
1. Growth of ova to maximum size
2. Follicle 2.5 cm
3. Follicle Bulges out of side of ovary, Antrum, a
large single cavity
4. Corona radiata - granulosa cells attached to ovum
 5. Granulosal Layer becomes thinner as fluid
increases, Mitosis stops
6. Meiotic block removed, Prophase I resumes, Polar
body I released
7. LH & FSH receptors ready for preovulatory surge

e. Atretic Follicles
1. Degeneration of Follicle
2. Develop when more than one follicle begins to
develop or any time
3. Granulosal cells stop dividing
4. Oocyte dies
5. Phagocytes dipose of cells
f. Ovulation = Follicle Ruptures- sets ovum free
1. Follicle swells, Pressure of follicular fluid causes
thinning and Rupture
2. Ovum and granulose cells loose from rest and float
free
3. Active movement of cilia on fimbria of oviduct
draws ovum into the open ostium of Oviduct
g. Corpus luteum (yellow) , Progesterone Secretion,
Secretory
1. Follicular wall collapses and is thrown into folds
2. Central part of corpus luteum, clots, scar tissue,
gradually removed
3. Granulosal Cells enlarge to plump polygonal cells
accumulate lipid, Granulosa Lutein Cells

4. Secrete and Large quantities Progesterone

(Steroids)
5. Theca Interna Cells develop into Theca Lutein
Cells, smaller than Granulosal cells, stain more
darkly
6. Blood capillaries and Lymphatics grow forming a
rich vascular network
h. Corpus Albicans (connective tissue) Scar Tissue
1. Degeneration of corpus luteum
Oviduct (Fallopian Tubes, Uterine tubes, )

A. Ampulla, Multiple longitudinal folds more numerous, ciliated

B. Mucosal layer
1. Multiple longitudinal folds

2. Simple columnar Epithelium

3. Some columnar Epithelium, ciliated, beat toward Uterus
A few cilia beat towad the Ovary
4. Peg cells, Not ciliated, secretory
C. Lamina propria, Loose connective Tissue
D. Muscle Layer
1. Criscrossing bands of smooth muscle
2. Loose connective tissue in between
3. Rhythmic waves toward Uterus
E. Serosa

Uterus

A. Endometrium (Mucosa)
1. Simple Columnar Epithelium, Mixed ciliated and secreting
2. Simple Tubular Mucosal glands, may be branched at the base
3. Lamina Propria, Rich in cells (fibroblasts), Elastic fibers
4. Zones
a. Functionalis - lost during Menstruation, Coiled Arteries
b. Basalis - Retained for renewal of Mucosa, base of glands
source of cells for renewal of epithelium, Straight Arteries
B. Myometrium - (Muscular layer) smooth Muscle
1. Thick Bundles of Smooth Muscle
2. Separated by Connective tissue
3. Four Poorly defined Layers
4. Middle layers, Arcuate Arteries
C. Serosa - Adventitia
D. Cervix
1. Mucosal epithelium = Stratified Squamous
2. Cervical glands, Extensively branched
3. Secretions, role in fertilization
a. Watery at the Time of ovulation (easy sperm penetration)
b. More viscous in Leuteal Phase, Pregnancy etc
c. Prevents microbial invasion, sperm
4. Dilation of Cervix at Birth, Collagenolysis
Vagina

A. 8 cm long lined
B. Mucosa
1. Stratified squamous
a. Small amount of keratin
b. Synthesizes large amouts of glycogen (Estrogen present)
c. Bacterial metabolim of glycogen in lumen => Acid
environment => retards bacterial growth
d. No glands
2. Lamina propria
a. Rich in elastic Fibers
b. Lymphocytes and Neutrophils
c. Rich in blood vessels
C. Muscularis
1. Longitudinal Muscle layer, some circular
D. Fibrous Adventitial Layer
1. Elastic Tissue
2. Extensive Venous Plexus
3. Nerve Bundles
E. External to Vagina
Bartholins glands- mucoid secretion

Mammary Glands

1. Tubuloalveolar glands (15 - 25 lobes)

2. Lobes separated by dense connective tissue and adipose tissue
3. Excretory Lactiferous ducts open in the nipple
4. Gland Histology Varies With Age
5. Develop under estrogen influence during puberty
6. Pregnancy
a. Early - rapid growth and branching of terminal portion of duct
system.
b. Late - hyperplasia slows down enlargement due to synthesis of
colostrum rich in lacto proteins- poor in lipid
c. Modified Apocrine glands (Some portion of the cell lost)
d. Lipids, wrapped in apical cell membrane
e. Proteins, exocytosis
7. Hormones
a. Prolactin (Hypothalamus, Pituitary) Milk Secretion
b. Oxytocin (vasopressin) Milk ejection- Sucking reflex Triggers