Research

 Paper  
 
Author:  Stella  Dupuis  (Swiss)  
Title:  Matsyendranatha,  Master  of  the  Yogini  Kaula  School  in  the  Tantra  Tradition  of  
Bengal.  
Language:  English  
Presented   at   the   celebration   of   the   Hundredth   Anniversary   of   the   Bangladesh  
National  Museum  in  Dhaka,  9  July  2013.  
 

Study    

The   Kaulajñananirnaya   (KJN)   embodies   the   most   esoteric   teachings   of   the   Tradition  

of   the   Yogini   Kaula   School   and   its   sculptural   translation.     In   this   study   I   raise  

questions  about  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  tantric  scripts.    In  the  spirit  of  the  

Kaulajñananirnaya,  the  discussion  goes  beyond  preconceived  ideas  in  order  to  open  

windows  for  a  more  subtle  understanding  of  the  tantric  alchemy.  

Matsyendranatha  

The   venerable   Matsyendranatha   appears   to   be   the   founder   of   the   Yogini   Kaula  

doctrine.  The  word  ‘natha’  in  his  name  implies  ‘Lord’  and  probably  was  added  as  a  

replacement   of   the   word   ‘pada’   that   is   used   in   the   original   text   of   the   KJN   as   a  

synonym  for  venerable.    In  the  context  of  the  KJN,  the  word  natha  does  not  seem  to  

imply  an  adherence  to  the  Natha  schools   because   those   schools   appeared   later.   It   is  

likely  that  the  founder  of  the  Natha  schools  was  Goraksanatha,  (Matsyendranatha’s  

disciple   in   various   legends).   The   name   Goraksanatha   and   the   core   ideas   of   the  

Nathis,   are   not   found   in   the   Kaulajñananirnaya.       Abhinavagupta,   in   his   chief   work  

Tantraloka,   (the   light   of   Tantra)   honoured   Matsyendranatha   with   the   title   of   ‘the  

  1  
father   of   Yoga’.     It   means   that   at   the   time   of   Abhinavagupta   (beginning   of   the   11th  

century),  Matsyendranatha  had  already  become  a  mythic  Master1.  

Though   it   is   difficult   to   situate   Matsyendranatha   in   a   historical   framework   some  

scholars  have  placed  his  birth  at  the  8th  century.  Following  this  time  frame,  he  would  

have   received   the   revelation   of   the   knowledge   of   the   Kaulajñananirnaya   around   the  

8-­‐  9th  century.    

The   aquatic   legends   around   Matsyendranatha   indicate   an   important   link   with   the  

sea   and   most   scholars   believe   that   Matsyendrantha   was   born   in   the   costal   area   of  

what  is  now  Bangladesh,2.  Some  scholars  think  that  Chadradvipa,  the  mythical  Island  

of  the  Moon  symbolising  the  state  of  transcendence,  is  associated  with  the  island  of  

Sundwip3,   because   of   its   shape   as   a   crescent   and   the   connections   it   has   with   the  

Bengali   pronunciation   of   Chandradvipa.   When   the   KJN   mentions   Chandradvipa   as  

the   place   where   Matsyendranatha   received   the   knowledge,   it   could   be   related   to   the  

ancient  Buddhist  site  south  of  Dhaka  where  a  Temple  of  Tara  of  Chandradvipa  was  

erected.   This   site   is   mentioned   in   a   6th   century   poem.   Unfortunately   it   seems   that  

Chandradvipa   was   submerged4   when   the   sacred   rivers   changed   their   course   near  

the   delta.   Over   time   this   event   may   have   been   transformed   into   the   legend   that  

                                                                                                               
1  Bagchi,  P.C.  Kaulajñananirnaya,  Sanskrit  Series  III,  (Calcutta,  1934)  Introduction  

passim  
2  Dehejia,  Vidhya,  Yogini  Cult  and  Temples,  (Delhi  1986),  p.  79;  Bagchi,  P.C.  

Kaulajñananirnaya,  Sanskrit  Series  III,  (Calcutta,  1934)  Introduction  passim.  

3  Karambelkar,  V.W.,  Matsyendranath  and  his  Yogini  Cult,  Indian  Historical  Quarterly  

XXXI,  (New  Delhi  1955),  pp.  362-­‐374;    

4  Commented  by  Professor  MD.  Mosharraf  Hossain.  

  2  
Matsyendranatha  heard  the  knowledge5  when  he  was  in  the  belly  of  the  fish.    Instead  

of   the   book   of   knowledge   being   thrown   into   the   water,   as   it   is   said   in   the  KJN,   it   was  

Matsyendrantha,   newly   born   under   an   inauspicious   horoscope,   who   was   thrown  

into  the  water  and  rescued  by  a  fish.    It  was  when  he  was  in  the  belly  of  the  fish  that  

he  heard  the  Yogini  Knowledge  because  Bhairava  was  teaching  it  to  the  Devi  in  the  

hidden  abode  of  the  sub-­‐aquatic  Island  of  the  Moon  (Chandradvipa).      The  KJN  and  

some   legends   say   that   it   was   in   Kamarupa6,   the   place   of   the   senses7,   where  

Matsyendranatha   integrated   the   Yogini   knowledge.   Kamarupa   is   associated   with   the  

geographical   area   that   covers   part   of   the   Brahmaputra   River   valley   in   today’s   Assam  

and   Bangladesh.     Through   the   ages,   certain   places   in   the   world   are   considered  

sacred   places,   axis   mundis8,   where   the   devotees   can   easily   communicate   with   the  

divine.  Thus,  two  important  concepts  in  the  KJN  are  associated  with  the  geography  

of   Bangladesh:   first,   the   knowledge   was   received   in   the   state   of   transcendence  

(Chandradvipa);   and   second,   this   knowledge   could   only   be   fully   integrated   after  

being   experienced   through   the   senses   (in   the   kingdom   of   Kamarupa9).   These  

concepts  are  fundamental  to  the  core  of  the  esoteric  teachings  of  the  KJN.    

                                                                                                               
5  Probably  the  knowledge  was  related  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Goddess.  
6  Bagchi,  P.C.  Kaulajñananirnaya,  Sanskrit  Series  III,  (Calcutta,  1934)  Introduction  

passim;  Karambelkar,  V.W.,  Matsyendranath  and  his  Yogini  Cult,  Indian  Historical  
Quarterly  XXXI,  (New  Delhi  1955),  pp.  362-­‐374.  
7  Kamarupa  is  the  place  where  desires  take  form.  
8  Eliade,  Mircea,  Symbolism  of  the  Centre,  Images  and  Symbols.  (tr.  Philip  Mairet)  

(Princeton,  1991),  pp.  40-­‐48-­‐51  

9  The  Kingdom  of  Kararupa  was  in  the  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra  River  in  what  is  

now  Assam  and  northern  Bangladesh.  

  3  
  

The  Manuscript    

In   the   early   twentieth   century,   P.C.   Bagchi10   found   the   Kaulajñananirnaya   among  

other   minor   manuscripts   attributed   to   the   school   of   Matsyendranatha.   These   texts  

were  unknown  to  researchers,  as  they  lay  forgotten  in  the  large  library  of  the  kings  

of  Nepal.      

The  teachings  (sastras)  found  in   KJN  belong  to  an  oral  tradition.  As  with  many  other  

Tantras   it   was   written   in   an   esoteric   language-­‐   tantric   bhasa   -­‐   that   could   only   be  

understood   by   the   already   initiated   devotees   with   the   help   of   a   teacher.   The  

manuscripts  were  then  copied  using  the  vernacular  script  known  to  the  scribe.    In  

the   case   of   the   KJN,   the   language   is   Sanskrit   and   the   script   is   ancient   Newari,  

probably   from   the   11th   century11.   The   core   of   the   tradition   expressed   in   this   work  

seems   to   belong   to   the   9th   or   10th   century   as   it   contains   some   proto   myths   and  

doctrines  that  were  developed  in  later  tantric  schools12.    

Sources  of  Inspiration  and  Interaction  with  the  Yogini  Cult                                                                                        

The  concept  of  the  entities  called  Yoginis  may  have  been  a  continuation  of  the  very  

ancient  group  of  Goddesses  (Matrikas)  that  appear  in  the  earliest  scripts  such  as  the  

                                                                                                               
10  Bagchi,  P.C.  Kaulajñananirnaya,  Sanskrit  Series  III,  (Calcutta,  1934)  Introduction  

passim.  
11  Mukhopadhyaya,  Satkarri,  Dupuis,  Stella,  The  Kaulajñananirnaya,  (New  Delhi  

2012),  p.  xiii.  

12  Dyczkwski,  Mark,  Kubjikamatatantra  KMT,  (New  Delhi  2009),  Vol.1,  p.  252  ff.,  

Vol.2  p.  324.  

  4  
Mahabharata.    This  has  been  commented  on  by  Dr  Shaman  Hatley  in  his  study  The  

Brahmayamalatantra  and  early  Saiva  cult  of  Yoginis13.    

The  Yoginis  are  mentioned  in  various  Puranas  such  as  Candi  Purana,  Skanda  Purana,  

Devi   Bhagavata   Purana,   Mahabhagavata   Purana,   Kalika   Purana,   and   Agni   Purana.    

Some  of  these  Puranas  talk  about  the  Yoginis  as  emerging  from  the  body  of  the  Devi,  

and  being  the  manifestation  of  different  aspects  of  the  Devi,  or  being  her  attendants.  

Most  texts  don’t  provide  an  explanation  of  the  Yoginis  but  rather  give  names  of  the  

sixty-­‐four  Yoginis.    

Around   the   10th   century   these   mysterious   entities   surfaced   in   dramas,   romances  

and   other   secular   texts.   In   those   cases   they   are   mostly   depicted   as   sorceresses  

having   magical   powers,   such   as   being   able   to   transform   men   into   animals.   The  

appellation   of   Yoginis   was   used   as   a   synonym   for   Dakinis   and   Sakinis   and   other  

powerful   and   frightening   beings.   These   stories   may   have   been   inspired   by   practices  

that  supposedly  had  the  power  of  creation  and  destruction:  ‘<By  meditating>  for  six  

months  or  a  year  on  the  centre  (chakra)  of  eight  petals  in  a  fluid  state  at  the  juncture  

of   the   skull   at   the   base   of   the   hair   ...   One   also   becomes   capable   of   creating   and  

destroying  like  the  Yoginis.  (16-­18ab)14’  

                                                                                                               
13  Keul,  Itsvan  (Ed.),  Transformation  and  Transfer  of  Tantra  in  Asia  and  Beyond  

(Berlin  2011),  p.  109.  

14  Mukhopadhyaya,  Satkari;  Dupuis,  Stella,  The  Kaulajñananirnaya,  (New  Delhi  

2012),  p.  41  

  5  
In   the   Tantras,   especially   in   the   Kaula   Tantras   the   Yoginis   are   treated   with   devotion  

and  respect  and  seen  as  the  protectors  of  the  Kaula  followers.  (Kularnava  Tantra,  Sri  

Mattotara  Tantra  and  the  KJN).      

The   colophons   of   the   KJN   give   credit,   not   only   to   Matsyendranatha (in different

appellations like Macchaghna15, Macchendra16, Mina17, Matsyendra18) but   also   to   the  

Kaula  tradition  of  the  Yoginis19  as  an  already  well-­‐established  channel  of  knowledge.      

If  the  Yoginis  were  named  in  earlier  works,  it  is  in  the  KJN  that  the  idea  of  a  group  of  

entities   or   energies   as   a   concrete   source   of   knowledge   is   first   presented.   The   text  

often   refers   to   them   as   sixty-­‐four   or   eight   times   eight20.   The   Sri   Mattotara   Tantra  

mentions   a   group   of   eighty-­‐one   Yoginis   as   protectors   of   royalty.   A   round   open   sky  

temple  with  forty-­‐two  niches  in  Duddhai  conveys  the  idea  that  a  group  of  forty-­‐two  

was  venerated.  

The  generic  name  of  Yoginis  was  probably  not  related  to  the  Yoga  ascetics  that  are  

found  in  paintings  of  the  18th  century  but  rather  associated  with  the  idea  of  union  as  

                                                                                                               
15  Ibidem,  pp.  3,  5,  15,  21,  31,  37,  45,  59,  65,75,  85,  89  and  117.  Macchaghna  is  

colloquial  variant  of  the  Sanskrit  Matsyaghna  which  means  ‘killer  of  fish’  that  is  
related  with  the  important  legend  of  the  chapter  XVI.
16  Ibidem,  pp.  91,125,  149.  Macchendra  is  a  colloquial  name  of  Macchindra  (Matsya  

+  Indra).    When  the  name  Indra  is  added  to  another  name  it  is  to  give  the  status  a  
high  status  as  the  Lord  of  the  Gods  (Indra).  
17  Ibidem,  pp.  161,  165.    Mina  that  means  fish  is  another  name  for  Matsyendranatha.  
18  Mukhopadhyaya,  Satkari,  The  Kaulajñananirnaya,  pp  167,  171,  175.  Matsyendra  

(Matsya+Indra).  
19  Ibidem,  colophons  passim.  
20  Ibidem,  pp.  49,  55,  59,  169.  

  6  
in   the   word   Yoga.     Thus,   the   Yoginis   are   supposed   to   carry   an   intrinsic   force   (Kula21,  

i.e.  divine  energy,  Shakti)  that  when  it  circulates  among  the  group  creates  oneness  

within  the  chakras  in  the  macro  and  micro  cosmos  (i.e  the  Universe  and  our  physical  

body).    

The   Yoginis   also   appeared   in   the   KJN   as   the   embodiment   of   the   knowledge   of   the  

siddhis22.  In  other  verses  they  are  also  women  representing  goddesses,  who  are  the  

subjects  of  adoration.23    In  those  cases  the  female  practitioners  (sadhakas)  are  called  

Yoginis  and  the  males  are  called  the  heroes  (viras).    

Analysis  &  Discussion:    

i.  The  Yogini  Path  

In  the  KJN  the  teaching  methodology  is  a  form  of  dialogue  between  Bhairava  and  the  

Devi.     Bhairava   is   known   as   the   terrific   form   of   Shiva   and   as   the   legendary   protector  

of  divine  female  energy.  He  appears  in  the  KJN  as  the  giver  of  knowledge  in  verses  

called  Agamas.      

When   Bhairava’s   energy   is   in   his   primal   stage,   he   is   traditionally   called   Vatuka.   In  

one  chapter  of  the  KJN  he  is  Vatuka  but  associated  with  Skanda-­‐  born  of  the  union  of  

the   male   and   female   principles.   First   he   acts   foolishly   and   tries   to   preserve   the  

knowledge  represented  by  a  book  by  throwing  it  into  the  sea  where  it  is   swallowed  

                                                                                                               
21  Ibidem,  pp.  5,15,25,  55.  
22  The  siddhis  are  sophisticated  techniques  that  give  supernatural  powers,  

transcendental  attainments.  
23  Mukhopadhyaya,  Satkari;  Dupuis,  Stella,  The  Kaulajñananirnaya,  (New  Delhi  

2012),  pp.  45,  55.  

  7  
by  a  fish.  This  appears  as  a  metaphor  for  a  new  period  of  gestation  in  the  womb  (the  

belly  of  the  fish)  in  order  to  be  reborn  at  the  right  moment.  Also  it  is  interesting  that  

the   first   to   receive   this   knowledge   is   not   a   Brahmin   but   a   lower   caste   fisherman.  

This   episode   of   the   legend   has   been   commented   in   several   works   and   given   many  

interpretations24.  

After  the  knowledge  is  ‘reborn’,  Vatuka  is  no  longer  a  young  man  but  appears  now  

as   powerful   Bhairava.   Vatuka   and   changes   his   role   from   the   unwise   one   to   one   of  

protector  of  sacred  places  and  giver  of  siddhis25.      

Bhairava  in  the  KJN  often  exposes  the  results  of  higher  states  of  consciousness  when  

the   divine   energy   Kula   permeates   the   centres   of   energy   (chakras)   within   the   body  

and  then  channels  the  energy  to  reach  those  centres.  In  the  third  chapter  he  explains  

that   in   the   beginning   of   this   spiritual   path,   certain   devotional   moods   are  

condemned,  such  as  the  veneration  of  lingas26  as  an  external  symbol  of  the  divine.  

                                                                                                               
24  Bagchi,  P.C.,  Kaulajñana-­nirnaya,  and  some  minor  texts  of  the  school  of  

Matsyendranatha,  (Calcutta  1934),  Introduction  passim;  Karambelkar,  V.W.,  

Matsyendranatha  and  his  Yogini  Cult,  Indian  Historical  Quarterly  XXXI,  (New  Delhi,  
1985)  pp.  362-­‐374,  1985;  Dehejia,  Vidhya,  Yogini  Cult  and  Temples    (New  Delhi,  
1986)  p.79;  Dyczkowski,  Mark,  Manthanabhairavatantram,  (New  Delhi,  2009),  Vol.  
II,  p.  318;  White,  David  Gordon,  The  Alchemical  Body,  (Chicago,  1996),  p.  222;  Nagar,  
Shantilal,  Yogini  shrines  and  Saktapithas,  (New  Delhi,  2006),  Vol.  IV,    pp.  33-­‐34.  
25  Mukhopadhyaya,  Satkari;  Dupuis,  Stella,  The  Kaulajñananirnaya,  (New  Delhi  

2012),  p.  135.  

26  A  non-­‐anthropomorphic  form  of  Shiva.  In  the  legend  it  is  a  representation  of  the  

infinite  cosmic  column  of  fire,  whose  origins  were  not  traceable  by  Brahma  or  
Vishnu.  The  Shiva  Linga  is  the  centre  of  reverence  and  worship  in  the  Shaivite  
temples.    

  8  
 When   I   was   working   on   this   particular   chapter   I  

visited   the   Dhaka   Museum   and   became   fascinated   with   the   sculpture   called  

Mahamaya.   Seeking   answers   I   bought   the   excellent   book   Sculptures   in   Bangladesh  

and   read:   ‘This   black   stone   image   shows   in   the   upper   part,   the   upper   half   of   a   four-­

armed  goddess  in  deep  meditation  and  in  lower  part,  a  well  carved  linga’….27  I  could  

relate   Mahamaya   with   the   expression   of   an   introverted   experience   of   devotion,   a  

spiritual  realization  of  the  divine  energy  sculpturally  represented  by  the  linga28.  In  

this   case   the   linga   appears   not   to   be   considered   as   an   outside   concept   but   as   a  

realization.29  

                                                                                                               
27  Haque,  Emanuel  &  Gail,  Adalbert  J.  (ed.)  Sculptures  in  Bangladesh,  (Dhaka,  2008),  

p.141,  pl.45.  
28  Mukhopadhyaya,  Satkari;  Dupuis,  Stella,  The  Kaulajñananirnaya,  (New  Delhi,  

2012),  pp.  9,  11.  

29  Ibidem,  pp.  9,  11.  

  9  
The   images   of   Yoginis   also   could   have   been   used   as   tools   to   complement   the  

teachings  transmitted  by  the  KJN.    

The   sculptures   of   the   Yoginis   probably   helped   the  

follower  to  understand  the  techniques  of  the  siddhis  even  though  these  techniques  

have   been   known   since   ancient   times.   Patanjali’s   Yoga   Sutras   (ca.   150BCE)30   are  

verses   describing   the   effect   of   the   siddhis.   The   Tantra,   especially   the   KJN,   gave  

priority   to   these   methods   in   order   to   cleanse   the   system   of   the   practitioner   to  

achieve   a   higher   state   of   consciousness   and   attain   liberation   (moksha).     These  

teachings  are  described  as  very  powerful,  thus  esoteric,  requiring  the  structure  of  a  

tradition   like   the   ‘Kaula   Tradition   of   Yoginis   (revealed   from   Chandradvipa   through  

the  most  venerable  Matsyendra-­Pada.’31)  

In   the   Yogini   path,   pain,   sacrifice   or   renouncement   were   not   means   to   achieve  

moksha,   also   called   the   non-­‐dualistic   state.   In   the   KJN   text,   the   word   tapas   means  

‘intense   practice’   not   ‘penance’   as   it   is   commonly   interpreted   in   traditional  

                                                                                                               
30  Doniger,  Wendy,  On  Hinduism  (New  Delhi,  2013),  p.  xvii.  
31  Mukhopadhyaya,  Satkari;  Dupuis,  Stella,  The  Kaulajñananirnaya,  (New  Delhi  

2012),  colophons  passim.  

  10  
brahminical   works.   In   the   Tantras   the   senses   were   used   in   order   to   refine   the  

perception   of   the   practitioner.   Special   sounds   (mantras)   are   exposed   in   the  KJN   as  

well   as   the   activation   of   different   centres   of   the   body   (chakras)   in   order   to   attain  

equilibrium  of  mind.  From  the  state  of  ‘nothingness’  a  thought  needs  to  rise  to  create  

a  perfect  connection  between  the  mind,  the  body  and  the  Universe.  Having  a  desire  

or  thought  in  that  state  of  consciousness  will  immediately  create  a  reality.    

‘By  meditating  on  the  chakras  separately,  within  the  source  (bindu),  <with>  the  
cosmic   sound   (nada)   and   the   divine   energy   (Shakti)   one   achieves   dharma,   artha,  
kama,   moksha   and   the   supernatural   powers   (siddhis)   such   as   assuming  
microscopic  form  (anima)  and  others  siddhis.  …There  is  no  doubt  that  all  these  
are   achieved   through   practices   with   full   absorption.’   (31-­32)     ‘One   with   devotion  
to  the  Gurus  <and>  the  Yoginis  of  the  Kula-­Kaula  Agamas,  undoubtedly,  becomes  
immortal  by  conquering  death.’(33)32  

As  noted,  the  KJN  was  an  esoteric  teaching  that  needed  personal  guidance.  It  did  not  

explain   a   step-­‐by-­‐step   practice   but   rather   described   the   delicate   process   that   the  

senses   went   through   during   the   practice.     Merely   by   hearing   about   these   refined  

experiences,   the   practitioner’s   mind   became   prepared   to   receive   the   knowledge   of  

the  techniques.  In  the  first  chapters  we  find  different  descriptions  of  high  states  of  

consciousness.     In   chapters   VIII,   IX,   X   it   seems   that   initiations   took   place   and  

teachings   about   the   chakras   were   given.33     Among   those   teachings   we   find   the  

process   of   opening   the   mind   to   the   non-­‐duality   state,   starting   by   removing  

preconceived  ideas.  Though  the  Yogini  Kaula  school  was  not  extreme  in  its  practises,  

as   the   Left   Handed   Tantrism,   it   became   stigmatized   by   all   of   the   prejudices   of  

Tantra.   In   the   article   Recording   the   Natural   and   Animating   the   Imaginary,   Annette  

                                                                                                               
32  Ibidem,  p.  29.  
33  Ibidem,  p.  55.  

  11  
Wilke   comments   that   ‘The   indigenous   negative   cliché   of   a   Tantric   being   a   black  

magician   if   not   a   bloodthirsty,   orgiastic   monster   has   been   extremely   powerful   and  

widespread.’34   She   also   comments   that   even   today,   the   images   that   Tantra   has   in  

both   the   western   and   eastern   minds,   revolves   around   sex35.   The   spiritual  

dimensions  have  been  lost  in  translation.  

The  KJN  noted  that  the  first  requirement  before  practising  the  siddhis  was  to  reach  a  

settled   state   of   mind36.   We   know   that   meditation   and   yoga   are   ways   to   achieve  

harmony   between   body,   mind   and   soul.   The   movements   of   a   stress   free   person  

reflect   the   perfect   synchrony   between   the   body   and   the   mind.   It   is   said   that   the  

siddhis   aimed   to   give   harmony   not   only   within   mind-­‐body   but   also   within   mind-­‐

body   and   Universe   as   a   totality.   The   thoughts   of   a   completely   harmonious   person  

could   create   a   powerful   and   refined   vibration   born   from   the   field   of   all   possibilities.  

From   that   absolute   the   Universe   expresses   its   multiplicity   in   creation.     According   to  

the  KJN  and  Patanjali’s  Yoga  Sutras,  the  siddha  (the  perfect  one)  will  have  the  power  

of   levitation,   of   changing   situations,   of   becoming   invisible,   of   hearing   from   a   far  

distance.   Also   through   these   practices,   the   siddha   would   be   able   to   clear   the  

channels  through  which  the  state  of  Unity  could  be  achieved.    

In  the  ancient  scripts,  the  siddhis  were  described  as  being  so  powerful  that  they  gave  

the   possibility   of   liberation   from   birth   and   death,   the   ability   to   ‘conquer   death’,   to  

                                                                                                               
34  Keul,  Itsvan  (Ed.),  Transformation  and  Transfer  of  Tantra  in  Asia  and  Beyond,  

(Berlin,  2012),  pp  22.  

35  Ibidem,  p.  23.  
36  Mukhopadhyaya,  Satkari;  Dupuis,  Stella,  The  Kaulajñananirnaya,  (New  Delhi  

2012),  pp.  89,  123  

  12  
achieve   Immortality,   (moksha).     But   also   it   is   said   that   these   techniques   could   be  

misunderstood  and  were  only  to  be  given  to  a  disciple  after  a  certain  time37.    

The   iconography   of   the   Yoginis   helps   to   understand   the   blissful   state   of   nothingness  

combined  with  desire.  The  sculptures  in  the  Yogini  temples  have  a  deep  symbolism  

and   were   probably   intended   to   induce   certain   experiences.   Apparently,   the  

iconography   expressing   sensuality38   gave   rise   to   a   refined   sense   of   desire   (the  

vibration  that  comes  before  a  thought).  

      In   order   to   achieve   the   siddhis,   the   mind   of   the  

practitioner  needed  to  flow  through  a  settled  thought    (a  desire  arising  and  letting  

go,  almost  simultaneously).    To  achieve  this  practice  the  guidance  of  a  teacher  was  

required.  

Through   the   KJN   one   can   extract   the   idea   that   before   starting   the   practices   of   the  

siddhis,   the   sadhaka   had   to   confront   the   negative   emotions   contained   in   his   own  

                                                                                                               
37  Ibidem,  pp.  43,  93,95.  
38  Ibidem,  p.  65.  

  13  
body   and   be   free   of   judgements39.   In   order   to   destroy   these   ‘demons’   it   was  

necessary  to  know  how  to  activate  the  powerful  ‘vibratory  energy’  (Yoginis-­chakras)  

that  destroy  such  feelings  as  fear,  anger,  and  envy.    Some  Yogini  temple  sculptures  

have   aggressive   features   and   are   armed   with   weapons   necessary   to   confront   and  

destroy   those   negative   emotions.   Other   Yoginis   have   peaceful,   joyful   angelic   faces   to  

express  these  delightful  experiences  that  also  happen  during  meditation.    Still  others  

have   animal   faces40   which   could   symbolize   the   requirement   ‘to   decapitate’   the  

human   heads   (the   intellect)   in   order   to   expand   the   awareness   as   it   exists   in   the  

animal  kingdom  (instinctive  perception).  

   

As   mentioned,   another   concept   that   is   very   much   present   in   the   text   is   the  

importance   of   challenging   and   removing   ancient   paradigms   in   order   to   go   beyond  

preconceived   ideas   and   be   liberated   from   them:     ‘One   abandons   thinking   in   a  

dualistic   way’41.     The   text   gives   many   ideas   that   are   outrageous   to   the   traditional  

Brahmin  rules.  ‘In  the  Kaula  tradition,  the  five  <nectars>  are  always  considered  to  be  

sacred.   They   are:   excrement   (vistha),   milk   of   immortality   (dharamrta),   semen   (sukra),  

blood  (rakta)  and  bone  marrow  (majja).  All  this  should  be  mixed  together.  (11)  O  Devi,  
                                                                                                               
39  Ibidem,  p.  190.  
40  Ibidem,  p.  169.  
41  Ibidem,  p.  75.  

  14  
one   should   carefully   offer   daily   and   also   during   special   rites,   beef   (gomamsa),   ghee  

prepared  from  cow’s  milk,  blood,  cow’s  milk  and  curd.  (12)  During  these  special  rites  

performed  with  the  keen  desire  for  achieving  the  siddhis-­  the  offering  should  be  made  

without  any  fear  and  without  any  substitution,  according  to  the  dictates  of  the  Kaula  

Agama.   (13)’.     The   rites   described   in   these   verses   are   of   a   great   esoteric   nature  

probably  aiming  to  shake  up  the  analytic  processes  in  order  to  go  beyond  a  dualistic  

thinking  of  what  is  good  or  bad.42  

Both   the   Kaulajñananirnaya   and   the   Yogini   sculptures   in   the   temples   spoke   to   those  

who  were  ready  to  hear  the  sacred  language  of  symbolism.    

As   the   Yoginis   iconography   was   important,   the   temples   in   themselves   were   also  

important   sites.     The   temples   of   Yoginis   were   different   than   all   the   other   temples  

because  they  had  the  characteristic  of  being  hypaethral  (open  sky  temples).      Most  

were   round43,   though   a   few   were   rectangular44.   The   Yogini   pantheon   across   India  

had  an  elaborate  symbolic  iconography  that  differs  from  one  temple  to  another.  The  

characteristics   and   names   found   in   some   sculptures   seem   to   have   appeared   as   an  

expression   of   a   specific   time   and   space.   The   images   of   Yoginis   were   exposed   in  

niches   around   the   internal   wall   while   a   sculpture   of   Shiva-­Bhairava45   was   in   the  

middle   of   the   temple.   The   outside   walls   were   of   bare   stone.   These   temples   were  

located  in  isolated  places,  often  over  a  rock  as  it  is  said  in  the  KJN.  As  the  temples  

                                                                                                               
42  Ibidem,  p.  81.  
43  Dupuis,  Stella,  The  Yoginis  temples  of  India,  Varanasi  2008,  pp.  27,  33,  45,  58,  65,  
44  Ibidem  p.  53,  76.  
45  Ibidem  p.  35;  de  Mallmann,  Marie-­‐Therese,  Les  enseignements  iconographiques  de  

l’Agni-­Purana,  (Paris,  1962)  pp.  176-­‐177.  

  15  
were   open   to   the   sky   and   very   hot   at   daytime,   it   is   likely   that   the   practices   were  

carried  out  at  dawn  or  evening.   ‘One  should  consider  the  sun  to  be  inimical  and  the  

moon   friendly…   One   should   meditate…   in   an   isolated   place,   free   from   biting   insects,  

mosquitoes,  snakes  and  tigers,  decorated  with  various  types  of  flowers’.46  

If   we   postulate   that   the   founder   of   the   Yogini   Cult   was   originally   from   Bangladesh  

and   that   he   developed   his   teachings   in  Assam,   it   would   seem   logical   that   some   ruins  

of  temples  or  Yogini  sculptures  would  have  been  found  in  those  areas.  Despite  the  

absence  of  direct  facts,  Vidhya  Dehejia  sustains  the  idea  that  indirectly  one  can  find  

evidence  that  suggests  the  Bengal  area  as  a  centre  of   Yogini  worship.  ‘Many  texts  on  

Kaula   Chakrapuja   indirectly   reveal   their   Bengali   origin   in   specifying   varieties   of   fish  

known   only   in   Bengal   waters’…   ‘We   find   too   that   most   of   the   texts   containing   list   of  

Yoginis  were  written  in  Bengal’47.    

The  absence  of  Yogini  sculptures  in  the  Bengal  area  only  adds  to  the  many  mysteries  

and  unanswered  questions  about  the  Yoginis.  We  have  little  information  about  the  

time  between  when  Matsyendranath  developed  his  teachings  (8th  century)  and  the  

construction   of   the   temples   (late   9th   to   11th   century).     Given   that   all   the   temples  

were  open  to  the  sky  and  followed  some  geometrical  patterns,  we  can  imagine  that  

the   original   practices   could   have   been   carried   out   in   open   places   without   walls,  

according  to  some  geometrical  diagrams.    In  present  day  India  no  place  carries  the  

                                                                                                               
46  Mukhopadhyaya,  Satkari;  Dupuis,  Stella,  The  Kaulajñananirnaya,  (New  Delhi  

2012),  p.  39  

47  Dehejia,  Vidya,  Yogini  Cult  and  Temples,  (New  Delhi  1986),  p.  79.  

  16  
name   of   Yogini   but   in   Bangladesh   we   find   two   places:   one   south   of   Dhaka48   and  

another  near  Comilla49.  

ii.  The  Goal  of  Non-­duality  (Moksha)  

Every   scholar,   translator   or   commentator   carries   their   own   agenda,   which   is  

influenced  by  cultural  background,  beliefs,  and  experiences,  however  impartial  their  

position  may  appear  to  be.    

Some  scholars  state  that  the  word  emancipation  (moksha)  was  not  related  with  the  

Yoginis.   However,   while   translating   KJN,   the   word   moksha   appears   in   many  

chapters:  V  (31-­‐32)50,  VIII  (41-­‐42)51,  X  (27cd-­‐28ab)52,  XIX  (1cd-­‐5)53,  etc.    As  noted  ,  

the   KJN   was   not   a   manual   for   obtaining   powers   (siddhis)   per   se.   It   seems   that   the  

goal  was  to  have  a  fulfilled  life  in  all  the  spheres  of  our  existence:  physical  wellbeing  

and  spiritual  emancipation.  We  found  the  same  goal  in  the  Rig  Veda  in  a  prayer  to  

the   divine   energy   Soma   made   by   the   Rishi   Hiranyastupa   of   the   family   of   Angiras:  

‘Bright-­weaponed  Soma,  shower  upon  us  wealth  abundant  for  both  worlds;  and  make  

us  happy”54.  

                                                                                                               
48  One  sculpture  at  the  Dhaka  Museum  gives  this  reference.  At  the  site,  we  found  a  

commemorative  monument  dedicated  to  the  great  Bengali  translator  of  Buddhist  
texts.    
49  A  map  at  the  Mainamati  Museum  in  Comilla  specifies  the  name  Yoginipura.    When  

we  went  there  nobody  could  make  the  link  with  the  Yoginis.  
50  Mukhopadhyaya,  Satkari;  Dupuis,  Stella,  The  Kaulajñananirnaya,  (New  Delhi  

2012),  p.29.  
51  Ibidem  p.  59.  
52  Ibidem,  p.  73.  
53  Ibidem,  p.  155.  
54  Rig  Veda,  IX  Mandala,  (1.4)  

  17  
Vidya   Dehejia,   in   her   well-­‐documented   book   about   the   Yoginis,   asserted   that   the  

Yoginis’  rituals  involved  the  ‘5M’55  offerings.  ‘It  seems  probable  that  the  Kaula  Chakra  

was   formed   within   the   circle   of   the   Yogini   temple,   with   offerings   to   the   Yoginis   of  

matsya,  mamsa,  mudra,  madya  and  finally  maithuna  too.56  ‘  When  maithuna  is  added  

to   the   ritual   practices   of   the   Yogini   cult,   it   hardly   needs   emphasis   (sic)   that   a   high  

degree   of   privacy   and   secrecy   was   essential’57.   I   disagree   on   this   point   because   this   is  

a  literary  understanding  of  the  text  and  does  not  regard  the  desire  for  privacy  as  a  

requirement  for  ‘interiorization’  and  spiritual  practices.    

iii.  Facts  &  interpretation:  

During   the   past   ten   years,   I   have   seen   a   shift   in   the   interpretation   of   ancient   scripts.  

In   the   past   most   translations   were   by   Brahmin   Indian   scholars   or   a   few   foreigner  

scholars   who   had   gained   their   knowledge   through   these   brahminical  

interpretations.     The   beauty   of   the   Sanskrit   classical   literature   and   traditional  

brahminical   texts   attracted   the   linguistics.   The   philosophers   were   fascinated   with  

the   Upanishads   and   very   few   were   interested   in   Tantras   that   challenged   the   rules  

and   frames   of   the   traditional   Sanskrit.     The   attention   paid   to   interpreting   the  

symbolism   in   the   brahminical   texts   has   not   been   given   in   interpretation   of   tantric  

texts.   Recently,   however,   foreigner   scholars,   female   Indian   scholars   and   spiritual  

teachers  have  been  interested  in  studying  the  deeper  meaning  of  the  tantric  texts.  

                                                                                                               
55  Fish  (Matsya),  meat  (Mamsa),  wine  (Madya),  certain  gestures  (Mudra)  and  carnal  

enjoyment  (Maithuna).  All  these  words  in  Sanskrit  start  with  M.  
56  Vidya  Deheja,  1986,  Yogini  Cult  and  Temples,  A  Tantric  Tradition,  p.  62  
57  Ibidem,  p.  64  

  18  
Why   hasn’t   the   symbolic   nature   of   tantric   works   been   studied   in   greater   depth,  

especially  given  the  rich  symbolism  of  the  Indian  cultural  background?  Fortunately  

more  female  scholars  and  scholars  around  the  world  study  Sanskrit.  More  texts  are  

translated   and   it   has   become   easier   to   check   data   and   travel   to   the   sites.   I   hope   that  

the  new  generation  of  scholars  will  continue  the  trend  of  combining  desk  and  field  

investigation  in  order  to  present  a  holistic  range  of  ancient  and  new  ideas.      

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