Onto (Surjective) Functions

Onto (Surjective) Functions
• A function f : A → B is called onto or surjective if

f (A) = B.
– Necessarily, | A | ≥ | B |.
– f : R → R, where f (x) = x3 , is onto.
• If | A | = m and | B | = n, then there are
n
n
(−1)k (n − k)m (32)
n−k
k=0
onto functions from A to B.a

• Incidentally Eq. (32) equals 0 for m < n, as desired.
a Proofs appear on p. 292 and p. 418.
c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 267
Distinct Objects into Distinct Containers with None
Empty
• Distribute m distinct objects into n ≤ m distinct
containers with no container left empty.
• There are
n
n
(−1)k (n − k)m (33)
n−k
k=0
ways.
– Identify a distribution with an onto function.
– Think of the objects a1 , a2 , . . . in the container
labeled b as signifying
f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) = · · · = b.
c
a A
b B
c C
d D
e E
f F
c
Application: A Combinatorial Identity
n

k n
(−1) (n − k)n = n!. (34)
n−k
k=0
• By Eq. (32) on p. 267, there are

n
n
(−1)k (n − k)n
n−k
k=0
onto functions from X to X, where | X | = n.

• But the number of such onto functions is also n!.
c
An Example
• Suppose there are m = 6 distinct objects and n = 3
distinct containers.
• There are 540 ways to distribute these objects into the
containers with none empty by Eq. (33) on p. 268.
• Let us verify this number with the alternative method
from p. 78.
c
An Example (continued)
• Calculate
(x1 + x2 + x3 )6 = (x61 + · · · + x63 )
5 5
+6 x1 x2 + · · · + x2 x3

+15 x41 x22 + · · · + x22 x43
3 3 3 3
+20 x1 x2 + · · · + x2 x3
3

+30 x41 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x2 x43
6

+60 x31 x22 x3 + · · · + x1 x22 x33
+90x21 x22 x23 .
c
An Example (concluded)
• Only the last three terms are relevant:
3
4

30 x1 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x2 x43
6
3 2

+60 x1 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x22 x33

+90x21 x22 x23 .
• The desired count is thus
30 × 3 + 60 × 6 + 90 = 540,
a match.
c
Distinct Objects into Identical Containers with None
Empty
• Distribute m distinct objects into n ≤ m identical
containers with no container left empty.
• Alternatively, partition m objects into n sets or groups.
• The number of ways is denoted by S(m, n), the Stirling
number of the second kind.
c
A Formula for the Stirling Number
• The formula is
n
1 n
S(m, n) = (−1)k (n − k)m (35)
n! n−k
k=0
n
1 n m
= (−1)n−k k . (36)
n! k
k=0
– Use formula (33) on p. 268.

– Then remove the container labels by dividing it by n!
(why?).
c
Some Boundary Conditions
• Note that
S(m, 0) = 0, if m > 0, (37)

S(0, 0) = 1, if we assume 00 = 1,
S(m, n) = 0, if m < n,
as they should be.

• As the left-hand side of (34) on p. 270 equals n! S(n, n),
S(n, n) = 1.
c
Stirling Numbers of the Second Kind S(20, n)
Stiring number of the 2nd kind
13
1.4·10
13
1.2·10
13
1·10
12
8·10
12
6·10
12
4·10
12
2·10
5 10 15 20
It is unimodal in general.
c
A Special Case: S(m, 2) = 2m−1 − 1 for m > 0
• First proof: From Eq. (35) on p. 275,

1 2 m 2 m 2 m
S(m, 2) = 2 − 1 + 0 = 2m−1 − 1.
2 2 1 0
• Second proof:
– Divide m objects into 2 nonempty parts.
– One of the parts contains the last object and some
subset of the first m − 1 objects.
– There are 2m−1 ways to choose the subset.
– Subtract 1 from 2m−1 to rule out selecting all the
m − 1 objects.
c
An Example
• Suppose there are m = 6 distinct objects and n = 3
identical containers.
• There are S(6, 3) = 90 ways to distribute these objects
into the containers with none empty.
• Let us verify this number with the alternative method
from p. 271.
c
• Again, calculate
(x1 + x2 + x3 )6 = (x61 + · · · + x63 )
5 5
+6 x1 x2 + · · · + x2 x3

+15 x41 x22 + · · · + x22 x43
3 3 3 3
+20 x1 x2 + · · · + x2 x3
3

+30 x41 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x2 x43
6

+60 x31 x22 x3 + · · · + x1 x22 x33
+90x21 x22 x23 .
c
• Only the last three terms are relevant:
3
4

30 x1 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x2 x43
6
3 2

+60 x1 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x22 x33

+90x21 x22 x23 .
c
• Consider the case where the containers contain 4
objects, 1 object, and 1 object.
• We look at the coefficient of
x41 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x2 x43 .
• It is 30.
• So there are 30 distributions if, say, container x1 holds 4
objects, container x2 1 object, and container x3 1.
c
• Containers x2 and x3 can have their objects swapped to
yield a new distribution.
• But this pair of distributions become identical after the
labels are removed.
• So the desired count is 30/2 = 15.
c
objects, 2 objects, and 1 object.
x31 x22 x3 + · · · + x1 x22 x33 .
• It is 60.
objects, container x2 2 objects, and container x3 1.
c
• Because 3, 2, and 1 are distinct, label removal will not
change the count.
• So the desired count is 60.
c
objects, 2 objects, and 2 objects.
x21 x22 x23 .
• It is 90.
objects, container x2 2 objects, and container x3 2.
c
An Example (concluded)
• Because 2, 2, and 2 are identical, label removal will
reduce the count by a factor of 3!.
• So the desired count is 90/3! = 15.
• In conclusion, the total count is
15 + 60 + 15 = 90,
a match with S(6, 3).
c
Functions with a Given Range Size
• There are n!S(m, n) onto functions from a domain of
size m to a codomain of size n.
• In general, there are P (n, r) S(m, r) functions from a
domain of size m to a codomain of size n with a range of
size r.a
n
– There are r to choose the range.

– Given a range as the codomain, there are r!S(m, r)
onto functions.
– Hence the desired count is

n
r!S(m, r) = P (n, r) S(m, r). (38)
r
a Recall from Eq. (1) on p. 13 that P (n, r) = n(n − 1) · · · (n − r + 1).
c
Functions with a Given Range Size (concluded)
• In the special case of r = n, Eq. (38) reduces to
P (n, n) S(m, n) = n!S(m, n),
as it should be
c
An Identity for Stirling Numbers
m

S(m, k) x(x − 1) · · · (x − k + 1) = xm . (39)
k=1
• The number of functions from A to B is xm , where

| A | = m and | B | = x (p. 242).
• By Eq. (38) on p. 288,
S(m, k) x(x − 1) · · · (x − k + 1)
is the number of functions whose range has cardinality k.

• This proves the identity for x ∈ Z+ .
c
An Identity for Stirling Numbers (concluded)
• Hence the polynomial
m

S(m, k) x(x − 1) · · · (x − k + 1) − xm
k=1
has more than m roots, its degree.

• Therefore, it must be identically zero.
c
Finally, Proof of Eq. (32) on P. 267
It suffices to prove Eq. (36) on p. 275:
1
n
n−j n m
(−1) j
n! j=0 j
n j
(−1)n−j
= S(m, r)j(j − 1) · · · (j − r + 1) by Eq. (39)
j=0
(n − j)!j! r=0
j
n
1
= (−1)n−j S(m, r)
j=0 r=0
(n − j)!(j − r)!
n n
S(m, r) (n − r)!
= (−1)n−j
r=0
(n − r)! j=r (n − j)!(j − r)!
n−1
S(m, r)
= S(m, n) + (1 − 1)n−r = S(m, n) by Eq. (10) on p. 59.
r=0
(n − r)!
c
A Recurrence Relation for Stirling Numbers
⎧
⎪
⎪ if m + 1 = n,
⎨ 1,
S(m + 1, n) = 1, if n = 1, (40)
⎪
⎪
⎩
S(m, n − 1) + nS(m, n), if 2 ≤ n ≤ m.
• Recall that S(m + 1, n) counts the number of ways
a1 , a2 , . . . , am+1
is distributed among n identical containers, with no

container left empty.
• Object am+1 can be in a container all by itself or with
other objects.
c
The Proof (concluded)
• S(m, n − 1) is the number of ways a1 , a2 , . . . , am are
distributed among n − 1 identical containers, with no
containers left empty and with am+1 alone in the
remaining container.
• nS(m, n) is the number of ways a1 , a2 , . . . , am are
distributed among n identical containers, with no
container left empty and with am+1 put in any of the n
containers.
c
Another Recurrence Relation for Stirling Numbers
m−1

m−1
S(m, n) = S(k, n − 1), n ≤ m. (41)
k
k=n−1
• The left-hand side denotes the number of distributions

of m distinct objects into n identical containers with
none left empty.
• Fix an object O.
• Call a container that has O the O-container.
• The O-container must contain r other objects, where
0 ≤ r ≤ m − n.a
a So the O-container contains r + 1 objects.
c
m−1
• These r objects can be chosen in r ways.

• For each choice, the other n − 1 containers may be filled
in S(m − r − 1, n − 1) ways.
• Hence

m−n
m−1
S(m, n) = S(m − 1 − r, n − 1)
r=0
r

m−n
m−1
= S(m − 1 − r, n − 1)
r=0
m − 1 − r

m−1
m−1
= S(k, n − 1).
k=n−1
k
c
m
A Special Case: S(m, m − 1) = 2

for m > 0a
From Eq. (41) on p. 295,
S(m, m − 1)
m − 1
m−1
= S(k, m − 2)
k
k=m−2

m−1 m−1
= S(m − 2, m − 2) + S(m − 1, m − 2)
m−2 m−1
= (m − 1) + S(m − 1, m − 2)
= (m − 1) + (m − 2) + S(m − 2, m − 3)

m
= (m − 1) + (m − 2) + · · · + 1 = .
2
a Checkthat the proof works even when m = 1. Thanks to a lively
discussion on March 29, 2018.
c
m
S(m, m − 1) = 2
the Easier Way
• Consider any distribution of m distinct objects into
m − 1 identical containers with no container left empty.
• There must be one container with 2 objects and m − 2
containers with 1 object (why?).
m
• The 2-object container can be composed in 2 ways.
c
Bella Numbers
• The mth Bell number Pm is the number of partitions of
m distinct objects.b
• Alternatively, there are Pm ways for m distinct objects
to form groups.
– There are 5 ways to partition 3 distinct objects:
{{ 1, 2, 3 }}, {{ 1 }, { 2 }, { 3 }},
{{ 1, 2 }, { 3 }}, {{ 1, 3 }, { 2 }}, {{ 1 }, { 2, 3 }}.
a Eric
Temple Bell (1883–1960).
b It differs from the Stirling number of the second kind in that the
number of partitions is not specified.
c
A Formula for Bell Numbers
• By convention P0 = 1.
• For m > 0,a
m
∞

Pm = S(m, k) = S(m, k).
k=0 k=0
– The above formula also works for P0 .b

• Indeed, P3 = 5.
a Recall that S(m, 0) = 0 for m > 0 by Eq. (37) on p. 276.
b Recall that S(0, 0) = 1 on p. 276.
c
Dobinski’s Equality
• Now,
∞
k
1 k−j k
Pm = (−1) jm
k! j=0 j
k=0
∞ ∞
j m (−1)k−j
=
j=0
j! (k − j)!
k=j
∞
1 jm
= .
e j=0 j!
c
A Recurrence Relation for Bell Numbers
⎧
⎨ 1, if n = 0,
Pn =
⎩ n−1 n−1 Pk ,
(42)
k=0 k if n ≥ 1.
• Let | S | = n and fix an x ∈ S.
• A group with k elements that contains x can be chosen
n−1
in k−1 ways.
• The remaining n − k elements can be partitioned in
Pn−k ways.
c
• So the number of partitions in which the group
n−1
containing x has k elements is k−1 Pn−k .

• Finally,
n

n−1
Pn = Pn−k
k−1
k=1
n
n−1
= Pn−k
n−k
k=1
n − 1
n−1
= Pk .
k
k=0
c
Bijective Functions
• A function f : A → B is bijective or a one-to-one
correspondencea if it is one-to-one and onto.
– Necessarily, | A | = | B |.
• For example, f : Z → Z is bijective for f (x) = x.
• But f (x) = x is not bijective if f : Z → Q (it is not
onto).
• If | A | = | B | = m, then there are m! bijective functions
from A to B.
a Notethe definitional difference between a one-to-one (injective) func-
tion (p. 258) and a one-to-one correspondence.
c
Function Composition
• Suppose f : A → B and g : B → C.
• The composite function g ◦ f : A → C is defined as
(g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a))
for each a ∈ A.a

• Note that f is applied first.
• Also, f ’s range must be a subset of g’s domain for g ◦ f
to work.
a Read as “g circle f ,” “g composed with f ,” “g after f ,” “g following
f ,” or “g of f .”
c
A B C
a c
f g
c
Properties of Composite Functions
Theorem 43 Let f : A → B and g : B → C. If f and g are
one-to-one, then g ◦ f is also one-to-one.
• Let a1 , a2 ∈ A with
(g ◦ f )(a1 ) = (g ◦ f )(a2 ).
• Then
g(f (a1 )) = g(f (a2 )).
• As g is one-to-one, this implies
f (a1 ) = f (a2 ).
• As f is one-to-one, this implies a1 = a2 , as desired.
c
Function Composition Is Associative
Theorem 44 Let f : A → B, g : B → C, and h : C → D
Then (h ◦ g) ◦ f = h ◦ (g ◦ f ).
For every a ∈ A,
((h ◦ g) ◦ f )(a)
= (h ◦ g)(f (a))
= h(g(f (a)))
= h((g ◦ f )(a))
= (h ◦ (g ◦ f ))(a).
c
Powers of Functions
• As function composition is associative (p. 308), we
simply write
h◦g◦f
in place of (h ◦ g) ◦ f or h ◦ (g ◦ f ).
• Let f : A → A.
• Define f 1 = f .
• In general,
n

n+1 n
f = f ◦ (f ) = · · · = f (f (f (· · · f )))
for n ∈ Z+ .
c
The Identity Function
• Function 1A : A → A is defined by
1A (a) = a
for all a ∈ A.
• This function is called the identity function for A.
c
Invertibility of Functions
• Suppose f : A → B.
• f is said to be invertible if there is a function
g : B → A such that
g ◦ f = 1A and f ◦ g = 1B .
• So
– g(f (a)) = a for all a ∈ A.
– f (g(b)) = b for all b ∈ B.
c
Uniqueness of the Inverse Function
Theorem 45 Suppose f : A → B is invertible. Then a
function g : B → A such that
g◦f = 1A ,
f ◦g = 1B ,
must be unique.
• Suppose there is a function h : B → A with
h◦f = 1A ,
f ◦h = 1B .
c
• Now,
h = h ◦ 1B
= h ◦ (f ◦ g)
= (h ◦ f ) ◦ g
= 1A ◦ g
= g.
c
The Inverse Function
• By Theorem 45 (p. 312), we call the function g there the
inverse of f , written as
f −1 .
• Again by Theorem 45 (p. 312), if f is invertible, so is

f −1 , whose inverse is (f −1 )−1 by definition.
• In fact, if f is invertible, then
(f −1 )−1 = f.
– Note that (f −1 )−1 = f −2 .
c
Conditions for Invertibility
Theorem 46 f is invertible if and only if it is bijective.
• Assume that f : A → B is invertible first.
• Then by Theorem 45 (p. 312) there is a unique function
g : B → A such that g ◦ f = 1A and f ◦ g = 1B .
• Suppose a1 , a2 ∈ A such that f (a1 ) = f (a2 ).
• Then g(f (a1 )) = g(f (a2 )); i.e.,
(g ◦ f )(a1 ) = (g ◦ f )(a2 ).
• Finally, (1A )(a1 ) = (1A )(a2 ); i.e., a1 = a2 .

• Hence f is one-to-one.
c
The Proof (continued)
• Let b ∈ B.
• Then
b = (1B )(b) = (f ◦ g)(b) = f (g(b)).
• So f is onto.
• Conversely, suppose f is bijective.
• Define function g : B → A by
g(b) = a
whenever f (a) = b.
c
• As f is onto, for each b ∈ B there is an a ∈ A such that
f (a) = b.
• This a is also unique.
– If f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) = b, then a1 = a2 because f is
one-to-one.
• Hence g is a well-defined function.
• By g’s definition, g ◦ f = 1A and f ◦ g = 1B .
• Hence g = f −1 by Theorem 45 (p. 312).
c
Inverse of the Composite Function
Theorem 47 If f : A → B and g : B → C are invertible,
then g ◦ f is also invertible and
(g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1 .
c
Relations: The Second Time Around
c
Whatsoever we imagine is finite.
Therefore there is no idea, or conception
of any thing we call infinite.
— Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679),
Leviathan (1651)
c
Reflexive Relations
• R ⊆ A × A is a relation on A.
• R is reflexive if (x, x) ∈ R (or xRx) for all x ∈ A.
– “≤” is reflexive because x ≤ x.
– “=” is reflexive because x = x.
• If | A | = m, then there are
2
2m −m
reflexive relations on A.
– Except the m required (x, x) ∈ R, membership in R
for the other m2 − m pairs of A × A is arbitrary.
c
a b c d e f
c
Irreflexive Relations
• Relation R on A is irreflexive if (x, x) ∈ R for all
x ∈ A.
– “<” is irreflexive because x < x.
• For | A | = m, there are
m2 −m
2
irreflexive relations on A (see next page).

• “Being irreflexive” is not the same thing as “not being
reflexive.”a
a Which means there is an x such that (x, x) ∈ R. By Eq. (26) on p.
2 2
238, there are 2m − 2m −m relations that are not reflexive.
c
a b c d e f
c
Symmetric Relations
• R is symmetric if (x, y) ∈ R ⇒ (y, x) ∈ R for all
x, y ∈ A.
• For example, “=” and “=” are symmetric.
– If x = y, then y = x.
– If x = y, then y = x.
c
Number of Symmetric Relations
Lemma 48 If | A | = m, then there are
2
2(m +m)/2
symmetric relations on A.
m
• There are m (x, x)s and 2 = (m2 − m)/2 { x, y }s with

x = y.a
• Number of decisions to make for membership in R:
m + (m2 − m)/2 = (m2 + m)/2.

a Or focus on the upper triangular elements on the next page.
c
a b c d e f
c
Number of Reflexive Symmetric Relationsa
Lemma 49 If | A | = m, then there are
(m2 −m)/2
2
reflexive symmetric relations on A.

m
• There are 2 = (m2 − m)/2 { x, y }s with x = y.

• Number of decisions to make for membership in R:
m2 − m
.
2
a The number of irreflexive symmetric relations is the same.
c
a b c d e f
c
Transitive Relations
• R is transitive if (x, y) ∈ R ∧ (y, z) ∈ R ⇒ (x, z) ∈ R
for all x, y, z ∈ A.
– “≤” is transitive.
– “<” is transitive.
– “⊆” is transitive.
• The number of transitive relations on a finite set seems
hard to derive.a
a It will make a nice research project.
c
Where five economists are gathered together
there will be six conflicting opinions,
and two of them will be held by Keynes.
— Thomas Jones (1954)
c
The Pigeonhole Principlea
• If m pigeons occupy n pigeonholes and m > n, at least
one pigeonhole has two or more pigeons roosting in it.
• With m pigeons and n single-occupancy pigeonholes
with m > n, at least one pigeon is “homeless.”
a Dirichlet (1834).
c
The Pigeonhole Principle (continued)
• If m pigeons occupy n pigeonholes and m > n, at least
one pigeonhole has ≥ (m − 1)/n + 1 pigeons.a
– Otherwise, every pigeonhole has ≤ (m − 1)/n
pigeons.
– So the number of pigeons is at most
n(m − 1)/n ≤ m − 1 < m, a contradiction.
• If nk + 1 pigeons occupy n pigeonholes and k ∈ Z+ , at
least one pigeonhole has ≥ k + 1 pigeons.
– Otherwise, the number of pigeons is at most nk.
a It
may also be called the averaging principle. It is similar to the
mean-value theorem in calculus.
c
The Pigeonhole Principle (concluded)
Theorem 50 If there are ≥ p1 + p2 + · · · + pn − n + 1
pigeons occupying pigeonholes 1, 2, . . . , n, then for some j,
pigeonhole j contains ≥ pj pigeons.
• Assume otherwise: Every pigeonhole j has at most
pj − 1 pigeons.
• The total number of pigeons is at most
(p1 − 1) + (p2 − 1) + · · · + (pn − 1)

= p1 + p2 + · · · + pn − n,
a contradiction.
c
Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet (1805– 1859)
c
Application: Friendship
• Assumption 1: If A is a friend of B’s, then B is also a
friend of A’s.
• Assumption 2: One is not a friend of oneself.
Theorem 51 In any group of people, there exist 2 people
who have the same number of friends in the group.
• Let xi denote the number of friends of person i, where
0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1.
• Note that 0 ≤ xi ≤ n − 1.
• Suppose xi are distinct.
c
• Relabel them so that x0 < x1 < · · · < xn−1 .
• Then xi = i for all i.
• Remove the friendless person 0 from the group.
• The remaining xi ’s will not be changed for the smaller
group of n − 1 people.
• Hence person n − 1 is a friend of n − 1 other people.
• This is impossible because there are only n − 1 people.
c
Application: Dividends
Theorem 52 Let n ∈ Z+ be odd. Then there exists a
positive integer m ≤ n such that n | (2m − 1).
• Consider n + 1 integers: 21 − 1, 22 − 1, . . . , 2n+1 − 1.
• There exist s < t such that 2s − 1 ≡ 2t − 1 mod n.
– Only n remainders are possible.
• So n | (2t − 2s ), or n | (2t−s − 1) 2s .
• Because n is odd, n | (2t−s − 1) .
• Pick m = t − s to finish the proof.
c
Application: Coding Theory
Theorem 53 Let n ∈ Z+ and q ∈ Z+ such that
gcd(n, q) = 1. Then n | (q m − 1) for some 1 ≤ m ≤ n.
• Use the division algorithm to yield the following set of
n + 1 equations:
q = Q1 n + r1 ,
q2 = Q2 n + r2 ,
..
.
q n+1 = Qn+1 n + rn+1 .
• Above, 0 ≤ ri ≤ n − 1 for all i.
c
• Because there are n + 1 equations with n possible
remainders, two remainders must be identical, say
ri = rj , i < j.
• Hence
q j − q i = Qj n + rj − Qi n − ri .
• This implies that
q i (q j−i − 1) = (Qj − Qi ) n.
• Because gcd(n, q) = 1, n must divide q j−i − 1.

• Finally, set m = j − i to finish the proof.
c
Application: Mutual Divisibility
Theorem 54 (Putnam, 1958) Any subset of n + 1
numbers from { 1, 2, . . . , 2n } must contain x, y such that x
divides y or y divides x.
• Express every positive integer as 2k m, where m is odd.
• There are at most n possibilities for m:
1, 3, 5, . . . , 2n − 1.
• Hence any set of n + 1 integers must contain two x, y

with the same m: x = 2k1 m and y = 2k2 m.
• Now, x | y if k1 < k2 and y | x otherwise.
c

Onto (Surjective) Functions

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Onto (Surjective) Functions

• A function f : A → B is called onto or surjective if

onto functions from A to B.a

• By Eq. (32) on p. 267, there are

onto functions from X to X, where | X | = n.

+60 x1 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x22 x33

• The desired count is thus

– Use formula (33) on p. 268.

S(m, 0) = 0, if m > 0, (37)

as they should be.

+60 x1 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x22 x33

x31 x22 x3 + · · · + x1 x22 x33 .

x21 x22 x23 .

a match with S(6, 3).

– There are r to choose the range.

P (n, n) S(m, n) = n!S(m, n),

• The number of functions from A to B is xm , where

is the number of functions whose range has cardinality k.

has more than m roots, its degree.

• Recall that S(m + 1, n) counts the number of ways

is distributed among n identical containers, with no

• The left-hand side denotes the number of distributions

• These r objects can be chosen in r ways.

A Special Case: S(m, m − 1) = 2

• The 2-object container can be composed in 2 ways.

number of partitions is not speciﬁed.

– The above formula also works for P0 .b

containing x has k elements is k−1 Pn−k .

(g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a))

for each a ∈ A.a

• As g is one-to-one, this implies

• As f is one-to-one, this implies a1 = a2 , as desired.

• Again by Theorem 45 (p. 312), if f is invertible, so is

– Note that (f −1 )−1 = f −2 .

• Finally, (1A )(a1 ) = (1A )(a2 ); i.e., a1 = a2 .

irreﬂexive relations on A (see next page).

• There are m (x, x)s and 2 = (m2 − m)/2 { x, y }s with

m + (m2 − m)/2 = (m2 + m)/2.

reflexive symmetric relations on A.

• There are 2 = (m2 − m)/2 { x, y }s with x = y.

(p1 − 1) + (p2 − 1) + · · · + (pn − 1)

• Above, 0 ≤ ri ≤ n − 1 for all i.

• This implies that

• Because gcd(n, q) = 1, n must divide q j−i − 1.

• Hence any set of n + 1 integers must contain two x, y

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– Note that (f −1 )−1 = f −2 .

• There are 2 = (m2 − m)/2 { x, y }s with x = y.