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Edited by
Shaye J. D. Cohen and Calvin Goldscheider
Number 290
Studia Philonica Monographs 2
by
Ellen Birnbaum
THE PLACE OF JUDAISM IN PHILO'S THOUGHT
by
Ellen Birnbaum
Scholars Press
Atlanta, Georgia
THE PLACE OF JUDAISM IN PHILO'S THOUGHT
by
Ellen Birnbaum
© 1996
Brown University
EDITOR
D a v i d M. Hay, Coe College, Cedar Rapids
ADVISORY BOARD
H a n s D i e t e r B e t z , University of Chicago
P e d e r Borgen, University ofTrondheim
J a c q u e s C a z e a u x , CNRS, University of Lyon
Lester Grabbe, University of Hull
Robert G. Hemerton-Kelly, Stanford University
Richard D . Hecht, University of California at Santa Barbara
A n n e w i e s v a n d e n Hoek, Harvard Divinity School
P i e t e r W. v a n der Horst, Utrecht University
J e a n Laporte, Paris
B u r t o n L. Mack, Claremont Graduate School, Claremont
A l a n M e n d e l s o n , McMaster University
Birger A. P e a r s o n , University of California at Santa Barbara
Robert Radice, Sacred Heart University, Milan
J e a n Riaud, Catholic University, Angers
J a m e s R. Royse, San Francisco
D a v i d T. Runia, Universities of Leiden and Utrecht
Dorothy Sly, University of Windsor
Gregory E. Sterling, University of Notre Dame
A b r a h a m Terian, Sterling College
T h o m a s H. Tobin S. J., Loyola University, Chicago
Herold D . Weiss, St. Mary's College, Notre Dame
D a v i d W i n s t o n , Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley
Like The Studia Philonica Annual, the Studia Philonica Monographs series
accepts monographs in the area of Hellenistic Judaism, with special emphasis on
Philo and his Umwelt. Proposals for books to be published in the Monograph
series should be sent to Prof. David M. Hay, Coe College, Cedar Rapids, IA 52402,
U.SA.
AND
MY HUSBAND,
DONALD ALTSCHILLER
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments xi
A N o t e to t h e R e a d e r xiv
Abbreviations xvii
Introduction 1
S o m e Preliminary Observations 30
C h a p t e r T w o . "Israel" a n d t h e Vision o f G o d 61
Bibliography 231
Indices 242
I n d e x o f Passages: Bible, A p o c r y p h a / P s e u d e p i g r a p h a , N e w
Testament 242
I n d e x o f Passages: P h i l o n i c Works 245
I n d e x o f Greek T e r m s 250
I n d e x o f M o d e r n Scholars 252
I n d e x o f Subjects 255
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
t h a n k s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g p e o p l e w h o l i s t e n e d , h e l p e d i n specific ways, o r
g e n e r a l l y s h a r e d w i t h m e t h e i r l e a r n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e : D o r o t h y Africa,
B r a d l e y C l o m p u s , S c o t t C o o k , J u l i e D u n c a n , Gary F i n d e r , H a y i m G o l d -
g r a b e r , K e n n e t h H . G r e e n , S h a r o n G r e e n , M a r g a r e t Hutaff, S h u l a m i t
K a h n , J a m e s L. K u g e l , Sherry Leffert, J o n D . L e v e n s o n , D i a n a L o b e l ,
Pamela Marshall, J e a n Rittmueller, Steven R o n n e r , J o e l R o s e n b e r g ,
T h o m a s H . T o b i n , Sze-kar W a n , Elliot W o l f s o n , Dvora Yanow, a n d G e r a l d
Zuriff.
I a m particularly grateful t o Prof. A l a n Segal, w h o willingly a g r e e d t o
b e c o m e m y advisor at C o l u m b i a University w h e n I was already a s t u d e n t
in absentia. H i s assistance a n d flexibility h e l p e d e a s e t h e difficulties p o s e d
by m y l o n g - d i s t a n c e r e s i d e n c e . H e e n c o u r a g e d m e t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e
C o l u m b i a c o m m u n i t y e v e n f r o m afar, s h o w e d e n t h u s i a s m f o r m y p r o j
ect, a n d o f f e r e d m a n y h e l p f u l c o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s f o r clarifying
m y i d e a s a n d i m p r o v i n g m y p r e s e n t a t i o n . I a m also i n d e b t e d t o Prof.
A r t h u r H y m a n for his astute remarks a n d observations a b o u t m y work in
p r o g r e s s . T h a n k s are d u e as w e l l t o o t h e r m e m b e r s o f m y d i s s e r t a t i o n
d e f e n s e c o m m i t t e e — P r o f s . David Weiss Halivni, R o b e r t S o m e r v i l l e , a n d
M i c h a e l Stanislawski.
With d e e p e s t a p p r e c i a t i o n , I wish to a c k n o w l e d g e Prof. J o h n Strugnell,
w h o h a s w a t c h e d t h e e v o l u t i o n o f this b o o k f r o m its b e g i n n i n g s a n d w h o
h a s e n r i c h e d m y e d u c a t i o n i n m a n y ways. A p r o f e s s o r at H a r v a r d
University w i t h n o official o b l i g a t i o n s toward m e , h e g e n e r o u s l y h e l p e d
facilitate m y p r o g r e s s b e f o r e t h e dissertation, offered d i r e c t i o n as I d e f i n e d
m y t o p i c , a n d i n v e s t e d m a n y h o u r s a n d m u c h care in r e a d i n g m y w o r k
a n d d i s c u s s i n g it w i t h m e . M o s t i m p o r t a n t , f r o m t h e first, h e g u i d e d a n d
s t o o d by m e , p r o v i d i n g a m p l e t i m e a n d r o o m so that I m i g h t l e a r n a n d
g r o w at m y o w n p a c e a n d p u r s u e m y curiosity w h e r e it w o u l d l e a d . I a m
very grateful for a n d have especially b e n e f i t t e d f r o m h i s e x p e r t instruc
tion, w h i c h was finely t u n e d to my n e e d s a n d abilities a n d w h i c h
respected and fostered i n d e p e n d e n c e of mind.
Last, b u t hardly least, I wish to e x p r e s s loving gratitude to m y h u s b a n d ,
D o n a l d Altschiller, a n d m y parents, R u t h a n d M i l t o n B i r n b a u m , for t h e i r
h e l p , e n c o u r a g e m e n t , a n d c o n f i d e n c e in m e . My p a r e n t s — p r o f e s s o r s o f
J u d a i c s t u d i e s a n d E n g l i s h literature, respectively—are also m y t e a c h e r s .
F r o m t h e i r e x a m p l e , I h a v e a c q u i r e d a love o f l e a r n i n g , w h i c h has in
spired a n d vitalized m y work o n this b o o k a n d w h i c h c o n t i n u e s to inspire
m y o t h e r e n d e a v o r s . I a m also grateful to my m o t h e r for r e a d i n g drafts o f
this work so carefully a n d to b o t h m y p a r e n t s for n u r t u r i n g m y interests
a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g to m y scholarly pursuits their o w n l e a r n e d perspectives.
D u r i n g t h e past few years, P h i l o , t h e b o o k , a n d their several a t t e n d a n t
i s s u e s h a v e subtly b e c o m e m e m b e r s o f m y h o u s e h o l d . My h u s b a n d
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii
a c c e p t e d t h e s e with f o r b e a r a n c e a n d a w o n d e r f u l s e n s e o f h u m o r , s p a r i n g
m e f r o m p o n d e r o u s n e s s by m a k i n g m e l a u g h w h e n t h i n g s s e e m e d m o s t
difficult. A writer a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l librarian with a r e m a r k a b l e ability t o
l o c a t e i n f o r m a t i o n , h e o f f e r e d editorial advice a n d b i b l i o g r a p h i c assist
a n c e , k e e p i n g m e i n f o r m e d a b o u t a w i d e variety o f i t e m s . As t h e s e a s o n s
o f this b o o k e v o l v e d , h e p a t i e n t l y t o l e r a t e d m y n u m e r o u s a n d s u n d r y
p r e o c c u p a t i o n s . A b o v e all, his c o n s t a n t s u p p o r t t h r o u g h m a n y vicissitudes
has s u s t a i n e d m e f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f this project to its fulfillment.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
June 1996
A Note to the Reader
3. B e s i d e s i n c l u d i n g m y o w n a d a p t a t i o n s to translations f r o m LCL or
RSV, b r a c k e t s m a y s i m p l y i n d i c a t e w o r d s i n s e r t e d f o r clarity o r m a y
c o n t a i n alternative G r e e k articles a n d e n d i n g s for w o r d s that c a n b e e i t h e r
A NOTE TO THE READER XV
m a s c u l i n e o r n e u t e r . T h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e brackets s h o u l d b e e v i d e n t in
e a c h case.
5. I f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n P h i l o ' s t h r e e e x e g e t i c a l s e r i e s — t h e A l l e g o r y ,
t h e E x p o s i t i o n , a n d Q u e s t i o n s a n d Answers o n G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s ( Q G E ) .
T h e A l l e g o r y a n d t h e E x p o s i t i o n are also k n o w n by l o n g e r titles as T h e
A l l e g o r i c a l C o m m e n t a r y or T h e Allegory o f t h e Law, a n d T h e E x p o s i t i o n
o f t h e Law. B e s i d e s t h e s e t h r e e e x e g e t i c a l series, I refer to several miscel
l a n e o u s treatises as n o n - e x e g e t i c a l works. A l t h o u g h t h e s e so-called n o n -
e x e g e t i c a l treatises may i n c l u d e s o m e Biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e y are n o t
primarily c o m m e n t a r i e s o n t h e Bible.
c a n b e e i t h e r m a s c u l i n e ( m . ) o r n e u t e r ( n . ) , so that P h i l o m a y d e s c r i b e
"Israel" as ό - or τό - ο ρ ώ ν [ τ ο ν ] θ ε ό ν . A l t h o u g h P h i l o g e n e r a l l y u s e s a
m a s c u l i n e article w i t h ο ρ ώ ν , h e also u s e s t h e n e u t e r article at least o n c e ;
a n d w h e n ο ρ ώ ν a p p e a r s with t h e article in t h e g e n i t i v e case, o n e c a n n o t
d e t e r m i n e t h e g e n d e r o f t h e s e words. W h e t h e r o r n o t τόν a p p e a r s b e f o r e
θεόν d o e s n o t affect t h e translation.
I have translated this e t y m o l o g y m o s t o f t e n as "[the] o n e w h o ( m . ) s e e s
G o d " o r " [ t h e ] o n e t h a t ( n . ) s e e s G o d , " u s i n g t h e d e f i n i t e article i n
E n g l i s h w h e n P h i l o u s e s it b e f o r e t h e G r e e k participle. W h e n t h e g e n d e r
is a m b i g u o u s b u t n o t relevant to t h e discussion, I h a v e u s e d t h e s e trans
lations interchangeably. T o convey the ambiguity of the g e n d e r w h e n
this a m b i g u i t y is relevant, I u s e t h e translation "one that s e e s G o d . " After
t h e first few o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e s e translations in this b o o k , I g e n e r a l l y
p r o v i d e t h e m w i t h o u t q u o t a t i o n marks. Various m o d e r n scholars, s o m e o f
w h o m I q u o t e i n this b o o k , h a v e r e n d e r e d t h e e t y m o l o g y ορών θ ε ό ν as
"seeing G o d , " translating t h e participle ορών as a g e r u n d . I myself, h o w
ever, d o n o t u s e this translation; instead I r e n d e r t h e participle ο ρ ώ ν , with
its n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r , as "one w h o sees" or "one that sees."
PHILONIC WORKS
Abr. De Abrahamo Ε
Aet. De Aeternitate Mundi Ν
Agr. De Agricultura A
Anim. De Animalibus Ν
Cher. De Cherubim A
Conf. De Confusione Linguarum A
Congr. De Congressu Quaerendae Eruditionis Gratia A
Contempl. De Vita Contemplativa Ν
Decal. De Decalogo Ε
Deo De Deo Μ
Det. Quod Detenus Potion Insidian Solet A
Deus Quod Deus Immutabilis Sit A
Ebr. De Ebnetate A
Flacc. In Flaccum Ν
Fug. De Fuga et Inventione A
Gig. De Gigantibus A
Her. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit A
Hypoth. Hypothetica (Apologia pro Iudaeis) Ν
Ios. De Iosepho Ε
Leg. 1-3 Legum Allegonae I-III A
Legal De Legations ad Gaium Ν
Migr. De Migratione Abrahami A
Mos. 1-2 De Vita Mosis I-II Ε
Mut. De Mutatione Nominum A
ομ/. De Opificio Mundi Ε
Plant. De Plantatione A
Post. De Postentate Caini A
XV111 ABBREVIATIONS
O T H E R WORKS
F r o m Biblical t i m e s a n d i n d e e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e history o f J u d a i s m , o n e
c a n trace a p e r s i s t e n t t e n s i o n b e t w e e n particularism a n d universalism. T o
b e sure, o n e c a n d e f i n e t h e s e t e r m s difFerendy a n d e x a m i n e t h e t e n s i o n s
b e t w e e n t h e m w i t h i n different c o n t e x t s . In J e w i s h history, h o w e v e r , o n e
m i g h t well a r g u e that in o n e way o r a n o t h e r , t h e two o p p o s i n g t e n d e n c i e s
derive f r o m a f u n d a m e n t a l b e l i e f established at t h e very b e g i n n i n g o f t h e
H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s , in t h e B o o k o f G e n e s i s . T h i s is t h e b e l i e f that t h e
C r e a t o r a n d F a t h e r o f t h e e n t i r e universe is also t h e particular, n a t i o n a l
G o d o f A b r a h a m , Isaac, J a c o b , a n d their d e s c e n d a n t p e o p l e , Israel.
T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Israel's n a t i o n a l G o d with t h e G o d o f all c r e a t i o n
c a n a n d d o e s raise several q u e s t i o n s for Jews a n d non-Jews alike. T o w h a t
e x t e n t , f o r e x a m p l e , are J e w s — w h o w o r s h i p t h e universal C r e a t o r i n a
p a r t i c u l a r w a y — d i f f e r e n t f r o m o r t h e s a m e as every o t h e r n a t i o n ? If
i n d e e d t h e G o d o f t h e Jews is also G o d o f the universe, m u s t o n e w o r s h i p
H i m o n l y i n t h e J e w i s h way? Is it n o t s i m p l y e n o u g h t o b e l i e v e — a s
m a n y n o n - J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r s d o — t h a t H e exists? A n d if this b e l i e f is
e n o u g h , why b e a Jew?
In t h e c e n t u r i e s f o l l o w i n g t h e c o n q u e s t s o f A l e x a n d e r t h e Great ( 3 3 4 -
3 2 3 B . C . E . ) , t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f l o c a l cultures w i t h t h e H e l l e n i c way o f
life i n t r o d u c e d by A l e x a n d e r a n d his successors b r o u g h t t h e s e issues i n t o
s h a r p e r f o c u s for J u d e a n Jews as well as t h o s e in t h e diaspora. At issue was
h o w to p r e s e r v e t h e i r u n i q u e J e w i s h h e r i t a g e w h i l e p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e w h o s e very h a l l m a r k was t h e b l e n d o f
H e l l e n i c a n d local i n f l u e n c e s . C o u l d o n e b e a c o s m o p o l i t a n — a citizen o f
t h e w o r l d — a n d a disciple o f M o s e s at the s a m e time? A n d if so, how?
If o n e w e r e s e e k i n g to p o s e t h e s e various q u e s t i o n s — w h i c h c o n t i n u e t o
i n s p i r e d e b a t e in o u r o w n t i m e s — t o a J e w living in antiquity, o n e c o u l d
hardly f i n d a m o r e apt p a r t n e r in c o n v e r s a t i o n t h a n P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a
(ca. 2 0 B . C . E . - 5 0 C.E.). As a r e s i d e n t o f this thriving cultural c e n t e r d u r i n g
t h e first c e n t u r y C.E., h e is a n e x c e l l e n t witness to t h e forceful e n c o u n t e r
b e t w e e n J e w i s h a n d G r e e k values, beliefs, a n d practices. H e h a s left u s ,
m o r e o v e r , with a fairly g e n e r o u s r e c o r d o f his ideas.
A n y r e a d e r o f P h i l o c a n h a r d l y fail to n o t i c e that h e is e x t r e m e l y
d e v o t e d to t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e a n d their Scriptures, beliefs, a n d practices.
I n d e e d m o s t o f h i s w o r k s are B i b l i c a l c o m m e n t a r i e s , i n w h i c h h e
e x p o u n d s u p o n the writings of u t m o s t importance to Jews a n d also
e x p l a i n s t h e i r way o f life. P h i l o ' s d e d i c a t i o n t o h i s p e o p l e , m o r e o v e r ,
2 INTRODUCTION
1
Samuel S a n d m e l , Philo's Place in Judaism: A Study of Conceptions of Abraham in Jewish
Literature, a u g m e n t e d ed. (New York: Ktav, 1971).
INTRODUCTION 3
S a n d m e l c o m p a r e s portrayals o f A b r a h a m in P h i l o n i c works w i t h t h o s e
f o u n d in rabbinic literature a n d c o n c l u d e s that P h i l o r e p r e s e n t s a J u d a i s m
quite different f r o m that o f t h e Rabbis. T h e tide o f t h e p r e s e n t study, "The
Place o f J u d a i s m in P h i l o ' s T h o u g h t , " is a d e l i b e r a t e r e w o r k i n g o f S a n d
m e l ' s t i d e . T h e shift in w o r d s is m e a n t t o signal t h e shift in f o c u s f r o m t h e
q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r P h i l o is m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y a G r e e k o r a J e w a n d
from the c o m p a r i s o n of his Judaism with other manifestations to the
q u e s t i o n o f h o w h e h i m s e l f assesses t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f b e i n g a J e w . A t
t h e outset, h o w e v e r , w e s h o u l d n o t e that P h i l o h i m s e l f n e v e r uses trie t e r m
2
" J u d a i s m " — t h o u g h it was in u s e d u r i n g his t i m e — n o r shall I s p e c u l a t e
a b o u t h o w h e m i g h t d e f i n e this p h e n o m e n o n . Instead I shall address t h e
q u e s t i o n o f why a n d h o w it is i m p o r t a n t to h i m .
2
T h e Greek term Ι ο υ δ α ϊ σ μ ό ς first appears in 2 Maccabees (2:21, 8:1, 14:38). It is also
f o u n d in 4 Mace. 4:26 and Gal. 1:13-14. See Yehoshua Amir, "The T e r m Ι ο υ δ α ϊ σ μ ό ς :
A Study in Jewish-Hellenistic Self-Identification," Immanuel 14 (1982): 3 4 - 4 1 .
4 INTRODUCTION
B e c a u s e t h e s e two t e r m s c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d so differently, o n e c a n
p r e s e n t t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n particularism a n d universalism in various ways.
In P h i l o ' s works a l o n e , for e x a m p l e , o n e m i g h t f o c u s u p o n a figure like
M o s e s a n d e x a m i n e h i s s i g n i f i c a n c e t o P h i l o as a n a t i o n a l l e a d e r a n d
lawgiver o r as a spiritual e x e m p l a r for all. Or, o n e m i g h t c o n s i d e r P h i l o ' s
attitudes toward t h e special laws o f M o s e s a n d t h e laws o f n a t u r e o r toward
3
m e s s i a n i c e x p e c t a t i o n as a n a t i o n a l o r universal i d e a l .
T h e first two topics, P h i l o ' s attitude toward M o s e s a n d toward different
k i n d s o f laws, illustrate a m o r e g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p a r t i c u l a r i s m
a n d u n i v e r s a l i s m , n a m e l y , exclusive i n t e r e s t in a particular g r o u p versus
c o n c e r n f o r all h u m a n i t y . Insofar as o n e e m p h a s i z e s d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y
b e h i n d t h e laws o f M o s e s , a study o f Philo's attitudes toward t h e different
k i n d s o f laws m a y also involve a t h e o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e r m s ,
s i n c e o n e m a y ask w h e t h e r or n o t t h e Mosaic laws are divinely o r d a i n e d
for o n e g r o u p as o p p o s e d to all g r o u p s . Finally, t h e last t o p i c — m e s s i a n i c
expectation—suggests the theological definition of particularism and
universalism b e c a u s e this issue t o u c h e s u p o n w h e t h e r divine r e d e m p t i o n
e x t e n d s to all p e o p l e or o n l y to s o m e .
In this study, I shall c o n c e n t r a t e u p o n two kinds o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s to G o d
and offer a theological definition of universalism and particularism
w i t h i n this c o n t e x t . My primary f o c u s will n o t b e u p o n t h e s e t e r m s a n d
their definitions, however, but rather u p o n certain related questions.
Specifically, I a m i n t e r e s t e d in 1) t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l q u e s t t o "see G o d " o r
3
Examples of studies o n these topics i n c l u d e the following: Moses: Y e h o s h u a Amir,
"Mose als Verfasser der T o r a bei Philon," Die hellenistische Gestalt des Judentums bei
Philon von Alexandrien, Forschungen zum judisch-christlichen Dialog, ed. Yehuda
A s c h k e n a s y a n d H e i n z Kremers, n o . 5 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: N e u k i r c h e n e r Verlag,
1 9 8 3 ) , 7 7 - 1 0 6 ; Erwin R. G o o d e n o u g h , By Light, Light: The Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic
Judaism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1935), 1 8 0 - 2 3 4 ; Burton L. Mack, "Imitatio
Mosis: Patterns o f C o s m o l o g y and Soteriology in the Hellenistic Synagogue," Studia
Philonica (SP) 1 (1972): 2 7 - 5 5 ; Natural Laws and Mosaic Laws: Andre Myre, "La loi d e la
nature e t la loi mosaique selon Philon d'Alexandrie, Science et Esprit 28 (1976): 1 6 3 - 8 1 ;
Valentin Nikiprowetzky, Le commentaire de VEcriture chez Philon d'Alexandrie: Son caractere
et sa portee; Observations philologiques, Arbeiten zur Literatur u n d Geschichte des hellen-
istischen J u d e n t u m s , ed. Κ. H. Rengstorf e t al., n o . 11 (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 1 7 -
55; Harry A. Wolfson, Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam ( C a m b r i d g e : Harvard University Press, 1 9 7 5 , repr. 1 9 8 2 ) , 2 : 1 6 5 - 4 3 8 ;
Messianic Expectation: Peder Borgen, " T h e r e Shall C o m e Forth a Man': Reflections o n
Messianic Ideas in Philo," The Messiah: Developments in Earliest Judaism and Christianity,
e d . J a m e s H. Charlesworth (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1 9 9 2 ) , 3 4 1 - 6 1 ; F e r d i n a n d
D e x i n g e r , "Ein 'messianisches Szenarium' als G e m e i n g u t d e s J u d e n t u m s in n a c h -
herodianischer Zeit?" Kairos 17 (1975): 2 4 9 - 7 8 , esp. 2 5 0 - 5 5 ; Richard D. H e c h t , "Philo
a n d Messiah," Judaisms and Their Messiahs at the Turn of the Christian Era, e d . J a c o b
N e u s n e r et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 1 3 9 - 6 8 .
INTRODUCTION 5
t h e g o a l o f s e e i n g H i m a n d 2) t h e c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d Biblical
I s r a e l — a n d , by e x t e n s i o n , its J e w i s h d e s c e n d a n t s . My c h i e f c o n c e r n s will
be: D o e s P h i l o b e l i e v e that all p e o p l e c a n participate in t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
or that o n l y s o m e p e o p l e c a n participate? If only s o m e c a n participate, t h e n
m u s t they b e Jews? If n o t , t h e n w h a t are t h e requirements?
W i t h i n this f r a m e w o r k , u n i v e r s a l i s m will r e p r e s e n t t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t
a n y o n e c a n participate in e i t h e r o f t h e two relationships with G o d , w h e r e
as particularism will r e p r e s e n t t h e p o s i t i o n that o n l y Jews c a n participate
in t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f this i n v e s t i g a t i o n , I shall
further amplify a n d refine t h e s e observations.
C o n s i d e r e d t o g e t h e r , t h e q u e s t to s e e G o d o r t h e g o a l o f s e e i n g H i m a n d
t h e c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n Israel a n d G o d d e s c r i b e d in t h e Bible have p o t e n
tially c o n f l i c t i n g aspects. A c l o s e r l o o k at e a c h r e l a t i o n s h i p h i g h l i g h t s j u s t
w h a t t h e s e aspects are.
F o r P h i l o , "seeing G o d " is t h e h e i g h t o f h u m a n h a p p i n e s s . H i s i d e a s
a b o u t this e x p e r i e n c e are strongly i n f l u e n c e d by G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l —
a n d , especially, P l a t o n i c — n o t i o n s . Since P h i l o is n o t c o n s i s t e n t a b o u t w h a t
it m e a n s t o s e e G o d , w e c a n n o t always d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e q u e s t to
see H i m a n d its fulfillment. I shall therefore speak o f s e e i n g G o d as b o t h a
q u e s t a n d a goal. I shall also u s e the w o r d "mystical" t o describe this q u e s t
or g o a l , u n d e r s t a n d i n g mysticism loosely as t h e i m p u l s e t o have a direct,
i.e., u n m e d i a t e d , e x p e r i e n c e o f G o d , w h o is t r a n s c e n d e n t a n d immaterial.
T h i s d e f i n i t i o n sidesteps s u c h issues as w h e t h e r t h e e x p e r i e n c e is i n t e l l e c
tual o r ecstatic o r b o t h a n d w h e t h e r "direct e x p e r i e n c e " i m p l i e s m e r e per
c e p t i o n o f o r actual u n i o n with G o d . I shall, h o w e v e r , address t h e s e issues
as they p e r t a i n t o Philo's t h o u g h t in t h e course o f this study.
Several features o f t h e q u e s t to see or t h e goal o f s e e i n g G o d are particu
larly relevant to o u r discussion. First, this q u e s t o r g o a l is c o n t e m p o r a r y t o
o n e ' s l i f e t i m e i n that o n e b e g i n s t h e q u e s t o r a c h i e v e s t h e g o a l o n l y
d u r i n g t h e s p a n o f o n e ' s life. Related to this observation is that s e e i n g G o d
c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a n a c h i e v e m e n t o r a n ability, w h i c h m a y b e
e i t h e r i n n a t e or acquired. I n addition, the quest to see or goal o f s e e i n g G o d
m a y t h e o r e t i c a l l y b e c o n s i d e r e d universal s i n c e a n y o n e — J e w o r n o n -
J e w — m a y strive t o s e e H i m . H i g h l i g h t i n g this feature is that P h i l o rarely
4
if e v e r s p e a k s o f t h e q u e s t in explicitly J e w i s h t e r m s . Finally, w h i l e any
4
By "explicitly Jewish terms," I m e a n explicit use o f the word Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ς Qew) o r
Ι ο υ δ α ϊ κ ό ς (Jewish). T h u s , a l t h o u g h Philo uses the e x p r e s s i o n "disciple o f Moses"
(γνώριμος, ομιλητής, or φοιτητής Μωυσέως) (Det. 86; Post. 12; Con}. 39; Her. 81; Mos. 2.205;
Spec. 1.319, 345; Spec. 2.88, 256; Contempl. 63; Hypoth. 11.1; cf. Deus 120), o n e could argue
that such a disciple n e e d n o t necessarily be a Jew. Philo also uses "Israel" ( Ι σ ρ α ή λ ) to
describe spiritual seekers. T h e ambiguity of this term is amply discussed below a n d
t h r o u g h o u t this study.
6 INTRODUCTION
5
religiosity. Although some authors may depict these tensions with
sensitivity, t h e y g e n e r a l l y a d d r e s s t h e m o n l y i n p a s s i n g .
S i n c e w e s h a l l b e c o n s i d e r i n g Philo's discussion of the quest to see or
g o a l o f s e e i n g G o d , h i s a t t i t u d e toward t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d
B i b l i c a l Israel, a n d h i s e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f b e i n g a J e w , of
s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t are t h o s e w o r k s w h i c h c l o s e l y e x a m i n e t h e s e t o p i c s a n d
the possible relationship a m o n g them. T o sample the range of approaches,
I shall briefly review w o r k s w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t e e i t h e r u p o n P h i l o ' s a t t i t u d e
6
toward J e w s a n d J e w i s h tradition o r u p o n his d e p i c t i o n o f a spiritual q u e s t .
A l t h o u g h I a m f o c u s i n g specifically u p o n t h e q u e s t f o r a v i s i o n o f G o d ,
P h i l o s p e a k s a b o u t t h e q u e s t f o r G o d in d i f f e r e n t ways, variously c a l l i n g it
a q u e s t for k n o w l e d g e , reverence, or vision of G o d , or simply a quest for
God Himself.
N o t e w o r t h y a m o n g those w h o investigate Philo's attitude toward Jews
a n d J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n are A n n i e J a u b e r t , A l a n M e n d e l s o n , a n d Y e h o s h u a
Amir. While t h e s e w r i t e r s l o o k at P h i l o ' s t r e a t m e n t o f J u d a i s m from
d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s , i n o n e way o r a n o t h e r , e a c h o f t h e m a c k n o w l e d g e s
a n d addresses t h e tensions we have b e e n discussing.
J a u b e r t ' s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f P h i l o c o m p r i s e s a r a t h e r l e n g t h y c h a p t e r in a
m u c h l o n g e r study e n t i t l e d La notion d Alliance dans kjudaisme aux abords de
5
S a m u e l S a n d m e l distinguishes b e t w e e n Philo's religion a n d religiosity in Philo of
Alexandria: An Introduction ( N e w York: Oxford University Press, 1 9 7 9 ) , 8 2 - 8 3 . H e
defines religiosity as "the t o n e a n d character o f the carrying o u t o f the religion o n
the part o f differing personalities within t h e tradition." While Philo's "religion" is
J u d a i s m , w h i c h is also t h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e Rabbis, S a n d m e l n o t e s that P h i l o ' s
religiosity is quite different from theirs. H e writes, "One clue to t h e distinction in
religiosity is the place o f the Laws o f Moses. In Rabbinic Judaism the Laws are an e n d
in themselves; in Philo they are a m e a n s to what h e c o n c e i v e s as a greater e n d .
T h e r e is n o e c h o I know o f in Rabbinic literature o f t h e central goal in P h i l o ' s
Judaism, that o f mystic c o m m u n i o n with the Godhead" ( 8 3 ) .
6
O n e c o u l d also select several noteworthy studies which incorporate both aspects o f
P h i l o — a s a J e w a n d a spiritual s e e k e r — b u t generally, these broader studies d o n o t
focus primarily u p o n these two aspects. A n e x c e p t i o n is Emile Brehier's Les idees
philosophiques et religieuses de Philon d'Alexandne, 2 n d ed., Etudes d e P h i l o s o p h i c Medie-
vale, e d . E t i e n n e Gilson, n o . 8 (Paris: J. Vrin, 1 9 2 5 ) . Brehier provides a b a l a n c e d
picture o f Philo's Jewish a n d spiritual sides, k e e p i n g t h e m , however, quite separate.
T h r e e o t h e r works w h i c h also p r e s e n t Philo's mystical a n d Jewish d i m e n s i o n s with
sensitivity are Erwin R. G o o d e n o u g h , An Introduction to Philo Judaeus, Brown Classics in
Judaica, e d . J a c o b N e u s n e r (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1962; repr. L a n h a m , Maryland:
University Press o f America, 1986); H a n s Lewy, "Introduction," "Philo: Selections,"
Three Jewish Philosophers ( N e w York: Harper & Row, 1965), 7 - 2 5 ; a n d Sandmel, Philo of
Alexandria. G o o d e n o u g h ' s Introduction to Philo Judaeus presents a m o r e balanced view
than his By Light, Light, w h i c h is discussed later in the Introduction. In his m o n u
m e n t a l study o f P h i l o , Harry Wolfson d o e s n o t d e v e l o p Philo's mystical side at all.
For Wolfson's discussion o f seeing God, see Philo, 2:83-93.
8 INTRODUCTION
7
I'ere chretienne. Jaubert e x a m i n e s h o w Philo deals with such Biblical
t h e m e s as e l e c t i o n a n d m e s s i a n i s m , t h e law, t h e i d e a o f a priestly p e o p l e ,
a n d t h e n o t i o n o f "Israel." Finally, s h e reviews his v a r i o u s ways o f u s i n g
t h e w o r d for c o v e n a n t , δ ι α θ ή κ η . A l t h o u g h s h e r e c o g n i z e s that P h i l o values
t h e internal r e l a t i o n s h i p to G o d a b o v e all else, J a u b e r t c o n c l u d e s n o n e t h e
8
less that h e n e v e r d e n i e s any o f t h e prerogatives o f Israel.
In c o n t r a s t w i t h J a u b e r t , A l a n M e n d e l s o n , in h i s b o o k Philo's Jewish
9
Identity, p r e s e n t s b o t h a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a n d a social analysis. First
M e n d e l s o n d e s c r i b e s P h i l o ' s b e l i e f s a n d practices in two s e c t i o n s c a l l e d
O r t h o d o x y " a n d O r t h o p r a x y , " respectively. H e t h e n c o n s i d e r s P h i l o ' s
works i n c o n t e x t o f t h e social realities o f his t i m e by e x p l o r i n g P h i l o ' s
r e f l e c t i o n s a b o u t his J e w i s h a n d non-Jewish e n v i r o n m e n t , his a p o l o g e t i c
s t a t e m e n t s in r e l a t i o n t o anti-Jewish p o l e m i c s , a n d , in t u r n , P h i l o ' s o w n
p o l e m i c s against non-Jewish beliefs a n d practices.
It is w h e n h e l o o k s at P h i l o ' s p o l e m i c s in r e l a t i o n t o his n o n - J e w i s h
n e i g h b o r s that M e n d e l s o n m o s t clearly a d d r e s s e s t h e k i n d s o f t e n s i o n s
we have b e e n discussing. M e n d e l s o n , however, places these tensions
squarely in t h e social a r e n a rather t h a n c o n f i n i n g t h e m to t h e r e a l m o f
t h o u g h t , as J a u b e r t d o e s . F r o m this perspective, h e e m p h a s i z e s t h e partic-
ularist s i d e o f P h i l o , n o t i n g that P h i l o p r e s e n t s t h e J e w s as spiritually
s u p e r i o r to o t h e r n a t i o n s . M e n d e l s o n c o n c l u d e s his b o o k e m p h a s i z i n g this
particularist attitude. H e writes, "Philo's s e n s e o f spiritual superiority m a y
have h e l p e d t o preserve t h e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s ' r e l i g i o u s identity. But, as
in o t h e r t i m e s a n d p l a c e s , t h e J e w s o f A l e x a n d r i a p a i d a heavy p r i c e f o r
10
this s e n s e o f t h e m s e l v e s . "
Finally, w e s h a l l c o n s i d e r a n e x t e n d e d essay by Y e h o s h u a A m i r
c a l l e d "Philon u n d d i e j u d i s c h e Wirklichkeit s e i n e r Zeit," t h e first i n a
c o l l e c t i o n o f essays e n t i t l e d Die hellenistische Gestalt des Judentums bei Philon
11
von Alexandnen. In this o p e n i n g essay, A m i r e x p l o r e s Philo's t r e a t m e n t o f
Biblical t h e m e s , aspects o f his J u d a i s m , a n d related social p h e n o m e n a . T o
7
A n n i e Jaubert, La notion d Alliance dans le judaisme aux abords de I'ere chretienne,
Patristica Sorbonensia, n o . 6 (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1963), 3 7 5 - 4 4 2 .
8
T h e reader may notice that s o m e of these prerogatives are accorded to Israel in the
Bible, a n d s o m e derive from Philo's own interpretations.
9
Alan M e n d e l s o n , Philo's Jewish Identity, Brown Judaic Studies, ed. J a c o b N e u s n e r et
al., n o . 161 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988). In another study, M e n d e l s o n explores the
spiritual quest in Philo's works; see his Secular Education in Philo of Alexandria, M o n o
graphs o f the H e b r e w U n i o n C o l l e g e , n o . 7 (Cincinnati: H e b r e w U n i o n C o l l e g e
Press, 1982).
1 0
Philo's Jewish Identity, 138. A l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t elaborate u p o n this i n n u e n d o ,
presumably M e n d e l s o n m e a n s that the Jewish sense o f superiority has e n g e n d e r e d
anti-Jewish f e e l i n g s a n d behavior, in Alexandria and e l s e w h e r e .
1 1
Y e h o s h u a Amir, "Philon u n d die j u d i s c h e Wirklichkeit seiner Zeit," Die hellenis
tische Gestalt, 3 - 5 1 .
INTRODUCTION 9
1 2
Amir has consistently shown an interest in these t e n s i o n s in Philo's t h o u g h t ,
b e g i n n i n g with his d i s s e r t a t i o n , w h o s e t h e m e is r e l a t e d to the p r e s e n t study.
Written u n d e r the n a m e H e r m a n n Neumark, it is entitled Die Verwendung griechischer
und judischer Motive in den Gedanken Philons uber die Stellung Gottes zu seinen Freunden
(Wurzburg, 1937). S o m e of Amir's other studies are cited in n n . 2, 3, 30, a n d 33.
1 3
G o o d e n o u g h , By Light, Light (see n. 3); Walther Volker, Fortschntt und Vollendung bei
Philo von Alexandrien: Eine Studie zur Geschichte der Frommigkeit, T e x t e u n d U n t e r -
s u c h u n g e n zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur 49:1 (Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs,
1 9 3 8 ) ; David Winston, Logos and Mystical Theology in Philo of Alexandria (Cincinnati:
H e b r e w U n i o n College Press, 1985).
1 4
G o o d e n o u g h , By Light, Light, 254; idem, Introduction to Philo Judaeus, 14; cf. By Light,
Light, 7.
10 INTRODUCTION
1 5
G o o d e n o u g h , Introduction to Philo Judaeus, 153.
1 6
See, e.g., Volker, Fortschntt und Vollendung, xii, 287, 300, 3 1 3 - 1 7 .
1 7
S e e G o o d e n o u g h ' s review of Volker's book, "Problems o f M e t h o d in Studying
Philo J u d a e u s , " Journal of Biblical Literature (JBL) 58 ( 1 9 3 9 ) : 5 1 - 5 8 , a n d his remarks
about Volker in his Introduction to Philo Judaeus, 14—16.
1 8
See, e.g., Volker, Fortschntt und Vollendung, 297.
INTRODUCTION 11
19
bliss lie in t h e k n o w l e d g e o r vision o f G o d . " In his c o n c l u d i n g remarks,
Winston addresses the tension between nationalism and universalism in
t h e c o n t e x t o f Philo's eschatological h o p e s . H e c o m m e n t s as follows:
Everything said o f the Jewish nation in Lev. 26:12 and Deut. 28:13 is transferred by
Philo to the h u m a n m i n d , and in direct contrast to that verse G o d is designated by
Philo n o t as the G o d of Israel, but of all p e o p l e (Praem. 1 5 8 - 6 1 ) . Still, e n o u g h o f the
earthly s p h e r e r e m a i n s in Philo's messianic vision to reveal the i n n e r t e n s i o n s
in his t h o u g h t b e t w e e n nationalism a n d universalism, the mystical a n d the this-
2 0
worldly.
1 9
Winston, Logos and Mystical Theology, 54.
2 0
Ibid., 58.
2 1
M e n d e l s o n , Philo's Jewish Identity, 113.
12 INTRODUCTION
2 2
H e r e a n d t h r o u g h o u t this investigation, I speak of the Jewish nation or the Jewish
p e o p l e as "real" in the sense that they are a r e c o g n i z e d social, e t h n i c , or political
g r o u p . This is n o t to imply that "Israel" is n o t a "real" g r o u p , but rather that its m e m
bership is n o t readily identified. Also, in describing the Jews as clearly identifiable,
I am s i d e s t e p p i n g the controversy a b o u t w h o was a Jew in antiquity. Philo h i m s e l f
s e e m s to use the terms "Jew" a n d "proselyte" without ambiguity even t h o u g h h e d o e s
n o t define t h e m precisely. In contrast, his use of "Israel" appears to b e deliberately
ambiguous.
INTRODUCTION 13
t h e p o l i t i c a l treatise Legat. N o o t h e r t r e a t i s e — e i t h e r e x e g e t i c a l o r n o n -
e x e g e t i c a l — m e n t i o n s b o t h "Israel" a n d t h e J e w s in t h e s a m e i n d i v i d u a l
work.
2. To describe "Israel" and the Jews as collectivities, Philo uses different words
with different connotations. W h i l e his terms for t h e Jews d e n o t e a p e o p l e
o r n a t i o n — w h e t h e r t h e y are d e f i n e d by birth o r s h a r e d l a w s — P h i l o ' s
t e r m f o r "Israel" ( γ έ ν ο ς ) h a s a r a n g e o f m e a n i n g s that i n c l u d e b u t g o
b e y o n d t h e i d e a o f a g r o u p d e t e r m i n e d by c o m m o n origins. A c c o r d i n g l y ,
"Israel" m a y also b e a class d e f i n e d by s h a r e d characteristics o r a n e b u
l o u s ideal.
3. Philo describes the relationship between God and each entity in different
ways. "Israel" is primarily associated with s e e i n g G o d , w h i l e t h e J e w s are
d e p i c t e d as t h e p e o p l e that b e l i e v e in a n d w o r s h i p H i m t h r o u g h specific
laws a n d c u s t o m s .
4. "Membership requirements" for belonging to "Israel" and the Jews appear to
be different. A l t h o u g h P h i l o d o e s n o t address this issue directly, o n e c a n
s p e c u l a t e that m e m b e r s h i p in "Israel" d e p e n d s u p o n spiritual capability,
w h i l e m e m b e r s h i p in t h e Jewish n a t i o n requires o n e a) to a b a n d o n false
beliefs a n d w o r s h i p to a d o p t b e l i e f in a n d worship o f the o n e G o d a n d b) to
leave b e h i n d o n e ' s family a n d friends to j o i n a n e w c o m m u n i t y .
B e s i d e s m a i n t a i n i n g that P h i l o d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n "Israel" a n d t h e
Jews, I shall also a r g u e that h e p r e s e n t s a potentially universalist vision o f
b o t h entities. B e c a u s e it r e p r e s e n t s t h e ideal o f s e e i n g G o d , "Israel" c o u l d
t h e o r e t i c a l l y e n c o m p a s s s o m e o r all Jews a n d p e r h a p s s o m e n o n - J e w s —
w h o e v e r is a b l e t o s e e G o d . Similarly, as t h e n a t i o n that b e l i e v e s in a n d
w o r s h i p s G o d , t h e Jews stand ready to e m b r a c e all p e o p l e — r e g a r d l e s s o f
b i r t h — w h o c h o o s e to serve t h e o n e G o d a l o n g with t h e m , i.e., proselytes.
We shall c o n s i d e r Philo's potential universalism further in the
conclusions.
It is w o r t h n o t i n g that in Philo's t i m e — t h e first part o f t h e first c e n t u r y
C.E.—Judaism was the only m o n o t h e i s t i c religion. P h i l o gives n o
e v i d e n c e o f k n o w i n g a b o u t t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f Christianity. W h i l e p h i l o
sophers may have believed in o n e God or o n e transcendent Being,
J u d a i s m was t h e o n l y r e l i g i o n that b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r b e l i e f in a n d w o r s h i p
o f this B e i n g , t h e Creator o f all t h e universe a n d p e r s o n a l G o d o f t h e Jews.
P h i l o ' s o p e n n e s s t o a n d e a g e r n e s s for proselytes to j o i n t h e Jewish p e o p l e
is, t o s o m e e x t e n t , characteristic o f o t h e r varieties o f J u d a i s m in this p e r i o d
as well.
v o c a b u l a r y p e r t a i n i n g t o "Israel" a n d t h e Jews. C h a p t e r T w o a d d r e s s e s
w h a t h e m e a n s by "Israel," h o w h e derives its e t y m o l o g y , a n d h o w h e
u n d e r s t a n d s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f s e e i n g G o d . C h a p t e r Three* e x p l o r e s w h o
P h i l o b e l i e v e s c a n s e e G o d . C h a p t e r F o u r takes u p w h e t h e r o r n o t P h i l o
affirms G o d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p with Israel as t h e Bible p r e s e n t s it a n d w h e t h e r
o r n o t this r e l a t i o n s h i p a u t o m a t i c a l l y a p p l i e s t o all J e w s . Finally, i n
C h a p t e r s Five a n d Six respectively, I e x a m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o G o d —
first, o f o n e w h o is a J e w a n d t h e n , o f o n e w h o b e c o m e s a Jew.
B e f o r e w e p r o c e e d , a c o m m e n t a b o u t t e r m i n o l o g y is in o r d e r . S i n c e
"Israel" has b o t h a literal a n d a symbolic m e a n i n g , for t h e sake o f clarity,
w h e n s p e a k i n g a b o u t "Israel" as t h e n a t i o n m e n t i o n e d in t h e B i b l e , I u s e
t h e e x p r e s s i o n s "Biblical Israel" or "historical Israel." E i t h e r o f t h e s e e x
p r e s s i o n s d e n o t e s t h e real n a t i o n that existed d u r i n g Biblical times. W h e n
"Israel" refers b o t h t o t h e Biblical n a t i o n a n d its J e w i s h d e s c e n d a n t s — u p
t o a n d / o r d u r i n g P h i l o ' s t i m e — I say so explicitly. W h e n "Israel" d e n o t e s
a n entity that s e e s G o d , a n d it is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r this t e r m also d e n o t e s
t h e B i b l i c a l n a t i o n a n d / o r its J e w i s h d e s c e n d a n t s , I r e f e r s i m p l y t o
"Israel," a n d t h e q u o t a t i o n marks i n d i c a t e t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e r e f e r e n t ,
i.e., t h e specific social g r o u p or entity that "Israel" is m e a n t to r e p r e s e n t .
S i n c e P h i l o uses t h e w o r d 'Jew" t o refer to t h e Biblical n a t i o n a n d also
t o its J e w i s h d e s c e n d a n t s u p to his o w n day, w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e , I i n d i c a t e
w h e t h e r h e is s p e a k i n g o f t h e n a t i o n in the past, in his p r e s e n t , o r b o t h . If
f u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t s t o t h e s e various u s a g e s are necessary, t h e s e will b e
m a d e in the appropriate contexts.
Method
2 3
G o o d e n o u g h , "Problems of Method," 58.
2 4
See, e.g., Borgen's o p e n i n g statement in his 1992 study "'There Shall C o m e Forth
a Man'" (341): "The p r o b l e m of m e t h o d is a critical issue in Philonic studies."
INTRODUCTION 15
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l issues are o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e in s t u d y i n g P h i l o , I
p u r p o s e l y d e v o t e a m p l e a t t e n t i o n to t h e s e issues t h r o u g h o u t this investi
25
gation.
Simply stated, my m e t h o d c o m b i n e s word studies and exegetical
analyses, b a s e d u p o n virtually all o f Philo's e x t a n t works. T o a great e x t e n t ,
this a p p r o a c h a g r e e s w i t h g u i d e l i n e s s u g g e s t e d by David T. R u n i a in a n
26
article e n t i d e d "How T o R e a d P h i l o . " R u n i a suggests that t o tackle any
p r o b l e m in P h i l o , a r e s e a r c h e r m u s t b e g i n by c o n s i d e r i n g all t h e relevant
p a s s a g e s a n d t h e n analyze t h e s e passages k e e p i n g in m i n d several factors,
listed further below.
T o identify all t h e relevant passages for this study, I have r e l i e d u p o n
w o r d s e a r c h e s , v e r s e s e a r c h e s , a n d a careful r e a d i n g t h r o u g h P h i l o ' s
2 7
w o r k s . I t h e n analyze t h e s e passages, g u i d e d by several c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ,
m o s t o f w h i c h R u n i a m e n t i o n s . H e n o t e s that in r e a d i n g P h i l o , o n e m u s t
2 5
As G o o d e n o u g h wrote, "It seems m u c h safer to keep the process in the conscious ...
As m e n we m u s t p r o c e e d in this way w h e t h e r we like it or not" ("Problems o f
Method," 5 6 ) . I am assuming G o o d e n o u g h would h o l d w o m e n to the same standards!
2 6
David T. Runia, "How to Read Philo," Nederlands Theologisch Tijdschrift 40 ( 1 9 8 6 ) :
1 8 5 - 9 8 (reprinted as the s e c o n d entry in idem, Exegesis and Philosophy: Studies on Philo of
Alexandria, Variorum Collected Studies [Hampshire, Great Britain: Variorum, 1 9 9 0 ] ) .
2 7
Word studies for works in Philo, trans. F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker, vols. 1 -
10, T h e L o e b Classical Library (LCL) (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1 9 2 9 - 6 2 ) ,
e x c e p t for Prov., are based u p o n Gunter Mayer, Index Philoneus (Berlin: d e Gruyter,
1974) a n d the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG) database o n IBYCUS (see David T.
Runia, "How to Search Philo," The Studia Philonica Annual [SPhA] 2 [1990]: 1 0 6 - 3 9 ) . For
t h e fragmentary Q u e s t i o n s and Answers o n G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s ( Q G E ) , w h i c h
survives chiefly in A r m e n i a n , word studies are based u p o n the English translation
a n d I n d e x p r e p a r e d by Ralph Marcus in LCL, 2 supps. ( C a m b r i d g e : Harvard
University Press, 1953, repr. 1970 and 1979). Word studies d o n o t i n c l u d e fragments
or Anim., Deo, and Prov.—three works surviving chiefly in A r m e n i a n , w h o s e c o n t e n t s
are n o t central to this investigation. Biblical verse searches are based u p o n the I n d e x
biblique in Biblia Patristica: Supplement, Philon d'Alexandrie (Paris: Editions d u Centre
National d e la R e c h e r c h e Scientifique, 1982).
16 INTRODUCTION
Assumptions
1. Philo as an Exegete
2 8
O n Philo as an e x e g e t e , see Nikiprowetzky, Le commentaire de VEcriture, esp. 1 7 0 - 2 4 2 .
2 9
S e e , e.g., G o o d e n o u g h , By Light, Light, 2 3 5 - 6 4 ; Nikiprowetzky, Le commentaire de
VEcriture, 239; Sandmel, Philo of Alexandria, 8 3 - 8 8 .
INTRODUCTION 17
W h e t h e r o r n o t P h i l o k n e w H e b r e w — a n d it a p p e a r s u n l i k e l y that h e
k n e w it well if at all—his interpretations are b a s e d u p o n t h e Greek Bible o r
3 0
S e p t u a g i n t ( L X X ) . As to t h e literal m e a n i n g o f t h e G r e e k Bible, h e d o e s
n o t m a i n t a i n a c o n s i s t e n t p o s i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s P h i l o affirms this m e a n
i n g , s o m e t i m e s h e rejects it, a n d s o m e t i m e s h e simply p r o v i d e s a symbol
ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t e x t w i t h o u t c o m m e n t i n g u p o n its literal s e n s e at
3 1
a l l . O n e c a n also o b s e r v e d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g h i s v a r i o u s works in t h e
way h e a p p r o a c h e s t h e literal s e n s e o f Scripture.
It s h o u l d q u i c k l y b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , that P h i l o ' s u s e o f t h e t e r m
32
" l i t e r a r itself is i n c o n s i s t e n t a n d s o m e w h a t e q u i v o c a l . For e x a m p l e , in
t h e E x p o s i t i o n , o n e o f h i s t h r e e e x e g e t i c a l series, w h a t h e c o n s i d e r s
"literal" is o f t e n in fact a reworking o f t h e text, w h i c h may e l a b o r a t e u p o n
o r e v e n o m i t c e r t a i n details. In his two o t h e r e x e g e t i c a l series, d i s c u s s e d
below, Philo may have somewhat different understandings of the term
"literal." R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t ways in w h i c h h e m a y c o n c e i v e o f
o r d e a l w i t h t h e literal m e a n i n g o f Scripture, P h i l o n o n e t h e l e s s u n d e r
s t a n d s t h e authority b e h i n d t h e t e x t to b e ultimately d i v i n e , v i e w i n g t h e
B i b l e as a c o o p e r a t i v e v e n t u r e , as it w e r e , b e t w e e n G o d a n d his p r o p h e t
3 3
Moses.
A s e c o n d a n d r a t h e r i m p o r t a n t a s s u m p t i o n for m y a r g u m e n t is t h a t
P h i l o ' s v a r i o u s w o r k s are d i r e c t e d t o w a r d d i f f e r e n t , t h o u g h p e r h a p s
o v e r l a p p i n g , a u d i e n c e s a n d are c o m p o s e d with different aims. A l t h o u g h I
h a v e c o n s i d e r e d "all P h i l o ' s e x t a n t w o r k s f o r this study, I a m c h i e f l y
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h o s e in w h i c h h e discusses s e e i n g G o d a n d e s p e c i a l l y
3 0
For a g o o d overview of the debate about whether or n o t Philo knew Hebrew, see
N i k i p r o w e t z k y , Le commentaire de VEcriture, 5 0 - 9 6 . See also "The S o u r c e o f Philo's
Etymologies," below in Chapter Two. O n Philo's use of the Greek Bible, see Yehoshua
Amir, "Authority a n d Interpretation o f Scripture in the Writings o f Philo," Mikra:
Text, Translation, Reading and Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible in Ancient Judaism and Early
Christianity, e d . Martin Jay Mulder, C o m p e n d i a Rerum Iudaicarum ad N o v u m Testa-
m e n turn (CRINT), sec. 2, vol. 1 (Assen/Maastricht: Van Gorcum, 1 9 8 8 ) , 4 4 0 - 4 4 ; a n d
P e d e r B o r g e n , "Philo o f Alexandria: A Critical a n d Synthetical Survey o f R e s e a r c h
since World War II," Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt (ANRW): Geschichte und
Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, 2.21.1: Religion (Hellenistisches Judentum in rom-
ischer Zeit: Philon und Josephus), ed. Wolfgang Haase (Berlin: d e Gruyter, 1984), 1 2 1 - 2 3 .
3 1
S e e M o n t g o m e r y J. Shroyer, "Alexandrian Jewish Literalists," JBL 55 ( 1 9 3 6 ) : 2 6 1 -
84; Wolfson, Philo 1:120-31.
3 2
S e e B u r t o n L. Mack, "Philo J u d a e u s a n d Exegetical Traditions in Alexandria,"
ANRW, 2.21.1:258-59 and 2 6 1 - 6 2 .
3 3
Det. 13; Mos. 2.11, 34; Decal. 1 8 - 1 9 ; Praem. 1-2; Prob. 80. See also Yehoshua Amir,
"Philo a n d the Bible," SP 2 (1973): 1-8; i d e m , "Authority and Interpretation," 4 2 1 - 5 3 ;
i d e m , "Mose als Verfasser der Tora," 7 7 - 1 0 6 .
18 INTRODUCTION
3 4
In his basic study, w h i c h is still cited, M. L. Massebieau classifies a n d discusses
the p u r p o s e s o f Philo's different writings in "Le classement des oeuvres d e Philon,"
Bibliotheque de VEcole des Hautes fctudes: Sciences religieuses 1 (1889): 1 - 9 1 . For references
to s u b s e q u e n t scholarship o n these questions, see J e n n y Morris, "The Jewish Philo
s o p h e r Philo" in Emil Schurer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ
(175 B.C.-A.D. 135), rev. and ed. Geza Vermes et al. (Edinburgh: Τ. & T. Clark, 1 9 8 7 ) ,
3 : 2 : 8 0 9 - 8 9 . R e g a r d i n g the Allegory a n d the Exposition, see Erwin R. G o o d e n o u g h ,
"Philo's E x p o s i t i o n o f the Law a n d His D e Vita Mosis," Harvard Theological Review
(HTR) 2 6 ( 1 9 3 3 ) : 1 0 9 - 2 5 ; Nikiprowetzky, Le commentaire de VEcriture, 1 9 2 - 2 0 2 ; i d e m ,
"Breve n o t e sur le Commentaire Allegorique et VExposition de la Loi chez Philon d'Alexan
drie," Melanges bibliques et orientaux en Vhonneur de M. Mathias Dehor, e d . Andre Caquot
et al. (Kevelaer: Butzon 8c Bercker, 1 9 8 5 ) , 3 2 1 - 2 9 . O n Philo's political treatises, Flacc.
a n d LegaL, see also Erwin R. G o o d e n o u g h , The Politics of Philo Judaeus: Practice and
Theory ( N e w Haven: Yale University Press, 1938), 9 - 1 3 , 19.
3 5
In Mos. 1.1, Philo states that h e wishes to present the story o f Moses to "those w h o
are worthy n o t to be ignorant" of it (my translation).
INTRODUCTION 19
t h e P e n t a t e u c h . O c c a s i o n a l l y , h e e x p l i c i t l y rejects t h e literal s e n s e o f
3 6
S c r i p t u r e o r e x p l i c i t l y favors allegorical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o v e r o t h e r s . A
d o m i n a n t c o n c e r n o f t h e s e allegorical e x e g e s e s is t h e j o u r n e y o f t h e s o u l ,
its struggle against t h e passions, a n d its q u e s t for G o d . M o s t likely, P h i l o ' s
r e a d e r s in this series are Jews like himself, w h o m a y l o o k to t h e A l l e g o r y
as a g u i d e t o r e a d i n g t h e Bible so that it will reveal to t h e m its secrets a b o u t
the soul's quest.
P h i l o ' s a u d i e n c e in Q G E is p r o b a b l y also q u i t e k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t
S c r i p t u r e a n d p h i l o s o p h y , b u t this s e r i e s — w h i c h i n c l u d e s a b r o a d e r
spectrum of interpretations than the Allegory—may be i n t e n d e d for a
w i d e r J e w i s h a u d i e n c e . In contrast to t h e treatises o f t h e Allegory, Q G E is
written atomistically, presenting separate questions a n d answers o n
individual verses or parts o f verses. Frequently P h i l o j u x t a p o s e s literal a n d
s y m b o l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w i t h o u t c o m m e n t i n g a b o u t t h e i r relative m e r i t s .
I n d e e d t h e answers in this series o f t e n i n c l u d e w i t h o u t criticism a w i d e r
3 7
variety o f e x e g e s e s t h a n w e f i n d in t h e A l l e g o r y for e a c h v e r s e . Q G E
m a y t h e r e f o r e b e i n t e n d e d as a c o l l a t i o n o r d i g e s t o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
reflecting the opinions of a broader community of Alexandrian Jews than
j u s t t h o s e w h o share P h i l o ' s i n t e r e s t in allegory a n d t h e j o u r n e y o f t h e
s o u l . P e r h a p s , in fact, Q G E m a y f u n c t i o n as a s o u r c e b o o k o r e v e n a
3 8
t e x t b o o k for this b r o a d e r A l e x a n d r i a n Jewish c o m m u n i t y .
U n l i k e the Allegory and QGE, Philo's other exegetical series, the
E x p o s i t i o n , d o e s n o t necessarily a s s u m e any familiarity with Scripture at
all. I n s t e a d this c o l l e c t i o n o f t r e a t i s e s — w h i c h c o v e r Biblical t h e m e s a n d
3 9
figures, like C r e a t i o n , A b r a h a m , Moses, or t h e D e c a l o g u e — m i g h t serve
4 0
equally well for p e o p l e at different levels o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e B i b l e .
3 6
See, e.g., Leg. 1.43 o n Gen. 2:8 (cf. QG 1.6, in which Philo d o e s n o t reject the literal
m e a n i n g o f the verse); Leg. 2.19; Agr. 9 6 - 9 7 ; Plant. 32. See also Shroyer, "Alexandrian
Jewish Literalists," 2 7 1 - 7 9 .
3 7
David M. Hay, "References to Other Exegetes in Philo's Quaestiones " Both Literal
and Allegorical: Studies in Philo of Alexandria's Questions and Answers o n Genesis a n d
Exodus, e d . David M. Hay, Brown Judaic Studies, ed. Ernest S. Frerichs et al., n o . 232
(Adanta: Scholars Press, 1991), 8 1 - 9 7 .
3 8
Cf. Gregory E. Sterling, "Philo's Quaestiones: P r o l e g o m e n a or Afterthought?" Both
Literal and Allegorical, ed. David M. Hay, 9 9 - 1 2 3 ; and Sze-kar Wan, "Philo's Quaestiones
et solutiones in Genesim et in Exodum: A Synoptic A p p r o a c h " ( T h . D . diss., Harvard
University, 1 9 9 2 ) .
3 9
O t h e r treatises deal with J o s e p h , Special Laws, Virtues, and Rewards a n d Punish
m e n t s . Writings o n Isaac a n d J a c o b m e n t i o n e d in Ios. 1 are lost. Scholars have d e
bated how the treatises o n Moses are related to the Exposition as a whole. G o o d e n o u g h
("Philo's Exposition o f the Law") has suggested that these treatises are separate from
the E x p o s i t i o n . If h e were correct, however, the narrative in the Exposition w o u l d
have an u n a c c o u n t a b l e g a p between the life of J o s e p h and the D e c a l o g u e (see F. H.
Colson, "Introduction," Philo, LCL, 6:xiv-xvi).
4 0
Typically, P h i l o p r e s e n t s the material as a rewritten Bible, occasionally inter-
20 INTRODUCTION
My t h i r d a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t P h i l o a n d his e n t e r p r i s e p e r t a i n s t o h i s
i n t e l l e c t u a l a n t e c e d e n t s . I n d e e d , a l t h o u g h I focus a l m o s t exclusively u p o n
h i s o w n w r i t i n g s , I m o s t certainly d o n o t m e a n to i m p l y that P h i l o is
u n i n f l u e n c e d by o u t s i d e s o u r c e s . Many o f t h o s e works a l l u d e d t o earlier
— t h e o n e s w h i c h study w h e r e P h i l o stands i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r p h i l o
s o p h i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s — s h o w quite c o n v i n c i n g l y that h e is part
o f a l o n g history o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h o u g h t a n d Jewish e x e g e s i s .
T h e A l e x a n d r i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l m i l i e u f r o m w h i c h P h i l o draws is q u i t e
c o m p l e x , c o n s i s t i n g o f d i f f e r e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r e n d s , p a g a n mystery
cults, a n d J e w i s h e x e g e t i c a l traditions. In k e e p i n g with m y u n d e r s t a n d
i n g o f P h i l o primarily as a Biblical interpreter instead o f a p h i l o s o p h e r , I
b e l i e v e t h a t h e draws f r o m a variety o f c o n t e m p o r a r y p h i l o s o p h i c a l
c u r r e n t s r a t h e r t h a n serving as t h e representative o f any s i n g l e s c h o o l o f
t h o u g h t , a l t h o u g h h e is p e r h a p s m o s t i n f l u e n c e d by P l a t o n i s m . T h u s
P h i l o is e x p o s e d to, selects f r o m , a n d criticizes i d e a s f r o m P l a t o n i c , Stoic,
Alexandria: Legatio ad Gaium, 2 n d ed. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1970), 4 0 - 4 3 and 324, n. 373.
4 4
Victor Tcherikover, 'Jewish Apologetic Literature," Eos 4 8 / 3 (1956): 1 6 9 - 9 3 .
22 INTRODUCTION
4 5
Epicurean, Pythagorean, Peripatetic, and Sceptical t h o u g h t . T h e influ
ence of philosophy, moreover, extends beyond intellectual content to
m e t h o d ; by t h e first c e n t u r y C.E., a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was a w e l l -
4 6
k n o w n a p p r o a c h u s e d by G r e e k c o m m e n t a t o r s o n H o m e r .
In Philo's time, of course, m a n y of the various positions n a m e d above
h a d already i n t e r m i n g l e d . Scholars have described a s c h o o l of Middle
P l a t o n i s m c h a r a c t e r i z e d , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , by t h e b e l i e f i n a t r a n s c e n
d e n t G o d , aspiration to assimilate to G o d , and interest in numerology.
P h i l o ' s e x a c t r e l a t i o n t o t h e M i d d l e P l a t o n i s t s is still d e b a t e d , b u t h e is
4 7
certainly a sympathetic witness to many of their ideas a n d c o n c e r n s .
A n o t h e r q u e s t i o n t h a t h a s s p a r k e d s o m e d e b a t e i n P h i l o n i c s t u d i e s is
how he m i g h t have b e e n influenced by m y s t e r y c u l t s . S o m e scholars
h a v e s o e m p h a s i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e cults for u n d e r s t a n d i n g P h i l o
t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e h e h i m s e l f p r a c t i c e d a J e w i s h f o r m o f mystery. O f t h e
wide array of these cults, however, some precede Philo by several
c e n t u r i e s . W i t h t h e i r e m p h a s i s o n secrecy, i n i t i a t i o n , a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ,
t h e y h a v e o f f e r e d a r i c h m e t a p h o r i c a l v o c a b u l a r y t o p h i l o s o p h e r s at l e a s t
4 5
H. Chadwick, "Philo," The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philo
sophy, e d . A. H. Armstrong (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1 9 7 0 ) , 1 3 7 - 5 7 ;
T h o m a s H. T o b i n , The Creation of Man: Philo and the History of Interpretation, Catholic
Biblical Quarterly M o n o g r a p h Series, n o . 14 ( W a s h i n g t o n D . C . : T h e C a t h o l i c
Biblical Association o f America, 1983), 1 0 - 1 9 ; Wolfson, Philo 1:107-13.
4 6
Felix Buffiere, Les mythes d'Homere et la pensee grecque (Paris: Societe d'Edition "Les
Belles Lettres," 1956); David Dawson, Allegorical Readers and Cultural Revision in Ancient
Alexandria (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1992), esp. 1-126; Robert Lamber-
ton a n d J o h n J. Keaney, eds., Homer's Ancient Readers: The Hermeneutics of Greek Epic's
Earliest Exegetes (Princeton: P r i n c e t o n University Press, 1 9 9 2 ) ; J e a n P e p i n , Mythe et
allegorie: les origines grecques et les contestations judeo-chretiennes, rev. e d . (Paris: Etudes
a u g u s t i n i e n n e s , 1976); David Winston, "Introduction," Philo of Alexandria: The Contem
plative Life, The Giants, and Selections, .with a Preface by J o h n Dillon, T h e Classics o f
Western Spirituality ( N e w York: Paulist Press, 1981), 4 - 6 .
4 7
J o h n D i l l o n , The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220 (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 3 5 - 8 3 ; i d e m , "Self-Definition in Later Platonism," Jewish and Christian
Self-Definition, vol. 3: Self-Definition in the Greco-Roman World, e d . B e n F. Meyer a n d E. P.
Sanders (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982), 6 0 - 7 5 ; David T. Runia, Philo of Alexandria
and the T i m a e u s of Plato, Philosophia Antiqua, e d . W. J. V e r d e n i u s a n d J. C. M. van
W i n d e n , vol. 4 4 (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1 9 8 6 ) , 5 0 5 - 1 9 ; T o b i n , The Creation of Man, 1 1 - 1 9 ;
A n t o n i e Wlosok, Laktanz und die philosophische Gnosis: Untersuchungen zu Geschichte und
Terminologie der gnostischen Erlosungsvorstellung, A b h a n d l u n g d e r H e i d e l b e r g e r Akade-
m i e d e r Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-historische Klasse, n o . 2 ( H e i d e l b e r g : Carl
Winter, Universitatsverlag, 1 9 6 0 ) , 5 0 - 6 0 . More recently, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
Philo a n d Middle Platonism was debated in a special section o f SPhA 5 (1993): 9 5 - 1 5 5 .
T h e c o n t e n t s are as follows: G. E. Sterling, "Platonizing Moses: Philo a n d Middle
P l a t o n i s m " ( 9 6 - 1 1 1 ) ; D . T. Runia, "Was P h i l o a M i d d l e Platonist? a Difficult
Question Revisited" ( 1 1 2 - 4 0 ) ; D. Winston, "Response to Runia a n d Sterling" ( 1 4 1 - 4 6 ) ;
Τ. H. T o b i n , "Was Philo a Middle Platonist? S o m e suggestions" ( 1 4 7 - 5 0 ) ; J. D i l l o n ,
"A Response to Runia a n d Sterling" ( 1 5 1 - 5 5 ) .
INTRODUCTION 23
as far b a c k as P l a t o . S i n c e w e h a v e n o c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e o f a J e w i s h
mystery, a n d s i n c e t h e u s e o f mystery l a n g u a g e w i t h o u t t h e p r a c t i c e of
mystery rites was by P h i l o ' s day a t i m e - h o n o r e d t r a d i t i o n i n p h i l o s o p h y , I
a s s u m e t h a t h e u s e s mystery v o c a b u l a r y o n l y as a m e t a p h o r t o d e s c r i b e
4 8
t h e s o u l ' s q u e s t for G o d a n d , q u i t e possibly, h i s o w n r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e .
B e s i d e s this rich b a c k g r o u n d o f Greek p h i l o s o p h y a n d p a g a n mystery
l a n g u a g e , Philo's work also relies u p o n Jewish e x e g e s i s that developed
4 9
well b e f o r e h i m . H e r e t h e difficulty p r e s e n t e d by t h e p a u c i t y o f s o u r c e s
can hardly b e overstated. N o n e t h e l e s s , b e g i n n i n g with the Septuagint, o n e
c a n trace i n A l e x a n d r i a n J e w i s h w o r k s t h e m e s , t e n d e n c i e s , a n d t r a d i t i o n s
— d e s c r i b e d b e l o w — w h i c h are e x h i b i t e d i n full d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e writ
5 0
ings of P h i l o .
4 8
In By Light, Lighi, G o o d e n o u g h gives fullest expression to t h e view that Philo's
Judaism is a mystery religion. For a review o f his position a n d those o f his p r e d e c e s
sors, s e e G. Lease, "Jewish Mystery Cults Since G o o d e n o u g h , " ANRW, 2.20.2: Religion
(Hellenistisches Judentum in romischer Zeit: Allgemeines), e d . Wolfgang Haase (Berlin: d e
Gruyter, 1 9 8 7 ) , 8 5 8 - 8 0 . See also Chadwick, "Philo," 1 5 2 - 5 4 . For a useful perspective o n
mystery cults in g e n e r a l , s e e Walter Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1 9 8 7 ) . O n Philo's use o f mystery language as m e t a p h o r , s e e
ibid., 4 5 , 67, 80, a n d 9 2 .
4 9
This p o i n t o f view has b e e n e x p a n d e d u p o n in various ways by Richard Goulet, La
philosophie de Mo'ise: essai de reconstitution d'un commentaire philosophique prephilonien du
Pentateuque, Histoire d e s doctrines d e l'antiquite classiqiie, n o . 11 (Paris: Librairie
P h i l o s o p h i q u e J. Vrin, 1987) ( s e e also the review of this b o o k by David T. Runia in
Journal of Theological Studies \JTS] 4 0 [ 1 9 8 9 ] : 5 8 8 - 6 0 2 , reprinted as the seventh entry in
i d e m , Exegesis and Philosophy)-, Robert G. Hamerton-Kelly, "Sources a n d Traditions in
P h i l o J u d a e u s : P r o l e g o m e n a to an Analysis o f H i s Writings," SP 1 ( 1 9 7 2 ) : 3 - 2 6 ;
T o b i n , The Creation of Man; a n d Burton L. Mack in t h e following works: "Exegetical
T r a d i t i o n s in A l e x a n d r i a n Judaism: A Program for t h e Analysis o f t h e P h i l o n i c
Corpus," SP 3 ( 1 9 7 4 - 7 5 ) : 7 1 - 1 1 2 ; Logos und Sophia: Untersuchungen zur Weisheittheologie im
hellenistischen Judentum, Studien zur U m w e l t d e s N e u e n Testaments, vol. 10, e d . Karl
Georg Kuhn (Gottingen: V a n d e n h o e c k & Ruprecht, 1973); "Philo Judaeus a n d Exeget
ical Traditions," 2 2 7 - 7 1 ; a n d "Weisheit u n d Allegoric b e i Philo v o n A l e x a n d r i e n :
U n t e r s u c h u n g e n zur Traktat De Congressu eruditionis," SP 5 (1978): 5 7 - 1 0 5 . For a recent
e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e relationship b e t w e e n Philo's works a n d Palestinian traditions, s e e
N a o m i G. C o h e n , Philo Judaeus: His Universe of Discourse, Beitrage zur Erforschung d e s
A l t e n T e s t a m e n t s u n d d e s antiken J u d e n t u m s , e d . Matthias Augustin a n d Michael
Mach, vol. 2 4 (Frankfurt a m Main: Peter Lang, 1995).
5 0
O n Philo's predecessors in general, see Peter Dalbert, Die Theologie der hellenistisch-
judischen Missions-Literatur unter Ausschluss von Philo und Josephus, T h e o l o g i s c h e For-
s c h u n g , n o . 4 ( H a m b u r g : H e r b e r t Reich Evangelischen Verlag, 1954); J a m e s D r u m -
m o n d , Philo Judaeus; or, The Jewish Alexandrian Philosophy in Its Development and Completion
( L o n d o n : Williams a n d Norgate, 1 8 8 8 ) , 1:131-255; P. M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria
( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press, 1 9 7 2 , repr. 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 : 6 8 7 - 7 1 6 . O n Philo a n d individual
writers, s e e also P e d e r B o r g e n , "Aristobulus a n d Philo," Philo, John and Paul: New
Perspectives on Judaism and Early Christianity (Adanta: Scholars Press, 1 9 8 7 ) , 7 - 1 6 ; Carl
A. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. 3: Aristobulus, SBL Texts a n d
Translations 39; Pseudepigrapha Series 13, e d . Martha Himmelfarb (Adanta: Scholars
24 INTRODUCTION
T h e P e n t a t e u c h o f t h e S e p t u a g i n t , for e x a m p l e , d a t i n g f r o m t h e third
c e n t u r y B.C.E., already s h o w s a sensitivity i n its t r a n s l a t i o n s t o d e s c r i p
tions o f G o d in t h e H e b r e w Bible that are a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c a n d a n t h r o p o -
p a t h i c . T h e f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f r o m A r i s t o b u l u s , w h o p r o b a b l y lived
in t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C.E., i n c l u d e s a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
similarly c o n c e r n e d w i t h a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m s . H i s writings also c o n t a i n
discussion of the Sabbath, highlighting the significance of the n u m b e r
s e v e n , a t h e m e u p o n w h i c h P h i l o e x p o u n d s as w e l l . I n g e n e r a l , t h e
f r a g m e n t s f r o m A r i s t o b u l u s reflect a n effort to r e c o n c i l e J e w i s h tradition
with Greek philosophy.
In t h e Letter o f Aristeas, w h o s e d a t i n g is m o r e u n c e r t a i n ( 2 5 0 B.C.E. to
t h e first c e n t u r y C . E . ) , w e find r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s o f J e w i s h laws t h r o u g h
s y m b o l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( s e c t i o n s 1 4 4 - 6 7 ) , similar t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in
P h i l o . T h e L e t t e r also rejects idolatry a n d p o l y t h e i s m ( 1 3 4 - 3 8 ) a n d c o n
veys t h e a w a r e n e s s o f p r e s e n t i n g J u d a i s m t o a G e n t i l e a u d i e n c e by
e m p h a s i z i n g , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , G o d ' s c o n c e r n for all h u m a n i t y , n o t
j u s t t h e J e w s ( 1 8 7 - 2 9 2 , p a s s i m ) . Finally, the W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n — w h i c h ,
5 1
t h o u g h its d a t i n g is d e b a t e d , m a y b e c o n t e m p o r a r y t o P h i l o — a l s o
d e n o u n c e s idolatry a n d p o l y t h e i s m ( c h a p t e r 13) a n d m e n t i o n s r e f l e c t i o n
u p o n c r e a t i o n as a m e a n s to discover G o d . A passing r e f e r e n c e t o t h e h i g h
priest's r o b e ( 1 8 : 2 4 ) s u g g e s t s familiarity with a m o r e e l a b o r a t e a l l e g o r y
f o u n d in b o t h J o s e p h u s a n d Philo.
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s c a t t e r e d e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e s e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w i s h
s o u r c e s , P h i l o h i m s e l f frequently refers to o t h e r e x e g e t e s a n d t h e i r inter
5 2
p r e t a t i o n s . Even w h e n h e d o e s n o t refer explicitly t o o t h e r s , t h e level o f
s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f s o m e o f his e x e g e s e s a n d his i m p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n that
certain a s s o c i a t i o n s are u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t n e e d i n g f u r t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n
c a n o n l y s u g g e s t that t h e s e various interpretations are b a s e d u p o n earlier,
w e l l - k n o w n t r a d i t i o n s . P r o m i n e n t a m o n g t h e s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are t h e
n u m e r o u s e t y m o l o g i e s that a p p e a r t h r o u g h o u t his work. M o s t relevant for
o u r p u r p o s e s is t h e e t y m o l o g y for "Israel" as "one that s e e s G o d , " or ο ρ ώ ν
θεόν.
Given t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f Philo's b a c k g r o u n d , o n e c a n hardly e s c a p e t h e
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t m u c h o f h i s w o r k is d e e p l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h o s e w h o
c a m e b e f o r e h i m . I n d e e d s o m u c h d o e s P h i l o fit i n t o a history o f p h i l o
s o p h i c a l a n d J e w i s h traditions, that his p o s i t i o n s o n t h e very issues o f this
study are p r o b a b l y affected by his p r e d e c e s s o r s . Certainly P h i l o ' s n o t i o n s
a b o u t s e e i n g G o d are i n f l u e n c e d by G r e e k — a n d , especially, P l a t o n i c —
p h i l o s o p h y . M o r e o v e r , t h e e t y m o l o g y l i n k i n g "Israel" w i t h s e e i n g G o d
d e r i v e s i n all l i k e l i h o o d f r o m earlier J e w i s h e x e g e s i s . Similarly, s o m e o f
Philo's interpretations a b o u t t h e relationship b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel as d e
s c r i b e d in t h e Bible m a y also b e i n h e r i t e d f r o m his J e w i s h p r e d e c e s s o r s .
While r e c o g n i z i n g the inevitability of these various i n f l u e n c e s , I
n o n e t h e l e s s a s s u m e that t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n still d o e s r e p r e s e n t
P h i l o ' s o w n view. T h e q u e s t i o n s p o s e d i n this study, after all, are q u i t e
c o m p l e x . E v e n if w e c o u l d identify all t h e earlier traditions f o u n d in h i s
work, t o d e t e r m i n e P h i l o ' s p o s i t i o n o n t h e s e matters certainly r e q u i r e s u s
t o c o n s i d e r m o r e t h a n simply i n d i v i d u a l strands o f t h o u g h t o r specific
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . It a l s o r e q u i r e s that w e c o n s i d e r h o w all t h e v a r i o u s
e l e m e n t s are o r are n o t b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r in his work. M o r e o v e r , if P h i l o
d o e s in fact h a v e a rich b a n q u e t o f i d e a s a n d traditions f r o m w h i c h t o
c h o o s e , h e m o s t assuredly selects a n d h i g h l i g h t s t h e o n e s h e prefers.
R e f l e c t i o n s like t h e s e b r i n g m e to m y f o u r t h a s s u m p t i o n , n a m e l y , t h a t
w h a t P h i l o d o e s a n d d o e s n o t discuss is significant for this i n v e s t i g a t i o n
b u t , u l t i m a t e l y , o n e c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e o f its s i g n i f i c a n c e t o
P h i l o h i m s e l f . T o b e s u r e , it is always s o m e w h a t risky t o s t u d y i s s u e s
w h i c h a n a u t h o r h i m s e l f — i n this case P h i l o — d o e s n o t explicitly address.
For e x a m p l e , P h i l o n o w h e r e tells us that Jews a n d o n l y Jews can s e e G o d ,
that non-Jews c a n s e e G o d , o r that "Israel" is a c o d e w o r d for t h o s e w h o
c a n s e e G o d a n d m a y i n c l u d e all Jews, s o m e Jews, o r e v e n non-Jews. N o r
d o e s h e take a n e x p l i c i t stand o n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s for his J e w i s h c o n t e m
p o r a r i e s o f t h e Biblical t e a c h i n g that G o d c h o s e Israel. Last, a n d p e r h a p s
m o s t important, Philo never addresses why h e believes an individual
s h o u l d b e a J e w rather than, say, a Gentile p h i l o s o p h e r .
P e r h a p s P h i l o ' s c o n t e m p o r a r y readers d i d k n o w exactly what h e m e a n t
by "Israel," d i d u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n b e i n g a J e w a n d
s e e i n g G o d , w e r e familiar with his p o s i t i o n o n t h e c o v e n a n t d e s c r i b e d in
t h e B i b l e , a n d d i d u n d e r s t a n d why h e c o n s i d e r e d it i m p o r t a n t to b e a Jew.
If s o , t h e y u n d o u b t e d l y k n e w t h e s e t h i n g s n o t f r o m P h i l o ' s writings b u t
f r o m t h e i r s h a r e d e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h t h e s e issues w e r e p e r h a p s t a k e n
for g r a n t e d . W e w h o c o m e to P h i l o centuries later, however, c a n n o t b u t b e
struck by t h e r i c h a m b i g u i t y o f h i s d i s c u s s i o n s a n d h i s s i l e n c e a b o u t
26 INTRODUCTION
5 3
T w o p r o m i n e n t book-length treatments of this subject are William E m p s o n , Seven
Types of Ambiguity, 3rd ed. (New York: N e w D i r e c t i o n s , n.d.) a n d William B. Stan
ford, Ambiguity in Greek Literature: Studies in Theory and Practice (Oxford: Basil Blackwell,
1939; repr., N e w York: J o h n s o n Reprint Corporation, 1 9 7 2 ) . O t h e r useful discussions
can be f o u n d in Daniel Boyarin, Intertextuality and the Reading of Midrash ( B l o o m i n g -
ton, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1 9 9 0 ) , esp. 5 7 - 7 9 ; J o h n A. Miles, Jr., "Radical
Editing, Redaktionsgeschichte a n d the Aesthetic of Willed Confusion," Traditions in
Transformation: Turning Points in Biblical Faith, ed. Baruch Halpern and J o n D. Levenson
( W i n o n a Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1 9 8 1 ) , 9 - 3 1 ; Paul R. Rabbe, "Deliberate Ambi
guity in the Psalter," JBL 110 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 2 1 3 - 2 7 ; David Stern, "Midrash a n d Indetermi-
nancy," Critical Inquiry 15 (1988): 1 3 2 - 6 1 ; Meir Sternberg, The Poetics of Biblical Narra
tive: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading ( B l o o m i n g t o n , Indiana: Indiana Uni
versity Press, 1 9 8 5 ) , esp. 1 8 6 - 2 6 3 ; L e o Strauss, Persecution and the Art of Writing ( N e w
York: Free Press, 1952; repr., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), esp. 2 2 - 3 7 .
28 INTRODUCTION
t o n e s it d o w n by i n t r o d u c i n g s o m e p h i l o s o p h i c a l twist a n d by a l l o w i n g
54
t h e p e r c e p t i v e r e a d e r a g l i m p s e o f his true p o s i t i o n . "
T u r n i n g t o t h e f o u r f e a t u r e s d e s c r i b e d j u s t a b o v e , o n e c a n n o t easily
assess P h i l o ' s i n t e n t i o n s . D o his a m b i g u i t y a n d s i l e n c e o n s u c h issues as
t h e p r e c i s e m e a n i n g o f "Israel," t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n b e i n g a J e w a n d
b e i n g able to s e e G o d , t h e significance o f t h e c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d
Biblical Israel, a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b e i n g a J e w b e s p e a k a wish t o b e
esoteric a b o u t his p o s i t i o n o n t h e s e issues?
L e t u s take as a n e x a m p l e Philo's u s e o f t h e terms "Israel," "Jews," a n d
"Hebrews." Is P h i l o d e l i b e r a t e l y h i d i n g or a v o i d i n g s o m e t h i n g by u s i n g
"Israel" a n d "Jew" i n s e p a r a t e works o r by s p e a k i n g o n l y o f "Hebrews"
rather t h a n o f "Israel" in his treatises o n Moses?
P h i l o ' s separate u s e s o f t h e s e t e r m s are i n d e e d p u z z l i n g t o t h e m o d e r n
r e a d e r , w h o m a y e x p e c t "Israel" a n d "Jews"—or, i n t h e c a s e o f t h e
Biblical n a t i o n in M o s e s ' s t i m e , "Israel" a n d "Hebrews"—to b e s y n o n y
m o u s . For P h i l o , h o w e v e r , "Israel" m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e t h i n g e l s e — n a m e
ly, a l o o s e l y d e f i n e d entity c o m p r i s i n g t h o s e w h o c a n s e e G o d , w h i c h
t h e o r e t i c a l l y c o u l d i n c l u d e s o m e J e w s o r all J e w s a n d e v e n s o m e n o n -
Jews. T h e very fluidity o f t h e m e a n i n g o f "Israel" is s i m p l y h i g h l i g h t e d
by his d e p i c t i o n o f it as a γ έ ν ο ς , a n o t h e r w o r d with m a n y m e a n i n g s . T h e
Jews, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , e m b o d y t h e clearly identifiable n a t i o n that wor
s h i p s G o d . T h u s P h i l o m a y r e g a r d "Israel" a n d "Jews"—or " H e b r e w s " —
as o v e r l a p p i n g in m e a n i n g b u t n o t necessarily s y n o n y m o u s .
If "Israel" a n d "Jews" o r "Hebrews" d o i n d e e d h a v e d i f f e r e n t t h o u g h
p e r h a p s o v e r l a p p i n g m e a n i n g s , t h e n it is o n l y l o g i c a l that P h i l o w o u l d
u s e t h e s e different terms in different places for different p u r p o s e s . M o r e
over, t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h "Israel" d o e s or d o e s n o t overlap with "Jews" o r
"Hebrews" m a y n o t have b e e n significant to P h i l o a n d his c o n t e m p o r a r y
r e a d e r s t h e way it is t o us, h i s m o d e r n r e a d e r s . O u r p u z z l e m e n t o v e r
P h i l o ' s a m b i g u i t y a n d s i l e n c e o n this a n d t h e o t h e r issues m e n t i o n e d
above m a y b e m o r e a reflection o f o u r o w n e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a n t h e o u t c o m e
o f his d e l i b e r a t e d e s i g n .
As t o w h y P h i l o k e e p s "Israel" so separate f r o m "Jews" a n d "Hebrews,"
o n e m a y s p e c u l a t e that i n s t e a d o f trying to b e esoteric, h e m a y simply b e
a d a p t i n g h i s d i s c u s s i o n t o suit d i f f e r e n t a u d i e n c e s . A m o n g h i s t h r e e
e x e g e t i c a l series, for e x a m p l e , P h i l o speaks o f "Israel" chiefly in t h e Alle
gory, o c c a s i o n a l l y in Q G E , a n d o n l y rarely in t h e E x p o s i t i o n . In contrast,
h e s p e a k s o f t h e J e w s by n a m e o n l y in t h e E x p o s i t i o n . By r e c a l l i n g that
t h e s e t h r e e series m a y b e i n t e n d e d for r e a d e r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t spiritual
5 4
David W i n s t o n , "Judaism a n d H e l l e n i s m : H i d d e n T e n s i o n s in Philo's T h o u g h t , "
SPhA 2 (1990): 18, cf. 3; see also idem, Logos and Mystical Theology, 14.
INTRODUCTION 29
s e n s i b i l i t i e s a n d l e v e l s o f familiarity w i t h t h e B i b l e , w e m a y p e r h a p s
a c c o u n t for t h e variation in Philo's use o f terms.
A c c o r d i n g l y , if "Israel" r e p r e s e n t s a soul, p e r s o n , o r g r o u p that c a n s e e
G o d , P h i l o may c o n f i n e his discussion o f "Israel" to t h e A l l e g o r y a n d , t o a
lesser e x t e n t , t o Q G E in o r d e r to address p e o p l e like h i m s e l f w h o u n d e r
s t a n d this g o a l o f s e e i n g G o d a n d strive toward it. M o r e o v e r , s i n c e t h e
t e r m "Israel" w o u l d b e m o r e m e a n i n g f u l for Jews familiar with t h e B i b l e
a n d J e w i s h tradition than it w o u l d b e for p e o p l e less k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t
t h e s e s o u r c e s , t h o s e m o r e familiar with t h e t e r m w o u l d associate it with
their o w n h e r i t a g e a n d take p r i d e in t h e identification o f "Israel" with t h e
goal of seeing God.
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , P h i l o may avoid s p e a k i n g o f "Israel" i n t h e E x p o s i
tion, w h e r e his readers may b e Jews and non-Jews w h o have yet to
a c q u i r e t h e spiritual sensibility to a p p r e c i a t e what "Israel" stands for. L e t
us n o t f o r g e t , h o w e v e r , that a l t h o u g h P h i l o m e n t i o n s "Israel" o n l y twice
in t h e E x p o s i t i o n , h e d o e s n o t c o m p l e t e l y o m i t s p e a k i n g a b o u t it o r a b o u t
s e e i n g G o d . T h i s s u g g e s t s that P h i l o is n o t d e l i b e r a t e l y trying to h i d e
s o m e t h i n g f r o m h i s r e a d e r s b u t i n s t e a d m a y b e adjusting his d i s c u s s i o n
to fit their n e e d s a n d interests.
A s f o r w h y P h i l o d i s c u s s e s J e w s o n l y in t h e E x p o s i t i o n , w e m i g h t
r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t h i m t o discuss t h e Jews in a series a i m e d primarily at
p e o p l e n o t well a c q u a i n t e d with Jewish history, beliefs, a n d practices. H e
w o u l d h a v e n o n e e d , h o w e v e r , to speak a b o u t t h e J e w s a n d their ways to
his m o r e k n o w l e d g e a b l e readers in t h e Allegory a n d Q G E .
In a n a l y z i n g t h e v a r i o u s literary u s e s o f a m b i g u i t y , W i l l i a m E m p s o n
c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e a m b i g u i t y o f "ambiguity" itself. H e writes,
5 5
E m p s o n , Seven Types of Ambiguity, 5.
CHAPTER ONE
S c h o l a r s h a v e o f t e n n o t i c e d that it is difficult to p i n p o i n t e x a c t l y w h a t
P h i l o m e a n s by "Israel." A l t h o u g h t h e Biblical d e s i g n a t i o n "Israel" m a y
r e f e r — d e p e n d i n g u p o n the c o n t e x t — t o t h e patriarch J a c o b , t h e n a t i o n o f
his d e s c e n d a n t s , o r t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m , in P h i l o ' s works, t h e p r e c i s e
identity o f "Israel" is n o t easily d e f i n e d .
T w o features o f P h i l o ' s discussion c o n t r i b u t e to this ambiguity. First, as
h e o f t e n e x p l a i n s , e t y m o l o g i c a l l y "Israel" m e a n s ορών θ ε ό ν , o n e that s e e s
1
G o d . By u n d e r s t a n d i n g "Israel" as an entity that s e e s G o d , P h i l o assigns
t h e t e r m a m e a n i n g that h a s n o t h i n g to d o with birth a n d o r i g i n , b u t
r a t h e r with spiritual capacity. I n d e e d , theoretically, t h o s e w h o s e e G o d
m a y i n c l u d e non-Jews, w h i l e s o m e J e w s may n o t b e a b l e t o s e e G o d .
M o r e o v e r , s i n c e t h e participle ορών can b e either m a s c u l i n e or n e u t e r , it is
s o m e t i m e s u n c l e a r a b o u t w h o m o r w h a t P h i l o is s p e a k i n g w h e n h e
2
d e s c r i b e s "Israel" u s i n g t h e e t y m o l o g y .
S e c o n d , P h i l o frequently u n d e r s t a n d s "Israel" in a figurative s e n s e — f o r
e x a m p l e , as a collectivity that c a n n o t b e i d e n t i f i e d with a particular social
g r o u p , as a n i n d i v i d u a l , a s o u l , o r e v e n part o f a s o u l . B e c a u s e t h e s e
g e n e r a l o r s y m b o l i c t e r m s c a n apply b o t h t o J e w s a n d non-Jews, t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n "Israel" a n d t h e Jews r e m a i n s u n c l e a r .
S c h o l a r s h a v e a s s e s s e d t h e a m b i g u o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n "Israel"
a n d t h e Jews in P h i l o ' s writings in different ways. As w e shall s e e , t h e i r
m e t h o d s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s . B e l o w is a
survey o f various scholarly a p p r o a c h e s , f o l l o w e d by m y o w n e x a m i n a t i o n
o f h o w P h i l o u s e s t h e w o r d s "Israel," 'Jew," a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d terms.
1
Congr. 5 1 , Somn. 2.173, Abr. 57, Praem. 44, et al.
2
W h e n e x p l a i n i n g the m e a n i n g o f the word "Israel," Philo gives the e t y m o l o g y
without an article (e.g., Congr. 5 1 , Fug. 208, Somn. 2.173, Abr. 57, Praem. 44, Legat. 4 ) .
W h e n d e s c r i b i n g the entity "Israel," however, Philo d o e s use an article with the
etymology. Usually, the article is masculine (e.g., Leg. 3.172, 212; Post. 92; Somn. 1.171),
but in Leg. 3.186, it is neuter. O n e c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e the g e n d e r o f the participle
w h e n it appears with the definite article in the genitive case (e.g., Leg. 3.38, Sacr. 134,
Conf. 56).
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 31
A Survey of Approaches
O f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t are w o r k s by P e d e r B o r g e n , Erwin R. G o o d e n o u g h ,
A n n i e Jaubert, G e r h a r d D e l l i n g , Karl G e o r g K u h n , Walter G u t b r o d , J a c o b
Neusner, and Nils Dahl. T o highlight the importance of m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
a n d c o n c e p t u a l issues, I shall c o n s i d e r t h e s e works a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e
issues, i n s t e a d o f in their c h r o n o l o g i c a l order.
3
P e d e r B o r g e n , Bread From Heaven: An Exegetical Study of the Concept of Manna in the
Gospel of John and the Wntings of Philo, S u p p l e m e n t s to N o v u m T e s t a m e n t u m , vol. 10
( L e i d e n : E. J. Brill, 1 9 6 5 ) ; i d e m , "Philo o f Alexandria: A Critical a n d Synthetical
Survey o f Research since World War II" (hereafter referred to as "Survey"), 9 8 - 1 5 4 ;
i d e m , "Philo of Alexandria," Jewish Wntings of the Second Temple Period: Apocrypha,
Pseudepigrapha, Qumran Sectarian Writings, Philo, Josephus, ed. Michael E. Stone, CRINT,
sec. 2, vol. 2 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 2 3 3 - 8 2 . Several of Borgen's i n d e p e n
d e n t studies are collected in Paul Preaches Circumcision and Pleases Men and Other Essays
on Christian Origins, Relieff, n o . 8 (Trondheim: Tapir, 1983) and in Philo, John and Paul:
New Perspectives on Judaism and Early Christianity, Brown Judaic Studies, ed. J a c o b Neus
ner et al., n o . 131 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987). See also i d e m , "There Shall C o m e
Forth a Man."
4
B o r g e n , Bread From Heaven, 115.
5
Ibid., 1 1 6 - 1 7 . A m o n g the scholars m e n t i o n e d w h o consider "Israel" and the Jews
as the s a m e are Harry A. W o l f s o n , E d m u n d Stein, Walther Volker, a n d N o r m a n
Bentwich. T h o s e cited w h o believe "Israel" designates only a g r o u p with the ability to
see G o d are J o s e p h Pascher, Richard Reitzenstein, Hans Leisegang, a n d H a n s Jonas.
B o r g e n discusses Nils Dahl as an e x a m p l e of the attempt "to m e d i a t e b e t w e e n these
32 CHAPTER ONE
two conflicting views o f 'the n a t i o n o f vision.'" For discussion o f Dahl's work, see
further below.
6
B o r g e n , "Survey," 114; i d e m , "Philo of Alexandria," 269.
7
B o r g e n , Bread From Heaven, 118. For his analysis of the entire passage, see ibid.,
99-121.
8
See, e.g., Mack, "Exegetical Traditions in Alexandrian Judaism," 7 5 - 7 6 .
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 33
9
G o o d e n o u g h , By Light, Light, 136.
1 0
G o o d e n o u g h , The Politics of Philo Judaeus, 12.
1 1
Jaubert, La notion d 'Alliance.
34 CHAPTER ONE
1 2
Ibid., 407.
1 3
See, e.g., ibid., 4 0 2 - 3 , 4 1 2 - 1 4 .
1 4
Ibid., 4 0 8 - 9 .
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 35
1 5
Gerhard D e l l i n g , "The O n e W h o Sees G o d ' in Philo," Nourished With Peace:
Studies in Hellenistic Judaism in Memory of Samuel Sandmel, ed. Frederick E. G r e e n s p a h n ,
Earle Hilgert, a n d Burton L. Mack, Scholars Press H o m a g e Series (Chico, California:
Scholars Press, 1984), 2 8 - 4 1 .
1 6
Ibid., 40.
1 7
Ibid., 39; see also 28.
1 8
Ibid., 35.
36 CHAPTER ONE
W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f A n n i e J a u b e r t — w h o s e i n t e r e s t is in t h e c o v e n a n t
i d e a in S e c o n d T e m p l e l i t e r a t u r e — t h e scholars d i s c u s s e d u p to this p o i n t
have f o c u s e d exclusively u p o n P h i l o in trying to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g
1 9
Ibid., 3 0 - 3 1 a n d 37. T h e translation for όρατικόν γένος as "a race able to see" is
Delling's. I shall argue in the s e c o n d part of this chapter that γ έ ν ο ς is a m b i g u o u s a n d
may be u n d e r s t o o d as, a m o n g other things, a race defined by birth or a class d e f i n e d
by certain characteristics.
2 0
Ibid., 27, n. 3; 37. (Philo m e n t i o n s "Israel" a n d the Jews t o g e t h e r in the same
treatise only in Legat.)
2 1
Like D e l l i n g a n d Jaubert, E. P. Sanders also assumes that "Israel" a n d the Jews
are i d e n t i c a l , in "The C o v e n a n t as a Soteriological Category a n d the N a t u r e o f
Salvation in Palestinian and Hellenistic Judaism," Jews, Greeks and Christians: Religious
Culture in Late Antiquity. Essays in Honor of William David Davies, ed. Robert H a m e r t o n -
Kelly a n d R o b i n Scroggs ( L e i d e n : E. J. Brill, 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 1 - 4 4 , e s p . 2 5 - 3 8 . A l t h o u g h
Sanders discusses several issues relevant to o u r study, h e frames t h e s e issues in a
soteriological context. Since Philo uses the language o f salvation only rarely, if ever,
Sanders's framework d o e s n o t ultimately clarify Philo's own ideas.
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 37
2 2
O t h e r studies of these and related terms which may s h e d light u p o n Philo's usage
can be f o u n d in R e n e e Bloch, "Israelite, juif, hebreu," Cahiers Sioniens 5 (1951): 1 1 - 3 1 ,
2 5 8 - 8 0 ; Dieter Georgi, The Opponents of Paul in Second Connthians (Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 1 9 8 6 ) , 4 0 - 6 0 ; Peter J. T o m s o n , "The N a m e s Israel and Jew in A n c i e n t Judaism
a n d in the N e w Testament," Bijdragen 47 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 1 2 0 - 4 0 , 2 6 6 - 8 9 ; S o l o m o n Zeitlin,
"The N a m e s H e b r e w , Jew a n d Israel: A Historical Study," Jewish Quarterly Review 4 3
( 1 9 5 2 - 5 3 ) : 3 6 5 - 7 9 . For reflections o n the m e a n i n g of these terms from a writer w h o
lived closer to Philo's d m e , see Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica 7:6 and 8.
2 3
Karl Georg Kuhn, "Ισραήλ, Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ς , Ε β ρ α ί ο ς in Jewish Literature after the OT,"
Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (TDNT), ed. Gerhard Kittel, trans, a n d e d .
Geoffrey W. B r o m i l e y ( G r a n d Rapids, Mich.: W. B. E e r d m a n s , 1 9 6 5 ) , 3 : 3 5 9 - 6 9 .
Walter Gutbrod, "Ιουδαίος, Ι σ ρ α ή λ , Ε β ρ α ί ο ς in Greek Hellenistic Literature," TDNT,
3:369-75.
2 4
Kuhn, "Ισραήλ, Ιουδαίος, Εβραίος," 360.
38 CHAPTER ONE
25
n o t based primarily o n nationality or external factors." Moreover,
J o s e p h u s — w h o m a y b e writing for a non-Jewish a u d i e n c e — d o e s n o t u s e
Ι σ ρ α ή λ (Israel) to describe t h e w h o l e p e o p l e b u t only t h e patriarch J a c o b .
Instead J o s e p h u s uses Ι σ ρ α η λ ί τ η ς (Israelite) "for m e m b e r s o f t h e p e o p l e o f
G o d in past days," b u t n o t for t h o s e in the present. G u t b r o d observes, "This
u s e is in k e e p i n g with t h e Biblical text a n d is also suitable for t h e r e a d e r s
26
w h o m h e h a s in v i e w . "
As a d i c t i o n a r y entry, G u t b r o d ' s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f P h i l o is n e c e s s a r i l y
brief, b u t h e m a k e s s o m e useful observations, particularly a b o u t P h i l o ' s
e t y m o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f "Israel." H e writes,
T h e vision of G o d expressed in the n a m e is the essential thing for Philo (Abr. 57-
59; Leg. Gaj., 4 ) . But this m e a n s that Ι σ ρ α ή λ may easily c o m e to transcend the
limits o f the Jewish p e o p l e . All oi του όρατικοΰ γένους μετέχοντες [those w h o b e l o n g
to the r a c e / c l a s s that can see] are Ι σ ρ α ή λ (Deus Imm., 144; Sacr. AC, 134). This
2 7
e x t e n s i o n is n o t directly stated; nevertheless, the way is clearly prepared for i t .
In t h e s e few w o r d s , G u t b r o d c a p t u r e s t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e p r o b l e m in
P h i l o ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f "Israel." By e x p l a i n i n g t h e t e r m as "one that s e e s
G o d , " P h i l o o p e n s t h e way to u n d e r s t a n d i n g "Israel" as different f r o m t h e
e n t i r e J e w i s h p e o p l e . P h i l o himself, h o w e v e r , n e v e r a d d r e s s e s this possi
bility directly, l e a v i n g his r e a d e r s to p u z z l e — a s i n d e e d m a n y still d o —
over t h e a m b i g u o u s relationship b e t w e e n t h e Jews a n d "Israel, t h e o n e that
sees God."
2 5
Gutbrod, "Ιουδαίος, Ισραήλ, Εβραίος," 371.
2 6
Ibid., 372.
2 7
Ibid.
2 8
J a c o b N e u s n e r , Judaism and Its Social Metaphors: Israel in the History of Jewish Thought
(Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press, 1 9 8 9 ) . N e u s n e r also usefully s u m m a r i z e s
the main points of this b o o k in "Israel: Judaism and Its Social Metaphors," Journal of
the Amencan Academy of Religion 50 (1978): 3 3 1 - 6 1 .
2 9
N e u s n e r , Judaism and Its Social Metaphors, 205.
3 0
Ibid., 3 a n d i d e m , "Israel," 333.
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 39
3 1
N e u s n e r , Judaism and Its Social Metaphors, 1.
3 2
Ibid., 212.
3 3
Ibid., 220.
3 4
Ibid., 2 2 1 .
3 5
Nils A. Dahl, Das Volk Gottes. Eine Untersuchung turn Kirchenbewusstsein des Vrchristen-
tums (Oslo: Jacob Dybwad, 1941), 107-14.
3 6
Ibid., 1.
40 CHAPTER ONE
3 7
Ibid., 1 0 7 - 8 .
3 8
Ibid., 108.
3 9
Ibid., 1 0 9 - 1 0 .
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 41
h a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Stoic ideal, t h e s o j o u r n e r t h e m e a p p l i e s t o t h e
i n d i v i d u a l s a g e , w h o s e real h o m e l a n d is v i r t u e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
a c c o r d i n g t o Platonic-Gnostic ideas, t h e sojourner m o t i f applies to t h e soul,
w h i c h is a m e r e visitor to t h e c o r p o r e a l world.
A s P h i l o m o v e s to h i g h e r levels, h e leaves b e h i n d t h e c o n c r e t e J e w i s h
p e o p l e a n d u s e s w h a t D a h l calls t h e l a n g u a g e o f mystery r e l i g i o n s . H e r e ,
for e x a m p l e , P h i l o speaks a b o u t the practicer, lover o f virtue, p r o p h e t , seer,
4 0
or student o f G o d .
C o n c e r n i n g t h e u n i q u e role o f t h e Jewish n a t i o n in this w h o l e s c h e m e ,
D a h l c o n c l u d e s that P h i l o n e i t h e r e m p h a s i z e s n o r d e n i e s J e w i s h particu
larity. P h i l o rarely a l l u d e s to t h e special p o s i t i o n o f t h e Jews, for e x a m p l e ,
w h e n h e s p e a k s a b o u t t h e s o - c a l l e d "visible c o m m u n i t y . " I n s t e a d h e
e m p h a s i z e s virtue rather t h a n b l o o d ties as t h e basis o f c o m m o n citizen
s h i p . I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e so-called "invisible c o m m u n i t y , " P h i l o s e e m s t o
m e s h t h e attributes o f t h e Jews with t h o s e o f t h e sage: "For P h i l o , o n t h e
o n e h a n d , t h e Jewish p e o p l e is t h e realization o f t h e Stoic ideal o f t h e sage;
o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h e transfers all t h e n o b l e p r e d i c a t e s o f G o d ' s p e o p l e t o
41
the (Stoic) s a g e . "
As t o t h e o t h e r levels o f t h e s c h e m e , D a h l p o i n t s o u t that P h i l o ' s
t e n d e n c y t o s e e specific J e w i s h characteristics as s y m b o l s o f t h e c o s m o s
d o e s n o t c a n c e l J e w i s h particularity b u t i n s t e a d gives it d e e p e r m e a n i n g .
Similarly, P h i l o ' s mystery is n o t a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f J u d a i s m f r o m t h e
"normative," b u t rather an interpretation o n the level o f t h e soul.
R e g a r d i n g t h e p l a c e o f "Israel" in this s c h e m e , D a h l e x p l a i n s t h a t
a c c o r d i n g t o P h i l o ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , "Israel" o p e r a t e s o n e a c h o f t h e
d i f f e r e n t levels. T h u s t h e t e r m c a n refer to t h e e m p i r i c a l J e w i s h n a t i o n ,
w h i c h a l o n e s e e s G o d ; t h e "invisible c o m m u n i t y , " o r t h e r a c e that c a n
see; t h e sage o r t h e individual God-seer; the soul or t h e part o f the soul that
4 2
s e e s G o d ; t h e abstract vision o f G o d ; a n d finally the L o g o s .
After a r g u i n g that P h i l o ' s u s e o f "Israel" e n c o m p a s s e s d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s
in this "Alexandrian w o r l d - s c h e m e , " D a h l raises t h e q u e s t i o n o f " I s r a e f ' s
s p e c i a l r o l e . Specifically, h e asks "whether this structure o f piety p e r m i t s
that in P h i l o t o o 'Israel a c c o r d i n g to the flesh' h o l d s a special p l a c e as t h e
p e o p l e o f G o d o r w h e t h e r t h e political a n d p h i l o s o p h i c - m y s t i c i d e a s i n
P h i l o part ways entirely."
"Without a d o u b t , " h e answers,
4 0
Ibid., 1 1 0 - 1 2 .
4 1
Ibid., 111.
4 2
Ibid., 113.
42 CHAPTER ONE
is an i m a g e a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f 'Israel a c c o r d i n g to t h e spirit,' if t h e s e
expressions are allowed here. Just as the body is a h o u s e o f the soul for h i m a n d
the letter of the law a h o u s e of the spiritual content, so too the Jewish synagogue
43
b e c o m e s for h i m the h o m e of the invisible c o m m u n i t y .
4 3
Ibid., 114.
4 4
T h e distinction b e t w e e n "Israel according to the flesh" a n d "Israel a c c o r d i n g to
the spirit" is s u g g e s t e d in several passages in the N e w T e s t a m e n t . 1 Cor. 10:18
explicitly m e n t i o n s Ι σ ρ α ή λ κατά σάρκα (Israel according to the flesh) but n o t Ι σ ρ α ή λ
κατά π ν ε ύ μ α (Israel a c c o r d i n g to the spirit). Other passages suggest that Abraham's
d e s c e n d a n t s or Israel may be d e t e r m i n e d n o t by birth, but rather by faith (Matt. 3 : 7 -
10; R o m . 4:16, 9:6-8, 1 1 : 1 7 - 2 4 ) . Rom. 2:28-29 contrasts the visible (έν τφ φανερω) Jew
with the private (έν τφ κρυπτφ) o n e and circumcision in the flesh (ή έν σαρκι περιτομή)
with circumcision of the heart (περιτομή καρδίας).
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 43
4 5
See below, n. 50.
44 CHAPTER ONE
Proper Nouns
Ιουδαίος (Jew)
P e r h a p s t h e s i m p l e s t o b s e r v a t i o n is that t h e E x p o s i t i o n is t h e o n l y
e x e g e t i c a l series to u s e t h e w o r d "Jew" ( Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ς ) , w h i c h a p p e a r s twenty
4 8
times. This word never occurs in the Allegory and, a l t h o u g h the
English translation o f Q G E has it o n c e ( Q G 3 . 4 8 ) , t h e translator n o t e s that in
t h e A r m e n i a n , t h e w o r d is "Hebrews." U n f o r t u n a t e l y w e h a v e n o G r e e k
t e x t t o tell us w h e t h e r t h e o r i g i n a l w o r d is "Jews." T h e c o n t e x t m a k e s
clear, h o w e v e r , that P h i l o is s p e a k i n g a b o u t a c o n t e m p o r a r y p e o p l e . S i n c e
"Hebrews" h a s a d i f f e r e n t c o n n o t a t i o n — a s e i t h e r t h e Biblical n a t i o n o r
p e o p l e w h o s p e a k t h e H e b r e w l a n g u a g e — u s e o f t h e w o r d "Jews" in this
passage makes sense.
I n all t h e c a s e s w h e r e P h i l o u s e s "Jews" i n t h e E x p o s i t i o n , h e is
referring to t h e real n a t i o n — u s u a l l y in the p r e s e n t , b u t s o m e t i m e s in t h e
4 9
past. H e n e v e r i n t e r p r e t s t h e t e r m symbolically. P h i l o ' s e x a c t way o f
referring to t h e p e o p l e varies. Usually h e calls t h e m Jews ( Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ι ) , t h e
n a t i o n o f Jews (τό Ι ο υ δ α ί ω ν έ θ ν ο ς ) , or simply t h e n a t i o n (τό έ θ ν ο ς ) . In Virt.
108, h e calls t h e m t h e polity o f Jews (ή Ι ο υ δ α ί ω ν π ο λ ι τ ε ί α ) .
4 7
For m o s t o f the P h i l o n i c writings, we have fairly reliable word i n d e x e s . S e e
Mayer, Index Philoneus and the TLG database. (See also Runia, "How to Search Philo,"
1 0 6 - 3 9 . ) QGE presents a particular challenge for c o n d u c t i n g word studies, since m o s t
o f this c o m m e n t a r y is extant only in the a n c i e n t A r m e n i a n translation, a n d e v e n
this text may be i n c o m p l e t e . (We also have a portion o f QG 4 in Latin translation, a n d
w h e n this agrees with the A r m e n i a n , we can be m o r e c o n f i d e n t o f the text.) Greek
s e c t i o n s o f Q G E p r e s e r v e d in the works o f o t h e r writers are m e r e f r a g m e n t s .
Observations about QGE—based u p o n the English translation in LCL a n d Greek frag
m e n t s , w h e n these are available—are necessarily of a very g e n e r a l nature. For the
Greek fragments o f QGE, see Frangoise Petit, ed., Quaestiones in Genesim et in Exodum:
Fragmenta Graeca, vol. 33 of Les oeuvres de Philon d'Alexandrie, ed. Roger Arnaldez, Claude
Mondesert, a n d Jean Pouilloux (Paris: Editions d u Cerf, 1978). (Hereafter the French
translation is referred to as ΟΡΑ.) Earle Hilgert has summarized the current state o f
scholarship o n QGE in "The Quaestiones: Texts and Translations," Both Literal and
Allegorical, ed. David M. Hay, 1-15.
4 8
Mos. 1.1, 7, 34; Mos. 2.17, 25, 4 1 , 193, 216; Decal 96; Spec. 1.97; Spec. 2.163, 166; Spec.
3.46; Spec. 4.179, 224; Virt. 65, 168, 206, 212, 226.
4 9
In two instances, Philo uses Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ς (Jew) in the treatises o n Moses to refer to the
Biblical p e o p l e (Mos. 1.34, Mos. 2.193).
46 CHAPTER ONE
Εβραίος (Hebrew)
5 0
In t h e Allegory, in Migr. 2 0 , Philo gives an etymology o f "Hebrew" as m e a n i n g
"migrant." H e writes that, in contrast to the Egyptian p r e o c c u p a t i o n with t h e body, a
characteristic o f the Hebrew race is to move away from the sense-perceptible realm to
the noetic. Similarly, Migr. 141 speaks o f Hebrew souls in contrast to Egyptian w o m e n ,
associating t h e f o r m e r with t h e intellectual world, t h e latter with t h e material.
Preference for t h e non-material as a trait o f the Hebrews is also suggested in Abr. 2 5 1 ,
but the word is n o t given an allegorical m e a n i n g n o r is it applied to the soul. T h e s e
are t h e only three instances in which Philo gives "Hebrews" a symbolic association.
5 1
"Hebrews" refers to t h e Biblical n a t i o n in t h e following seven o u t o f n i n e t e e n
references: Migr. 2 0 (2 references), 141 (see above, n. 5 0 ) ; Her. 128; Fug. 168; Mut. 117
( 2 ) . T h e r e m a i n i n g twelve references d e n o t e speakers o f the H e b r e w language.
5 2
"Hebrews" d e n o t e s t h e Biblical p e o p l e in thirty o u t o f forty r e f e r e n c e s in t h e
Exposition. T h e r e m a i n i n g ten d e n o t e speakers o f the H e b r e w language. All but o n e
(see n. 5 3 ) o f twenty-four references to "Hebrews" in Mos. 1 a n d 2 d e n o t e the Biblical
n a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , all three o c c u r r e n c e s o f Ε β ρ α ϊ κ ό ς ( H e b r e w ) — a w o r d w h i c h
appears only in Mos. 1.16, 2 4 0 , a n d 285—describe the Biblical p e o p l e .
5 3
S e e , e.g., Somn. 1.58, Somn. 2.250, Spec. 2.145. O n e case in which "Hebrews" is used
outside o f an etymological explanation to refer to speakers o f the H e b r e w language is
Mos. 2 . 3 2 . T h i s passage describes h o w t h e h i g h priest c h o s e a n d s e n t t h e m o s t
e s t e e m e d of the Hebrews (oi δοκιμώτατοι Ε β ρ α ί ω ν ) to Egypt to translate the Bible from
H e b r e w into Greek. T o m s o n ("The N a m e s Israel a n d Jew," 128 a n d 137) makes t h e
i m a g i n a t i v e — t h o u g h u n p r o v a b l e — s u g g e s t i o n that Philo may u s e "Hebrews" n o t only
for H e b r e w speakers but also for Hebrew readers, i.e., those Jews w h o read the Bible
in H e b r e w rather than in Greek.
5 4
Mos. 1.285 a n d 289 refer to the Hebrew host (ή Ε β ρ α ϊ κ ή στρατιά, στρατιά Ε β ρ α ί ω ν )
in the e p i s o d e with Balaam a n d Balak. This expression d o e s n o t appear in the corre
s p o n d i n g Scriptural passages. For Mos. 1.289, e.g., see below, n. 6 5 .
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 47
In QG, t h e w o r d a p p e a r s p r e d o m i n a n t l y in e t y m o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s to
55
d e n o t e H e b r e w s p e a k e r s . QE, in w h i c h P h i l o interprets verses a b o u t t h e
Biblical n a t i o n , has very few o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e w o r d "Hebrew" t o d e n o t e
t h e n a t i o n a n d n o o c c u r r e n c e t o d e n o t e s p e a k e r s o f t h e H e b r e w lan
5 6
g u a g e . O n e passage, w h i c h has a parallel G r e e k f r a g m e n t , m e n t i o n s t h e
H e b r e w race (τό Έ β ρ α ΐ ο ν γένος, QE 2.2, d i s c u s s e d later in t h e c h a p t e r ) .
I n s t e a d o f u s i n g t h e p r o p e r n o u n "Hebrew," Q G E o f t e n s p e a k s o f t h e
57
Biblical n a t i o n as "they," "the nation," o r "the p e o p l e . "
Excursus: Χ α λ δ α ΐ ο ς (Chaldean)
In t h e E x p o s i t i o n a n d Q G E , P h i l o o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e s " C h a l d e a n " ( Χ α λ
δ α ΐ ο ς ) o r f o r m s o f this w o r d as a s y n o n y m for "Hebrew," g e n e r a l l y t o
5 8
m e a n speakers o f t h e H e b r e w l a n g u a g e a n d o n c e to d e n o t e H e b r e w race
5 9
o r d e s c e n t . "Chaldean" is n e v e r u s e d as a s y n o n y m for "Hebrew" in t h e
Allegory, however, in either sense. A different association with the
C h a l d e a n s as astrologers w h o s e l a n d A b r a h a m leaves a p p e a r s t h r o u g h o u t
60
all t h e e x e g e t i c a l w r i t i n g s .
Ισραήλ (Israel)
Especially i n t e r e s t i n g is P h i l o ' s use or n o n - u s e o f t h e w o r d "Israel," b o t h
w i t h r e g a r d t o w h e r e h e u s e s ( o r d o e s n o t u s e ) t h e t e r m a n d w h a t it
5 5
See, e.g., QG1.13; QG2A5, QG4.97, 102, 1 2 2 , 1 4 7 , 163, 191, 245.
5 6
T h e English translation, for e x a m p l e , has "Hebrew" in QE 1.7, 10; QE 2.2, 6. Only
the latter two passages have Greek fragments. T h e word "Hebrew" appears in the
Greek for QE 2.2, but n o t in QE 2.6. Petit (Quaestiones, ΟΡΑ, 33:243) n o t e s that the
Armenian text of QE 2.6 is obscure and differs from the Greek.
5 7
QG 3.18, 38, 49 (here Philo gives the n a m e of the nation as "Israel"; see below, n.
67); QG 4.153, 200; QE1.2, 4, 9, 10; QE2.22, 30, 31, 35, 49. Of these passages, only Q G 3 . 1 8
a n d QG 4 . 1 5 3 have parallel Greek fragments. For a discussion o f QG 3.18, see the
section below o n QGE u n d e r "Common Nouns." QG 4.153 uses the word γένος for the
p e o p l e in s p e a k i n g a b o u t A b r a h a m ( t h o u g h n o t by n a m e ) as "the o r i g i n a n d
forefather o f the race" (αρχή και προπάτωρ γένους).
5 8
Abr. 8, 12; Mos. 2.40 (2); Praem. 14, 23, 31; QG 2.43; QG 3.38, 43, 49; QG 4.1, 17, 97,
147, 239; QE 2.68. S e e also the following passages in w h i c h Χ α λ δ α ϊ σ τ ί , in the
Chaldean language, is used to d e n o t e the Hebrew language: Abr. 99, 201; Mos. 2.224;
Praem. 44. Χ α λ δ α ϊ κ ό ς , Chaldean, refers to the Hebrew language in Mos. 2.26, 38, 40.
5 9
Mos. 2.5. Hypoth. 6.1 also speaks about an ancestor o f Chaldean descent, but this
may refer to Abraham w h o in fact was of Chaldean descent. See below, n. 97.
6 0
Gig. 62; Migr. 178, 187; Her. 9 6 - 9 7 , 277; Congr. 50; Somn. 1.52, 53; Abr. 67, 69, 72, 188;
QG 3.1; QG 4.88. S e e also the following passages in w h i c h χ α λ δ α ι ζ ω , to follow
Chaldean beliefs, appears: Migr. 184; Her. 99; Mut. 16; Somn. 1.161; Abr. 70, 77 ( 2 ) . In
the following passages, Χ α λ δ α ϊ κ ό ς , Chaldean, refers to Chaldean beliefs: Ebr. 94; Migr.
177, 184; Her. 97, 280, 289; Congr. 49; Mut. 16; Abr. 7 1 , 82; Mos. 1.23, Praem. 58. For a
s o m e w h a t different classification o f Philo's usage, see C. K. W o n g , "Philo's U s e o f
Chaldaioi," SPhA 4 (1992): 1-14.
48 CHAPTER ONE
r e p r e s e n t s . In c o n t r a s t to t h e Allegory, in w h i c h it a p p e a r s o v e r s e v e n t y
t i m e s — b o t h in Biblical quotations and in the c o m m e n t a r y — i n the
6 1
E x p o s i t i o n , "Israel" a p p e a r s o n l y twice, in t h e c o m m e n t a r y . Similarly,
62
Q G E h a s very few d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s t o "Israel." I n s t e a d , h e r e , P h i l o
f r e q u e n d y substitutes for "Israel" t h e periphrastic d e s i g n a t i o n "the race o r
class that c a n s e e " (τό όρατικόν γ έ ν ο ς ) , b o t h in Biblical q u o t a t i o n s a n d in
t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . W i t h o u t t h e Greek text o f Q G E , h o w e v e r , it is difficult
to assess t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e i t h e r t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f t h e actual
w o r d in this series.
T h e r e s t r i c t e d u s e o f "Israel" in t h e E x p o s i t i o n is e s p e c i a l l y striking
w h e n o n e l o o k s at t h e two treatises o n Moses, for t h e r e , m o r e t h a n in any
o t h e r work, P h i l o r e c o u n t s o n a literal level t h e Biblical narrative o f t h e
n a t i o n c a l l e d "Israel." T h e Scriptural a c c o u n t u s e s "Hebrews" a l o n g w i t h
"sons o f Israel" ( o r s o m e slight variation o f this e x p r e s s i o n ) w h i l e t h e
n a t i o n is still in Egypt, t h r o u g h E x o d u s 10. After E x o d u s 10, t h e Biblical
narrative b e g i n s t o r e f e r t o t h e p e o p l e r e g u l a r l y as "sons o f Israel."
6 3
"Hebrew" a p p e a r s o n l y twice later in t h e P e n t a t e u c h . In Mos. 1 - 2 , h o w
ever, e v e n after narrating t h e e x o d u s f r o m Egypt, P h i l o consistently refers
to t h e n a t i o n as t h e H e b r e w s , o r simply as t h e n a t i o n (τό έ θ ν ο ς ) o r t h e
p e o p l e (ό λ α ό ς ) . T h e w o r d "Israel" n e v e r a p p e a r s in t h e s e two treatises.
P h i l o ' s m e n t i o n o f "Hebrews" t h r o u g h o u t this paraphrase, t h e n , g o e s well
b e y o n d t h e Biblical u s a g e .
P h i l o ' s n o n - u s e o f "Israel" h e r e t o d e n o t e t h e actual Biblical p e o p l e
s e e m s t o b e a p u r p o s e f u l avoidance. O n e c a n n o t argue that h e simply u s e s
"Hebrews" i n s t e a d o f "Israel" to b e c o n s i s t e n t , s i n c e h e o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e s
o t h e r n a m e s as s y n o n y m s for t h e Biblical p e o p l e , s u c h as " C h a l d e a n "
64
a n d " J e w . " A l s o , w e h a v e s e e n that P h i l o c a n u s e o n e w o r d , like
"Hebrew" o r "Chaldean," in m o r e t h a n o n e way.
T h e Mos. 1 r e n d i t i o n s o f Balaam's p r o p h e c i e s in N u m . 23:7, 2 3 : 2 1 , a n d
24:5 p r o v i d e striking e x a m p l e s o f P h i l o ' s c h o i c e o f terms. In N u m . 23:7,
Balaam tells h o w Balak b r o u g h t h i m to curse t h e p e o p l e :
6 1
Philo's n u m e r o u s references to "Israel" in the Allegory are discussed extensively
in the n e x t chapter. T h e two Exposition references are Abr. 57 and Praem. 44.
6 2
QG 3.49; QG 4.233; QE 2.30, 37. In QG 3.49 and QG 4.233, Philo m e n t i o n s the word
in an interpretation. In QE 2.30, h e m e n t i o n s "Israel" in a paraphrase of Exod. 24:4;
in QE 2.37, h e m e n t i o n s it in a quotation of Exod. 24:10.
6 3
E x o d . 21:2 a n d Deut. 15:12. T h e Bible frequently uses "Hebrews" w h e n speaking
a b o u t Israel in relation to o t h e r p e o p l e s . S e e A n s o n F. Rainey, "Hebrews," Harper's
Bible Dictionary, e d . Paul J. A c h t e m e i e r (San Francisco: Harper 8c Row, 1 9 8 5 ) , 379. Cf.
T o m s o n , "The N a m e s Israel and Jew," 128.
6 4
Chaldean: Mos. 1.5; Jew. Mos. 1.34, Mos. 2.193.
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 49
From M e s o p o t a m i a Balak s u m m o n e d m e ,
the king of Moab o u t of the mountains of the east,
'Come, curse Jacob for m e ,
a n d c o m e , call down curses for m e u p o n Israel.' (my translation)
6 5
N u m . 23:21: "There shall n o t b e trouble in Jacob, n o r will hardship be s e e n in
Israel" (my translation). Cf. Mos. 1.284: "There shall be n o trouble or labour a m o n g
the Hebrews."
N u m . 24:5: "How fair are your tents, Ο Jacob, Your e n c a m p m e n t s , Ο Israel!" Cf.
Mos. 1.289: "How goodly are thy dwellings, thou host of the Hebrews!"
6 6
See above, n. 62.
6 7
In Her. 279, Abr. 57, and QG 3.49, Philo writes that "Israel" is the name o f the
50 CHAPTER ONE
Common Nouns
I n contrast, i n t h e E x p o s i t i o n , P h i l o regularly u s e s λ α ό ς ( p e o p l e ) a n d
έθνος ( n a t i o n ) t o indicate t h e real n a t i o n . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r t o d e s c r i b e
t h e n a t i o n as a social o r political entity; n e i t h e r w o r d specifically d e l i m i t s
it as a g r o u p w i t h c o m m o n origins. As a rule, λ α ό ς d e n o t e s t h e a n c i e n t
72
Hebrews rather than Philo's Jewish c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . O f the d o z e n or so
a p p e a r a n c e s o f λ α ό ς i n t h e E x p o s i t i o n , o n l y two are e x p l a i n e d symboli
7 3
cally.
P h i l o u s e s έ θ ν ο ς m o r e frequently t h a n λ α ό ς , w h e t h e r h e is s p e a k i n g o f
t h e Biblical p e o p l e or his Jewish c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e P e n t a t e u c h
p r e f e r s λ α ό ς t o έ θ ν ο ς for t h e a n c i e n t H e b r e w s , P h i l o u s e s b o t h w o r d s
i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y t o refer t o t h e m . For t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y n a t i o n , h o w e v e r
— w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f Spec. 2 . 1 4 5 — h e g e n e r a l l y u s e s έ θ ν ο ς i n s t e a d o f
λ α ό ς . I n fact, P h i l o ' s usual way o f s p e a k i n g a b o u t e i t h e r t h e H e b r e w s o r
t h e J e w s — t h a t is, t h e historical o r t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p e o p l e — i s simply t o
call t h e m "the n a t i o n " (τό έ θ ν ο ς ) . T h e t e r m έ θ ν ο ς is n e v e r a l l e g o r i z e d in
the Exposition.
πολιτεία (Polity)
In b o t h t h e Allegory a n d t h e E x p o s i t i o n , t h e w o r d π ο λ ι τ ε ί α has a r a n g e o f
m e a n i n g s . It c a n d e n o t e a c o n s t i t u t i o n o f laws, a f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t ,
political life in g e n e r a l , t h e political life o f a specific c o m m u n i t y , citizen
ship, o r t h e p e o p l e w h o live u n d e r a c o m m o n f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t . T o b e
7 4
sure, o c c a s i o n a l l y m o r e t h a n o n e m e a n i n g may o b t a i n .
O f t h e two d o z e n o c c u r r e n c e s o f π ο λ ι τ ε ί α in t h e A l l e g o r y , t h r e e
p a s s a g e s specifically m e n t i o n t h e π ο λ ι τ ε ί α o f M o s e s , n o t i n g that h e h a s
b a n i s h e d f r o m h i s π ο λ ι τ ε ί α painters, sculptors, a n d their i d o l a t r o u s crafts.
In t h e s e passages, π ο λ ι τ ε ί α twice refers to Moses's legislation (Gig. 5 9 , Her.
169) a n d o n c e (Ebr. 109) to the c o m m u n i t y o f p e o p l e w h o live a c c o r d i n g t o
this l e g i s l a t i o n . T h i s last r e f e r e n c e , h o w e v e r , is v a g u e a n d d o e s n o t
necessarily i n d i c a t e a particular social g r o u p .
7 2
Spec. 2.145 is an exception where λ α ό ς refers to the contemporary nation.
7 3
Virt. 184 and Praem. 123. For discussion of these passages, see Chapter Four.
7 4
S e e , e.g., Aryeh Kasher, "The T e r m Politeia in Philo a n d J o s e p h u s , " The Jews in
Hellenistic and Roman Egypt: The Struggle for Equal Rights, Texte u n d Studien zum Antiken
J u d e n t u m , e d . Martin H e n g e l and Peter Schafer (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Sie-
b e c k ] , 1 9 8 5 ) , 3 5 8 - 6 4 . For varied uses of π ο λ ι τ ε ί α and other related words, see also
H e r m a n n Strathmann, "πόλις, κτλ," TDNT, 6:516-35; Harold W. Attridge, The Interpre
tation of Biblical History in the A n t i q u i t a t e s J u d a i c a e of Flavins Josephus, Harvard
T h e o l o g i c a l Review; Harvard Dissertations in Religion, n o . 7, ed. Caroline B y n u m
a n d G e o r g e R u p p (Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1 9 7 6 ) , 6 2 - 6 3 ; S m a l l w o o d ,
Philonis Alexandrini, 3 - 4 . Philo uses π ο λ ι τ ε ί α figuratively in the Allegory passages Gig.
61, Conf 108, and Somn. 1.78.
52 CHAPTER ONE
In t h e E x p o s i t i o n , P h i l o speaks m o r e frequently a b o u t t h e π ο λ ι τ ε ί α o f
M o s e s , b o t h as a f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d as a s p e c i f i c c o m m u n i t y o f
75
p e o p l e w h o live a c c o r d i n g t o this f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t . In contrast t o t h e
A l l e g o r y , i n w h i c h this c o m m u n i t y is o n l y a v a g u e r e f e r e n c e , w e c a n
tell f r o m t h e c o n t e x t i n t h e E x p o s i t i o n that P h i l o h a s i n m i n d t h e Jews.
I n d e e d , i n Virt. 1 0 8 , h e specifically calls t h e m t h e polity o f t h e J e w s (ή
Ιουδαίων πολιτεία).
7 5
Mos. 2.211; Decal. 98; Spec. 1.60, 6 3 , 314, 319; Spec. 2.123; Spec. 3.24, 5 1 ; Spec. 4.55,
100, 105; Virt. 87, 127, 175.
7 6
Cf. class or kind ( γ έ ν ο ς ) o f Magi, Spec. 3.100; o f f i s h , Opif. 6 3 , 65; Mos. 1.100; o f
birds, Opif. 63; o f living creatures, Opif. 64; of grasshoppers, Opif. 163; o f trees, Praem.
141; e t a l .
7 7
Poets: Opif. 133, 157; Sacr. 78; Agr. 4 1 ; Ios. 2; Spec. 2.164. Sophists: Opif. 157. Prophets:
Her. 249, 265; Migr. 84; Fug. 147; Mut. 110, 120. In s o m e of these passages, γένος m a y
also m e a n nature or kind, in an abstract sense, rather than class of p e o p l e .
7 8
Conf. 70: the body-loving race of the Egyptians (τό φιλοσώματον γένος των Αιγυπτίων);
Ios. 56: the Greek a n d barbarian race (τό τε Έλληνικόν και βαρβαρικόν γένος).
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 53
7 9
Her. 278, Fug. 73, Mut. 88, Somn. 1.159, Ios. 42, Mos. 1.324, Spec. 2.217, Virt. 206; see
also n. 8 4 below. In Migr. 20, Philo speaks of Moses as a single offspring o f the
Hebrews (γένος Ε β ρ α ί ω ν ) .
8 0
Family or clan: Det. 25; Post. 109; Fug. 107, 114; Mut. 117; Abr. 50; Ios. 233; Mos. 1.302,
304; Mos. 2.8, 142, 245; Decal. 130; Spec. 1.118; Spec. 2.111, 129; Spec. 3.157; Virt. 191, 193,
197.
Line of descent. Her. 6 1 , 82; Somn. 2.16; Mos. 1.147; Mos. 2.289; Spec. 1.110; Spec. 3.21;
Spec. 4.192, 206; Virt. 60.
Single offspring. Migr. 20, Congr. 132, Virt. 212.
Kinship: Det. 99; Somn. 1.166; Spec. 2.237, 239; Spec. 3.11, 162; Virt. 225.
Birth or common origin: Congr. 41; Abr. 211; Mos. 1.5; Mos. 2.8; Decal. 71; Spec. 1.160;
Spec. 2.95, 114; Spec. 3.27, 113 (second appearance of γένος), 165, 192; Spec. 4.18; Virt. 123,
132,199.
8 1
In n. 80, of the fifty-six passages in which γένος d e n o t e s descent, only thirteen are
from the Allegory. T h e rest are from the Exposition.
54 CHAPTER ONE
8 2
Conf. 56) , t h e best (άριστον, Congr. 5 1 ) , t h e self-controlled a n d G o d - b e l o v e d
(εγκρατές κ α ι θεοφιλές, Her. 2 0 3 ; cf. Migr. 114, 1 5 8 ) , a n d t h e r a c e / c l a s s o f
8 3
w i s d o m (τό σ ο φ ί α ς γ έ ν ο ς , Migr. 1 2 5 , Somn. 1 . 1 7 5 ) . I n s o m e o f t h e s e
interpretations, γ έ ν ο ς may n o l o n g e r d e n o t e a class o f p e o p l e b u t instead a n
abstract n a t u r e o r k i n d . A l m o s t all o f t h e s e e x a m p l e s o c c u r i n t h e A l l e
8 4
gory, in w h i c h P h i l o usually u s e s γ έ ν ο ς t o m e a n class a n d rarely o r i g i n .
M o r e o v e r , w h e n h e clearly s p e a k s o f g r o u p s w i t h c o m m o n d e s c e n t , h e
85
generally uses γ έ ν ο ς without an adjective. Nevertheless for now, we
c a n n o t rule o u t t h e s e n s e o f t h e γένος "Israel" as a race u n i t e d by c o m m o n
descent.
QGE
8 2
QGE also has several references to the Biblical p e o p l e as c h o s e n or as the "chosen
race": QG 2.65; QG 3.49; QE 2.38, 4 2 , 4 3 , 46. Of these passages, "Israel" is m e n t i o n e d by
n a m e only in QG 3.49. In s o m e cases, it is difficult to ascertain w h e t h e r o r n o t Philo
is talking a b o u t the real Biblical nation. For further discussion o f these passages, see
Chapters T h r e e a n d Four.
8 3
This reference d o e s n o t m e n t i o n "Israel" explicitly by n a m e b u t refers to Jacob's
descendants.
8 4
T w o passages in the Exposition w h i c h use γ έ ν ο ς with adjectives are Mos. 2.189,
which speaks o f "the race/class that worships Him" (τό θεραπευτικόν αύτοΰ γένος) a n d
Mos. 2.196, w h i c h m e n t i o n s "the s e e i n g a n d knowing r a c e / c l a s s " (τό όρατικόν και
έπιστημονικόν γένος). T h e s e expressions clearly refer to the actual Biblical nation, but
"Israel" is n e v e r m e n t i o n e d by n a m e in this treatise. Strictly s p e a k i n g , t h e n , w e
c a n n o t say that these expressions describe "Israel."
8 5
E x c e p t i o n s i n c l u d e Conf. 7 0 , in w h i c h h e m e n t i o n s the body-loving race o f t h e
Egyptians (see above, n. 7 8 ) ; Her. 82: γένος τό ίερωμένον, the consecrated line; Virt. 197:
λ α μ π ρ ά γένη, illustrious lineages; a n d Virt. 199: γένος έξαίρετον, extraordinary origin.
W h e n Philo speaks about the priestly (Ιερατικόν) γένος in Spec. 1.243, the word γ έ ν ο ς
may m e a n either class or family, t h o u g h family is m o r e likely. Cf. Spec. 1.111, in
w h i c h γ ε ν ε ά Ιερατική is clearly "priestly family."
8 6
Petit, Quaestiones, ΟΡΑ, 33:131.
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 55
Philo's Discussion of "Israel" and the Jews in the Exegetical Works: Summary and
Conclusions
8 7
See above, n. 57.
8 8
Passages in w h i c h r e f e r e n c e to the n a t i o n is i n c l u d e d in a "literal" interpreta
tion: QG 3.18; QG 4.153, 200; QE 1.2, 4; QE 2.31. Passages that d o n o t describe the
interpretation in w h i c h reference to the nation is made: QG 3.38, 49; QE 1.9, 10; QE
2.22, 35, 49.
8 9
A p e r i p h r a s i s — m o s t likely όρατικόν γένος ( r a c e / c l a s s that can s e e ) — o c c u r s in
Philo's commentary, n o t the Biblical citation, in QE 1.21; QE 2.42, 43, 46, 76. Only QE
2.46 exists (in part) in the Greek, but this fragment attests to Philo's use o f the phrase
όρατικόν γένος. QE 1.12 may have the adjective, όρατικός (able to s e e ) , a l o n e — t h a t is,
w i t h o u t γ έ ν ο ς — a s a substantive. QE 2.38 substitutes "the c h o s e n s e e i n g o n e s " for
"Israel" in the Biblical quotation of Exod. 24:11, and QE 2.47 substitutes "the s e e i n g
o n e " for "Israel" in the Biblical quotation of Exod. 24:17.
56 CHAPTER ONE
9 0
P h i l o may also c o m m e n t o n the distinction b e t w e e n p e o p l e ( λ α ό ς ) a n d n a t i o n
( έ θ ν ο ς ) in QG 4.157, w h i c h interprets G e n . 25:23, the p r o p h e c y to Rebecca: "Two
n a t i o n s ( ε θ ν η ) are in thy w o m b , and two p e o p l e s ( λ α ο ί ) will be separated from thy
womb." Unfortunately, the m e a n i n g o f the interpretation is obscure.
9 1
See, e.g., Congr. 3 4 - 3 8 , Mut. 88, Abr. 5 2 - 5 5 , Praem. 2 4 - 2 7 , et al.
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 57
9 2
T h o m a s H. T o b i n discusses the philosophical n u a n c e s in Philo's use o f the w o r d
γένος in The Creation of Man, 1 1 3 - 1 9 .
9 3
Cf. Con}. 192.
9 4
Cf. Leg. 1.22-23, Leg. 2.13, Cher. 5 - 7 , Mut. 7 8 - 8 0 , Her. 118, QG3.53.
58 CHAPTER ONE
9 5
Occasionally Philo m e n t i o n s the legislation or the lawgiver of the Jews w h e n h e
wishes to bring in a Biblical interpretation to buttress a philosophical p o i n t (Prob. 29,
43, 57, 68; Aet. 19). H e also speaks of the Essenes as b e l o n g i n g to the p o p u l o u s Jewish
nation (Prob. 75).
"ISRAEL" AND THE JEWS 59
96
t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in A l e x a n d r i a . In a few cases in Legat., P h i l o also
refers to t h e Jewish race (τό Ι ο υ δ α ί ω ν γένος, 178, 346; τό Ί ο υ δ α ϊ κ ό ν γένος,
2 0 1 ) . T h i s d e s i g n a t i o n s e e m s to e n c o m p a s s all Jews e v e r y w h e r e — w h e t h
er by birth o r c h o i c e — r a t h e r t h a n j u s t t h e A l e x a n d r i a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e
c o m b i n a t i o n o f γ έ ν ο ς specifically w i t h t h e w o r d s "Jews" o r "Jewish"
a p p e a r s o n l y h e r e a m o n g P h i l o ' s works. In g e n e r a l , t h e n o n - e x e g e t i c a l
works d o n o t reveal any n e w a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e w o r d γ έ ν ο ς . As in t h e
Biblical c o m m e n t a r i e s , h e r e t o o γ έ ν ο ς refers to race, family, k i n s h i p , o r
class. T h e n o n - e x e g e t i c a l treatises d o n o t u s e γ έ ν ο ς in t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l
s e n s e at all.
Finally, in Flacc. a n d Legat., P h i l o also uses the w o r d π ο λ ι τ ε ί α (polity) in
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e Jews, referring explicitly to t h e polity o f t h e J e w s (ή
π ο λ ι τ ε ί α ή Ι ο υ δ α ί ω ν ) in Legat. 194. In these treatises, h e appears to apply t h e
t e r m m o r e b r o a d l y w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e J e w s t h a n h e d o e s in t h e
E x p o s i t i o n . In t h e E x p o s i t i o n , w h e n P h i l o d e s c r i b e s t h e J e w i s h c o m m u
nity as h a v i n g o r b e i n g a π ο λ ι τ ε ί α , h e s e e m s to associate t h e w o r d e i t h e r
with M o s e s ' s legislation o r with t h e p e o p l e living u n d e r this legislation. In
Flacc. a n d Legat., h o w e v e r , w h e n P h i l o uses π ο λ ι τ ε ί α to refer t o t h e J e w s
a n d t h e i r f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t , h e s e e m s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r f o r m o f
g o v e r n m e n t as i n c l u d i n g b o t h t h e i r ancestral c u s t o m s — p r e s u m a b l y e m
b o d i e d in M o s e s ' s legislation a n d in the interpretation o f this l e g i s l a t i o n —
a n d their c o n t e m p o r a r y political organization (see, e.g., Flacc. 5 3 ) .
P h i l o also speaks a b o u t t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y n a t i o n in Hypoth. 7 . 1 - 2 0 , in
w h i c h h e d e s c r i b e s its laws a n d c u s t o m s . In this treatise, h e s e e m s to h a v e
in m i n d the w h o l e p e o p l e , n o t just the Alexandrian c o m m u n i t y .
A l t h o u g h h e refers to t h e m o n c e as the n a t i o n , (τό έθνος, Hypoth. 6 . 1 ) , in
g e n e r a l , h e talks a b o u t t h e Jews o f his day with a third p e r s o n p r o n o u n
(αυτοί, ε κ ε ί ν ο ι ) , w i t h o u t any p r o p e r or c o m m o n n o u n s .
9 6
In contrast, w h e n Philo speaks of the Jews in the Exposition, h e s e e m s to m e a n
the entire p e o p l e rather than just the Alexandrian community.
60 CHAPTER ONE
Israel
9 7
In a n o t e to the passage in LCL, F. H. Colson identifies this ancestor as J a c o b and
d e f e n d s Philo's use o f "Chaldean" by m e n t i o n i n g Mos. 1.5, in which h e calls Moses a
C h a l d e a n . T h e d e s c r i p t i o n in Hypoth., however, can also suit A b r a h a m a n d may
m a k e m o r e s e n s e if taken this way since Abraham was from C h a l d e a , a n d P h i l o
usually m e n t i o n s h i m as the p r o m i n e n t ancestor (Her. 278, Virt. 212) but d o e s n o t
single o u t J a c o b in this way. Like J a c o b , Abraham also w e n t d o w n to Egypt a n d
p r o s p e r e d greatly ( G e n e s i s 1 2 - 1 3 ) . O n the o t h e r h a n d , the c h i e f p r o b l e m in
associating this ancestor with Abraham instead o f with J a c o b is that P h i l o i m p l i e s
that the nation had a c o n t i n u o u s presence in Egypt from his time until the Exodus, a
description that d o e s n o t apply in Abraham's case.
CHAPTER TWO
1
For the extant Greek works (fragments are n o t i n c l u d e d ) , see u n d e r " Ι σ ρ α ή λ " in
Mayer, Index Philoneus, 150. "Israel" appears in the English translation of QGE in QG
3.49, QG 4.233, and QE 2.S0 and 37.
62 CHAPTER TWO
Methodological Considerations
2
T w o e x a m p l e s are Sacr. 118 and Somn. 1.171-72. Sacr. 118 q u o t e s N u m . 3 : 1 2 - 1 3 ,
w h i c h m e n t i o n s "Israel" three times. In his interpretation (in the first part o f Sacr.
1 1 9 ) , however, Philo understands all three references to "Israel" in the same way,
namely, as the soul. Sacr. 118, t h e n , contributes three citations to Category Β —
r e f e r e n c e s that are i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h o u t m e n t i o n o f s e e i n g — b u t the n u m b e r s are
misleading, since all three terms are collectively given only o n e interpretation. ( O n
this passage, see also below, n. 4.) Similarly, in Somn. 1.171-72, "Israel" is m e n t i o n e d
three t i m e s — o n c e in the Biblical verse ( G e n . 46:1) a n d twice in Philo's c o m m e n
tary—but the term is given only o n e interpretation. Because this e x e g e s i s d e p e n d s
u p o n the etymology, these three references are assigned to Category C.
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 63
p a s s a g e s . ) W h e n o n e B i b l i c a l r e f e r e n c e t o "Israel" s p a w n s s e v e r a l i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n s o r a s s o c i a t i o n s , at least o n e o f w h i c h i n c l u d e s o r is b a s e d u p o n
t h e e t y m o l o g y , t h a t r e f e r e n c e is a s s i g n e d t o C a t e g o r y C, "the s e e r s , " e v e n
t h o u g h t h e p a s s a g e m a y i n c l u d e o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s that d o n o t m e n t i o n
either the etymology or seeing in general. T h e s e other associations are
3
cited in the n o t e s . W h e n e v e r "Israel" is m e n t i o n e d e x p l i c i t l y i n a s e p a
4
rate i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h i n a c h a i n , this c i t a t i o n is classified s e p a r a t e l y .
Finally, w h e r e it is d i f f i c u l t to determine whether or n o t Philo is
i n t e r p r e t i n g "Israel" i n t e n t i o n a l l y , I h a v e u s e d m y o w n j u d g m e n t about
5
h o w t o classify t h e r e f e r e n c e . I n two cases (Somn. 1.117 a n d Somn. 2 . 2 7 1 ) ,
t h e m e t a p h o r o f s e e i n g is p a r t o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , b u t it is u n c l e a r
w h e t h e r o r n o t "Israel" itself is m e a n t t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d . B e c a u s e these
interpretations may be related to the etymology—and therefore because
t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f "Israel" as t h e o n e t h a t s e e s G o d m a y b e signifi
c a n t — t h e s e passages are i n c l u d e d separately in Category D , t h e u n c l e a r
references.
3
E x a m p l e s o f passages i n Category C that have multiple interpretations, n o t all o f
which are based u p o n the etymology, are Post. 9 2 , Plant. 59, Ebr. 8 2 , Migr. 113, Fug. 2 0 8 ,
Somn. 1.114, a n d Somn. 2.280. In Post. 9 2 , "Israel" is the c h o s e n race/class (τό έπίλεκτον
γένος) a n d the o n e that sees G o d (ό όρων τον θεόν). In Plant. 5 9 , "Israel" is t h e c o m p a n y
o f wise souls that sees m o s t sharply (ψυχών σοφών ό θίασος, ό όξυωπέστατα ορών), t h e
character that can s e e H i m a n d is a g e n u i n e worshipper (ό όρατικός αύτοΰ και γνήσιος
θεραπευτής τρόπος), a n d virtue ( α ρ ε τ ή ) . Ebr. 8 2 associates "Israel" with eyes in contrast
to ears, d e e d s in contrast to words, a n d perfection in contrast to progress. In Migr. 1 1 3 ,
"Israel" is t h e seer (ό ορών) a n d the God-beloved race/class (γένος τό θεοφιλές). Fug. 2 0 8
describes "Israel" as t h e g e n u i n e a n d firstborn s o n (ό γνήσιος υιός κ α ι πρωτόγονος),
associates "Israel" with sight ( δ ρ α σ ι ς ) , a n d provides the etymology, ορών θεόν. Somn.
1.114 associates "Israel," t h e s e e i n g o n e (ό β λ έ π ω ν ) , with reason (ό λόγος). In Somn.
2.280, "Israel" is t h e όρατικόν γένος, the race/class that can see, and also virtue (αρετή).
4
"Israel" appears in separate interpretations in Sacr. 1 1 8 - 2 0 , Deus 1 4 4 - 4 5 , a n d Cow/.
9 2 - 9 3 . I have assigned sections o f these c o m p o u n d passages to separate categories o n
the basis o f w h e t h e r t h e interpretation o f "Israel" pertains to seeing or n o t .
5
E x a m p l e s w h i c h I have a s s i g n e d t o Category A, t h e u n i n t e r p r e t e d r e f e r e n c e s ,
i n c l u d e Leg. 3.214, Plant. 6 3 , Migr. 1 6 8 - 6 9 , a n d Congr. 86. In Leg. 3.214, t h e cry o f
"Israel" is i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e suppliant word (ό ικέτης λόγος). H e r e t h e e m p h a s i s is
u p o n t h e cry, a n d it seems incidental that t h e cry belongs to "Israel" p e r se. Plant. 6 3
i m p l i e s a literal interpretation o f "Israel" as t h e twelve tribes, b u t this is b e s i d e t h e
m a i n point. I n Migr. 1 6 8 - 6 9 , Exod. 24:1, which m e n t i o n s t h e seventy elders o f Israel,
is i n t e r p r e t e d as a n allegory o f t h e soul. H e r e again, m e n t i o n o f "Israel" s e e m s
incidental to t h e interpretation. In Congr. 8 6 , "Israel" may b e linked t o "our mortal
race" ( m e n t i o n e d i n Congr. 8 5 ) , but the correspondence is n o t certain.
E x a m p l e s w h i c h I have assigned to Category B, r e f e r e n c e s with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
u n r e l a t e d to t h e etymology, i n c l u d e Post. 158, Her. 124, a n d Somn. 1.89. In Post. 1 5 8 ,
"Israel" m a y b e c o n n e c t e d with t h e industrious soul (ψυχή α σ κ η τ ι κ ή ) ; in Her. 1 2 4 ,
"Israel" corresponds to m i n d ( δ ι ά ν ο ι α ) or perhaps t o soul (ψυχή, in 123); a n d in Somn.
1.89, "Israel" corresponds to m i n d (διάνοια, 9 1 ) .
64 CHAPTER TWO
Category A: U n i n t e r p r e t e d R e f e r e n c e s (15)
S i m p l e s t t o d e s c r i b e , p e r h a p s , are t h e r e f e r e n c e s i n w h i c h "Israel" re
6
m a i n s u n i n t e r p r e t e d . Typically in t h e s e instances, t h e t e r m a p p e a r s i n a
Biblical q u o t a t i o n a n d is e i t h e r i g n o r e d in o r r e m a i n s insignificant t o t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w h i c h f o c u s e s u p o n a n o t h e r issue in t h e Scriptural verse. In
t h r e e cases, P h i l o alludes to "Israel" outside o f a direct Scriptural q u o t a t i o n ,
o n c e in a paraphrase o f a verse {Leg. 3 . 1 1 , p a r a p h r a s i n g D e u t . 16:16—it is
c u r i o u s that in t h e Biblical verse "Israel" is n o t m e n t i o n e d ) a n d twice in
r e f e r e n c e s t o J a c o b ' s c h a n g e o f n a m e t o "Israel" {Leg. 3 . 1 5 , Mut. 8 3 ) . A s
with t h e o t h e r citations in this category, h e r e t o o P h i l o d o e s n o t i n t e r p r e t
the t e r m b u t c o n c e n t r a t e s instead u p o n a n o t h e r point.
6
Leg. 2.94; Leg. 3.11, 15, 133, 214; Det. 67; Plant. 63; Migr. 168; Her. 113, 117; Congr. 86;
Mut. 83; Somn. 1.62; Somn. 2.222; Q £ 2 . 3 7 .
7
Leg. 2.77; Sacr. 118 (3); Det. 94; Post. 54, 158; Deus 121, 145; Ebr. 77; Sobr. 19; Conf. 36,
93; Her. 124, 203 (here the word is Ισραηλιτικός, see below, n. 10); Somn. 1.89; Q E 2 . 3 0 .
8
ψ υ χ ή : Leg. 2.77; Sacr. 118; Det. 9 4 (suppliant souls, ψυχαι ίκέτιδαι); Post. 158 (indus
trious soul, ψυχή ασκητική); Deus 145 (the soul o f each of his [Moses's] disciples, ή
έκαστου ψυχή των γνωρίμων αύτοΰ).
9
δ ι ά ν ο ι α : Somn. 1.89; Her. 124 ("Israel" may also correspond to soul [ ψ υ χ ή ] in Her.
123); Her. 2 0 3 (thriving minds, διάνοιαι άρετώσαι).
1 0
Here reference is n o t to "Israel" but to the Israelite host (Ισραηλιτική στρατιά).
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 65
1 1
See n. 3.
1 2
T h e forty-nine passages i n c l u d e d in Category C are listed below. A g a i n , refer
e n c e s i n d i c a t e the passage in w h i c h "Israel" appears, a l t h o u g h the e x p r e s s i o n that
pertains to s e e i n g may occur in a nearby passage. N u m b e r s in p a r e n t h e s e s indicate
the n u m b e r o f times "Israel" occurs in the passage. Also, s o m e references are inter
p r e t e d with m o r e than o n e expression that pertains to seeing. T h e passages are as
follows: Leg. 2.34; Leg. 3.186 ( 2 ) , 212; Sacr. 119, 120, 134 (2); Post. 63, 89, 92; Deus 144;
Plant. 59; Ebr. 82 (2); Conf. 56, 72 (2), 92, 146, 148; Migr. 15, 39, 54, 113, 125, 2 0 1 , 224;
Her. 78, 279; Congr. 51; Fug. 208; Mut. 81 (2), 207; Somn. 1.114, 129, 171, 172 (2); Somn.
2.44, 172, 173, 280; Abr. 57; Praem. 44; Legat. 4; QG3.49; QG 4.233.
66 CHAPTER TWO
13
(άνθρωπος). A l t h o u g h he most often mentions the etymology explicitly,
h e s o m e t i m e s a l l u d e s t o it i n d i r e c t l y u s i n g o t h e r e x p r e s s i o n s t h a t p e r t a i n
t o s e e i n g , o t h e r o r a d d i t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n s for G o d , o r o t h e r o r a d d i t i o n a l
1 4
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e o b j e c t that is s e e n . Occasionally, Philo omits an object
a l t o g e t h e r , r e f e r r i n g t o "Israel," f o r e x a m p l e , simply as t h e s e e r ( ο ρ ώ ν o r
1 5
β λ έ π ω ν ) or the o n e that can see ( ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ς ) . Usually ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ς appears
t o g e t h e r w i t h a n o t h e r w o r d like γ έ ν ο ς (race/class), τρόπος (character),
δ ι ά ν ο ι α ( m i n d ) , or ν ο υ ς ( m i n d ) . I n s o m e p a s s a g e s a b o u t "Israel," P h i l o
d o e s n o t speak o f a subject that sees but instead m e n t i o n s sight (ορασις,
Conf. 7 2 ) ; t h e v i s i o n o f G o d ( δ ρ α σ ι ς θ ε ο ΰ , Ebr. 8 2 ) ; o r c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f t h e
o n l y wise o n e ( θ ε ω ρ ί α ή τ ο υ μ ο ν ο ΰ σ ο φ ο ΰ , Sacr. 1 1 9 - 2 0 ) .
C a t e g o r y D : T h e U n c l e a r R e f e r e n c e s (2)
T w o p a s s a g e s — S o m n . 1.117 a n d Somn. 2 . 2 7 1 — u s e t h e m e t a p h o r o f s e e i n g ,
b u t it is u n c l e a r h o w t h e m e t a p h o r is r e l a t e d t o "Israel." I n Somn. 1.117,
"Israel" serves as a n i m p l i e d c o n t r a s t t o "those w h o are b l i n d i n t h e e y e s
o f t h e s o u l r a t h e r t h a n o f t h e b o d y a n d d o n o t k n o w t h e rays o f v i r t u e "
1 3
T h e etymology occurs in relation to twenty-two appearances o f t h e term "Israel" in
the passages n o t e d below. N u m b e r s in p a r e n t h e s e s indicate t h e n u m b e r o f times
"Israel" appears in t h e passage. T h e passages are as follows: Leg. 3.186 ( 2 ) , 212; Sacr.
134 ( 2 ) ; Post. 6 3 , 8 9 , 92; Congr. 51; Conf. 56; Her. 78; Fug. 208; Mut. 8 1 ; Somn. 1.171, 172
(2); Somn. 2.172, 173; Abr. 57; Praem. 44; Legat. 4; QG 3.49 ( n o parallel Greek fragment
exists).
1 4
T h e m o s t f r e q u e n t alternative expressions that pertain to s e e i n g are m e n t i o n e d
immediately in t h e text a n d listed below in n. 15. Often an interpretation o f "Israel"
i n c l u d e s m a n y words related to s e e i n g . In Conf. 9 2 , for e x a m p l e , P h i l o describes
"Israel" as "the eye o f t h e soul, m o s t translucent, most pure, m o s t sharp-sighted o f all,
to w h i c h a l o n e it is p e r m i t t e d to b e h o l d G o d " (my translation). H e r e t h e w o r d s
c o n n e c t e d to s e e i n g include ο φ θ α λ μ ό ς (eye), όξυωπέστατος (most sharp-sighted), a n d
καθοράν (to b e h o l d ) . S o m e t i m e s , Philo gives "Israel" m o r e than o n e interpretation
related to seeing; see, e.g., Plant. 59, described above in n. 3.
E x a m p l e s o f o t h e r o r additional e x p r e s s i o n s for G o d or for t h e "object" s e e n
i n c l u d e t h e following: ό [ τ ό ] μ ό ν ο ς [ o v ] σοφός [ ό ν ] ( t h e only wise o n e , Sacr. 1 2 0 ) ;
άρχεγονώτατον ov ( t h e m o s t original being, Post. 6 3 ) ; φως τό θείον ( t h e divine light,
Migr. 3 9 ) ; ό [ τ ό ] ών [ o v ] ( t h e Existent, Migr. 54; cf. Mut. 8 1 , w h i c h clearly h a s t h e
masculine form); τά της φύσεως πράγματα (the things o f nature, Her. 279); τό άριστον, τό
Οντως δν ( t h e best, t h e truly Existent, Congr. 5 1 ) ; θεός τε και κόσμος ( G o d a n d t h e
universe, Somn. 2 . 1 7 2 - 7 3 ) ; ό πατήρ και ποιητής τών συμπάντων (the Father a n d Creator o f
all, Abr. 5 7 ) . (Translations are m i n e . W h e n t h e g e n d e r o f words c a n n o t b e deter
m i n e d b e c a u s e they appear in cases in w h i c h masculine a n d n e u t e r have t h e s a m e
e n d i n g s , I have p u t n e u t e r articles, forms, or e n d i n g s in brackets.)
1 5
όρων: Leg 2.34; Plant. 59; Conf. 146, 148; Migr. 39, 113, 125; Somn. 1.129; Somn. 2.44; QG
4 . 2 3 3 ( n o parallel Greek f r a g m e n t exists; t h e Latin translation a n d t h e F r e n c h ,
which is based o n the Latin, have "nature" as the object s e e n ) , βλέπων: Migr. 224, Somn.
1.114. όρατικόν γένος: Deus 144, Migr. 5 4 (has ό [τό] ών [ δ ν ] , the Existent, as the "object"
s e e n ) , Somn. 2.280. όρατικός τρόπος: Plant. 59. όρατική διάνοια: Migr. 15. όρατικός νους:
Mut. 207.
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 67
( m y t r a n s l a t i o n ) . P h i l o d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , say e x p l i c i t l y w h a t "Israel"
itself r e p r e s e n t s . In Somn. 2 . 2 7 1 , P h i l o s p e a k s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e w h i c h
w a t e r s "the r e a s o n i n g g r o u n d s in t h e s o u l s o f t h o s e w h o are f o n d o f
s e e i n g ( φ ι λ ο θ ε ά μ ο ν ε ς ) " (my translation). It is u n c l e a r , h o w e v e r , w h e t h e r
or n o t "Israel" c o r r e s p o n d s to "those w h o are f o n d o f seeing." S i n c e P h i l o ' s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f "Israel" r e m a i n a m b i g u o u s h e r e , I shall simply n o t e that
they may be c o n n e c t e d — a l b e i t indirectly—to the etymology.
P h i l o f r e q u e n t l y u s e s e x p r e s s i o n s p e r t a i n i n g to s e e i n g to r e p r e s e n t "Israel"
in passages w h e r e t h e w o r d "Israel" d o e s n o t a p p e a r explicitly. T h e e x p r e s
s i o n s h e u s e s m o s t o f t e n are ό [or τό ] ορών [ τ ο ν ] θ ε ό ν ( t h e o n e that s e e s
G o d ) , ό [or τ ό ] ό ρ ω ν ( t h e o n e that s e e s ) , a n d τό ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς ( t h e
r a c e / c l a s s that c a n s e e ) . T h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s may r e p l a c e "Israel" w i t h i n a
Biblical q u o t a t i o n o r else in a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in w h i c h "Israel" is clearly
u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e referent. In the n e x t chapter, w e shall e x a m i n e t h e s e
periphrastic e x p r e s s i o n s in m o r e detail.
For o u r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s , t h e s e periphrases are significant b e c a u s e they
f u r t h e r s u p p o r t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n that P h i l o m o s t f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r p r e t s
"Israel" w i t h d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e to t h e e t y m o l o g y όρων θ ε ό ν .
B e f o r e d e v o t i n g a t t e n t i o n , t h e n , to t h e s e specific e x p r e s s i o n s a n d to t h e
q u e s t i o n o f h o w P h i l o i d e n t i f i e s t h e s e "seers" with real p e o p l e , w e shall
first c o n s i d e r t h e s o u r c e s for his e t y m o l o g y , Philo's n o t i o n s a b o u t s e e i n g
God and the possible influences u p o n these notions, and Philo's
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e itself.
P h i l o ' s e t y m o l o g i e s h a v e i n fact b e e n u s e d t o b u t t r e s s b o t h s i d e s o f t h e
1 6
question of whether or not he knew Hebrew. It is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t
s o m e o f h i s e t y m o l o g i e s fit a n o r i g i n a l H e b r e w q u i t e c l o s e l y , w h i l e o t h e r s
1 7
do not. S o m e are b a s e d u p o n r e a d i n g s in t h e S e p t u a g i n t t h a t differ f r o m
t h e H e b r e w B i b l e , a n d s o m e are G r e e k e t y m o l o g i e s f o r Biblical t e r m s . O c
c a s i o n a l l y , t h o s e e t y m o l o g i e s w h i c h defy a c l o s e fit t o t h e H e b r e w h a v e
18
g i v e n rise t o s o m e i m a g i n a t i v e s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t p o s s i b l e d e r i v a t i o n s .
S c h o l a r s a l s o a g r e e t h a t P h i l o m a y h a v e d r a w n at l e a s t s o m e o f h i s
etymologies from outside sources. W e know of various o n o m a s t i c a from
1 9
antiquity, a n d h e c o u l d h a v e h a d o n e o r m o r e s u c h lists available t o h i m .
1 6
For a g o o d overview o f w h e t h e r or n o t Philo knew Hebrew, s e e Nikiprowetzky, Le
commentaire de VEcriture, 5 0 - 9 6 . Nikiprowetzky c o n c l u d e s that P h i l o d i d n o t k n o w
Hebrew. O t h e r scholars w h o agree are E d m u n d Stein, Die allegorische Exegese des Philos
aus Alexandreia, Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur d i e Alttestamendiche Wissenschaft, n o . 51
(Giessen: Alfred T o p e l m a n n , 1 9 2 9 ) , 2 0 - 2 6 ; Isaak H e i n e m a n n , Philons griechische und
judische Bildung: Kulturvergleichende Untersuchungen zu Philons Darstellung der judischen
Gesetze (Breslau: Marcus, 1 9 3 2 ; repr., H i l d e s h e i m : O l m s , 1 9 6 2 ) , 5 2 4 ; G o o d e n o u g h ,
Introduction to Philo Judaeus, 9; Sandmel, Philo's Place in Judaism, 1 1 - 1 3 , a n d i d e m ,
"Philo's K n o w l e d g e o f Hebrew," SP 5 ( 1 9 7 8 ) : 1 0 7 - 1 1 . A m o n g those w h o think Philo
d i d k n o w H e b r e w are Carl Siegfried, Philo von Alexandria als Ausleger des alien
Testaments: an sich selbst und nach seinem geschichtlichen Einfluss betrachtet (Jena: H e r m a n n
Dufift, 1875), 1 4 2 - 4 5 ; Samuel Belkin, Philo and the Oral Law, Harvard Semitic Series, vol.
11 ( C a m b r i d g e : Harvard University Press, 1 9 4 0 ) , 2 9 - 4 8 ; i d e m , "Interpretation o f
N a m e s in Philo," Horeb 12 ( 1 9 5 6 ) : 3 - 6 1 ( H e b r e w ) ; Suzanne Daniel, "La H a l a c h a d e
P h i l o n s e l o n le p r e m i e r livre d e s 'Lois Speciales,'" Philon d'Alexandrie, Colloques
N a t i o n a u x d u Centre National d e la R e c h e r c h e Scientifique (Paris: Centre National d e
la R e c h e r c h e Scientifique, 1967), 2 2 1 - 4 0 ; a n d Wolfson, Philo, 1:88-90.
O n this q u e s t i o n , s e e also Y e h o s h u a Amir, "Explanation o f H e b r e w N a m e s i n
Philo," Tarbitz 31 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 2 9 7 (Hebrew); H u g o D . Mantel, "Did Philo Know Hebrew?"
Tarbitz 3 2 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 9 8 - 9 9 ( H e b r e w ) ; a n d J e a n - G e o r g e Kahn, "Did P h i l o K n o w
Hebrew?" Tarbitz 3 4 (1965): 3 3 7 - 4 5 (Hebrew).
1 7
For a full-length work o n Philo's etymologies, s e e Lester L. Grabbe, Etymology in
Early Jewish Interpretation: The Hebrew Names in Philo, Brown Judaic Studies, e d . J a c o b
N e u s n e r e t al., n o . 115 (Adanta: Scholars Press, 1988). S e e also Goulet, La philosophie de
Motse, 4 6 - 5 2 , 5 8 - 6 2 . For different classifications o f Philo's e t y m o l o g i e s , s e e further:
Stein, Die allegorische Exegese, 5 0 - 6 1 ; Siegfried, Philo von Alexandria, 1 9 0 - 9 6 ; Jean-George
Kahn, e d . , De Confusione Linguarum, ΟΡΑ, 13:19-21; a n d A n t h o n y T. H a n s o n , "Philo's
Etymologies," JTS 18 (1967): 1 2 8 - 3 9 .
1 8
S e e especially H a n s o n , "Philo's Etymologies," a n d Nikiprowetzky's discussion o f
this topic in Le commentaire de VEcriture, 7 5 - 8 1 .
1 9
Grabbe, Etymology in Early Jewish Interpretation, 1 0 2 - 1 1 ; David R o k e a h , "A N e w
O n o m a s t i c o n Fragment from Oxyrhynchus a n d Philo's Etymologies," JTS 19 ( 1 9 6 8 ) :
7 0 - 8 2 . R o k e a h lists various e d i t i o n s o f Greek onomastica, 7 1 , n. 6. S e e also A d o l f
D e i s s m a n n , Veroffentlichungen aus der Heidelberger Papyrus-Sammlung ( H e i d e l b e r g : Carl
Winter, 1 9 0 5 ) , Papyrology o n Microfiche, ser. 2, vol. 31 (Missoula, Montana: Scholars
Press, n . d . ) , 1:86-93. D e i s s m a n n believes Philo himself may have a u t h o r e d such a
list. In contrast, S a n d m e l writes, "Philo says plainly o n m a n y o c c a s i o n s that t h e
etymologies are n o t his o w n , b u t that h e has heard them" (Philo's Place in Judaism, 1 2 ) .
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 69
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s i n c e t h e e v i d e n c e d a t e s f r o m after P h i l o ' s t i m e , h i s
r e l i a n c e o n s u c h lists c a n o n l y b e h y p o t h e s i z e d .
W h i l e m o s t s c h o l a r s g e n e r a l l y c o n c u r that P h i l o u s e d o u t s i d e s o u r c e s ,
they d o n o t a g r e e u p o n w h i c h e t y m o l o g i e s h e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s e s o u r c e s
a n d w h i c h h e i n v e n t e d himself. S i n c e t h e e t y m o l o g i c a l lists w h i c h m a y
h a v e b e e n available t o P h i l o are n o l o n g e r available t o u s , h o w e v e r , it
b e c o m e s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e , w i t h o u t p r e j u d g i n g t h e issue, w h i c h o f
h i s e t y m o l o g i e s are o r i g i n a l a n d w h i c h are d e r i v e d . M o r e o v e r , s i n c e
e v e n t h e o n o m a s t i c a i n c l u d e e t y m o l o g i e s w h i c h r a n g e in t h e i r fit t o a n
o r i g i n a l H e b r e w , t h e e t y m o l o g i e s a l o n e — b e t h e y original o r b o r r o w e d —
d o n o t provide sufficient evidence to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r or n o t Philo
2 0
knew H e b r e w .
A s i d e f r o m t h e p r o b l e m o f w h i c h e t y m o l o g i e s are P h i l o n i c a n d w h i c h
are p r e - P h i l o n i c , t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f e t y m o l o g i e s a c c o r d i n g to their p r e c i s e
fit t o an original H e b r e w deserves s o m e a t t e n t i o n . T h e e t y m o l o g i e s in t h e
Bible itself d o n o t always precisely fit t h e words they are m e a n t to e x p l a i n ,
2 1
yet n o o n e q u e s t i o n s t h e H e b r e w l a n g u a g e skills o f t h e i r s o u r c e . T h e
p u r p o s e o f Biblical e t y m o l o g i e s s e e m s to b e e t i o l o g i c a l , e x p l a i n i n g after-
the-fact h o w p e o p l e a n d p l a c e s a c q u i r e d their n a m e s . T h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s
d o n o t answer q u e s t i o n s a b o u t p h i l o l o g y b u t rather q u e s t i o n s a b o u t w h y
p e o p l e o r p l a c e s are called what they are.
Later i n t e r p r e t e r s o f t h e Bible frequently i n v e n t their o w n n e w e t y m o l
o g i e s f o r B i b l i c a l t e r m s . In s o d o i n g , t h e s e i n t e r p r e t e r s are trying t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e text f r o m the perspective o f their o w n time a n d p l a c e . T h e
Rabbis, for e x a m p l e , d o n o t hesitate t o u s e their i m a g i n a t i o n s to create n e w
e t y m o l o g i e s , a n d t h e i r c r e a t i o n s reflect a p l a y f u l n e s s w i t h t h e H e b r e w
22
l a n g u a g e r a t h e r t h a n a p r e c i s e f i t . By d e v e l o p i n g n e w e t y m o l o g i e s for
Biblical t e r m s , t h e Rabbis are m a k i n g t h e Bible m e a n i n g f u l for t h e i r o w n
contemporary contexts.
Philo t o o uses s o m e non-Biblical etymologies to support his under
s t a n d i n g o f t h e text. It is especially n o t e w o r t h y that h e usually d o e s n o t
b u i l d u p t o t h e e t y m o l o g y — t h a t is, h e d o e s n o t e x p l a i n h o w a c e r t a i n
2 3
n a m e c a m e t o b e , as t h e Bible d o e s , o r as rabbinic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d o .
M o r e f r e q u e n t l y , h e s i m p l y gives t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e n a m e a n d t h e n
b u i l d s u p o n t h e e t y m o l o g y that h e already takes for g r a n t e d . A n e t y m o l
ogy, t h e n , is n o t usually t h e e n d - p o i n t o f his e x e g e s i s b u t r a t h e r t h e
starting p o i n t . T h i s characteristic l e n d s additional s u p p o r t t o t h e thesis that
h e probably d e r i v e d his e t y m o l o g i e s f r o m a n o t h e r s o u r c e .
P h i l o ' s t e n d e n c y t o take for g r a n t e d familiarity w i t h a n e t y m o l o g y is
particularly a p p a r e n t in his discussion o f "Israel" as t h e ορών θ ε ό ν , o r G o d -
2 4
s e e r . I n d e e d , h e f r e q u e n d y calls "Israel" t h e God-seer o r t h e s e e r ( ο ρ ώ ν ) ,
w i t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g specifically that this is t h e e t y m o l o g y o r part o f t h e
e t y m o l o g y . Similarly, h i s o t h e r p e r i p h r a s t i c e x p r e s s i o n s , s u c h as τ ό
ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς , t h e r a c e / c l a s s that c a n s e e , s e e m to b e b a s e d u p o n o r t o
2 5
presuppose the etymology. G i v e n t h e possibility that P h i l o d r e w h i s
e t y m o l o g i e s f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s a n d that h e s e e m s t o take for g r a n t e d
familiarity with t h e specific e t y m o l o g y for "Israel," it w o u l d a p p e a r that
h e h i m s e l f d i d n o t o r i g i n a t e t h e e x p l a n a t i o n that "Israel" m e a n s ο ρ ώ ν
θ ε ό ν . As w e shall s e e later, this c o n c l u s i o n gains a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t f r o m
parallel o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e e t y m o l o g y in o t h e r literature.
2 3
In the cases o f Abraham and Sarah, Philo d o e s explain h o w their n a m e s are de
rived, but these explanations are based u p o n the Greek letters rather than the Hebrew.
T h e explanations, therefore, have n o t h i n g to d o with the m e a n i n g s h e t h e n provides
that are based u p o n the Hebrew. See Mut. 6 0 - 8 0 , esp. 77; QG 3.43, 53; cf. Rokeah, "A
N e w O n o m a s t i c o n Fragment," 78.
2 4
S e e , e.g., Leg. 3.212, Post. 63, Conf. 56. J o n a t h a n Z. Smith c o m e s to a similar
c o n c l u s i o n about Philo's etymology for "Israel." H e writes, "As the derivation rests o n
a H e b r e w jeu de mots a n d as it is never argued but rather assumed by Philo, there is
g o o d reason to suggest that h e is drawing u p o n an earlier tradition" ("The Prayer o f
Joseph," Religions in Antiquity: Essays in Memory of Erwin Ramsdell Goodenough, ed. J a c o b
N e u s n e r , Studies in the History of Religions (Supplements to Numen), n o . 14 (Leiden:
E. J. Brill, 1 9 6 8 ) , 266. (Hereafter this article will be cited as "Smith, 'The Prayer o f
Joseph,' Religions")
2 5
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the e t y m o l o g y a n d the e x p r e s s i o n ,όρατικόν γ έ ν ο ς is
e x p l o r e d in the n e x t chapter.
2 6
W i l h e l m Michaelis, "όράω," TDNT 5:337, n. 113; Smallwood, Philonis Alexandnni
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 71
1 5 3 - 5 4 ; G. A. Danell, Studies in the Name Israel in the Old Testament (Uppsala: Appelbergs
boktrychkeri-A.-B., 1 9 4 6 ) , 1 5 - 2 8 ; E. Sacchse, "Die Etymologie u n d alteste Aussprache
des N a m e n s · ? Ι Π Β \ " Zeitschrifi fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 3 4 (1914): 1-15; Kahn,
"Did P h i l o Know Hebrew?" 3 4 2 - 4 3 .
2 7
C l e m e n t c o n n e c t s t h e n a m e o f Israel with G e n . 32:31: ' T h e n also h e was n a m e d
Israel because h e saw G o d the Lord" (τότε και Ι σ ρ α ή λ έπωνόμασται, δτε είδε τον θεδν τον
κύριον; Paedagogus 1:7). Clement d o e s n o t give the etymology and seems to assume that
his readers are familiar with it.
Nikiprowetzky n o t e s o t h e r e x a m p l e s in which Philo's e t y m o l o g i e s can be l i n k e d
with t h e Biblical c o n t e x t rather than with the linguistic construction of the word; s e e
Le commentaire de PEcriture, 5 3 - 5 4 (examples of S o d o m and N o a h ) , 57 (Rebecca).
72 CHAPTER TWO
2 8
Michaelis, "όράω ," 337, n. 113.
2 9
Ibid.
3 0
Smallwood, Philonis Alexandrini, 154.
3 1
"On t h e Origin o f the World," trans. Hans-Gebhard B e t h g e a n d B e n d e y Layton,
The Nag Hammadi Library, 3rd e d . , e d . James M. Robinson (San Francisco: Harper &
Row, 1 9 8 8 ) , 176; see also Smith, ' T h e Prayer of Joseph," Religions, 264.
3 2
Seder Eliahu Rabbah 25 ( 2 7 ) , e d . Meir Friedmann (Vienna: n.p., 1 9 0 2 ) , 1 3 8 - 3 9 .
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 73
33
in a Syriac t h e s a u r u s . W i t h o n e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n — t h e Prayer of Joseph
(PJ), t o b e e x a m i n e d b e l o w — a l l t h e s e s o u r c e s are later t h a n P h i l o , a n d
m o s t o f t h e patristic parallels are probably d e p e n d e n t u p o n h i m .
T h e o n e H e b r e w i n s t a n c e , f o u n d i n Seder Eliahu Rabbah, a p p e a r s
c e n t u r i e s after P h i l o . N e v e r t h e l e s s this o c c u r r e n c e p r o v i d e s i m p o r t a n t
e v i d e n c e o f a H e b r e w f o r m u l a t i o n f o r t h e e t y m o l o g y *?R ΠΚΊ which
34
may i n d e e d reflect a n earlier t r a d i t i o n .
As t o G r e e k a n d Latin parallels, patristic writings i n c l u d e t h e e t y m o l
ogy i n v a r i o u s f o r m s . T h u s w e f i n d ορών θ ε ό ν , o n e w h o s e e s G o d ; ν ο υ ς
όρων θ ε ό ν , a m i n d that s e e s G o d ; a n d ά ν θ ρ ω π ο ς όρων θ ε ό ν , a p e r s o n w h o
35
s e e s G o d — a s w e l l as t h e i r Latin e q u i v a l e n t s . A r e f e r e n c e i n C l e m e n t
(Paedagogus 1:7), m o r e o v e r , e x p l i c i t l y c o n n e c t s t h e n a m e "Israel" w i t h
G e n . 3 2 : 3 1 , i n w h i c h J a c o b , n e w l y n a m e d Israel, e x c l a i m s , "I h a v e s e e n
3 6
G o d . " It is e s p e c i a l l y striking that t h e s e writings i n c l u d e t h e full f o r m
ά ν θ ρ ω π ο ς όρων θεόν . T h e s e i n s t a n c e s o f t h e fuller e t y m o l o g y l e n d s u p p o r t
to t h e p r o p o s i t i o n that it c o m e s originally f r o m t h e H e b r e w , ΠΚΊ CK.
In t h e s c a n t y H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e , w e c a n f i n d p a r a l l e l s t o
P h i l o ' s e t y m o l o g y f o r "Israel" i n t h e Prayer of Joseph. W e c a n a l s o f i n d
t h e m i n a C h r i s t i a n work, t h e Constitutiones Apostolorum, a guide for
3 3
Thesaurus Syriacus, e d . R. Payne Smith (1879), 1:163, cited by Smallwood, Philonis
Alexandrini, 153-54.
3 4
T h e text reads,
*ΛΟΕΓ TUttD "DTD3 D'SaJQ T Q R » .ΟΠΌΚ npiT ]12Π ΊΟΰΌ D'MID ΊΌΰ 'ΠΚΧΟϋ ΓΗΗΠ Κ ' ΐ
s
rw ηρΰrorrnow .rxb yyvaa VBHJD too . ron BTH K^K bunar η ρ τ ι 'τκ . ( ο sxm)
3 7
David A. Fiensy, Prayers Alleged To Be Jewish: An Examination of the C o n s t i t u t i o n e s
A p o s t o l o r u m , Brown Judaic Studies, e d . J a c o b N e u s n e r , n o . 6 5 ( C h i c o , California:
Scholars Press, 1 9 8 5 ) ; a n d D . R. Darnell a n d D . A. Fiensy, "Hellenistic Synagogal
Prayers," Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (OTP) e d . James H. Charlesworth (Garden City,
N e w York: Doubleday, 1 9 8 5 ) , 2:671-97. S e e also G o o d e n o u g h , By Light, Light, 3 0 6 - 5 8 .
T h e following text a n d translation are f o u n d in Fiensy, Prayers Alleged To Be Jewish:
Const. Ap. 7.36.2 (Fiensy, 7 6 - 7 7 ) : ό αληθινός Ισραήλ, ό θεοφιλής, ό όρων θεόν, "the true
Israel, t h e beloved o f G o d , t h e o n e w h o sees God." H e r e Israel is identified with
the Gentiles (τά εθνη).
Const. Ap. 8.15.77 (Fiensy, 1 1 0 - 1 1 ) : ό θεός Ι σ ρ α ή λ του άληθινώς όρώντος, "the G o d o f
Israel w h i c h truly sees." H e r e Israel is identified with believers in Christ (ό εις
Χριστόν πιστεύσας λαός σός).
3 8
Smith, ' T h e Prayer o f Joseph," Religions, 2 5 3 - 4 , and idem, "Prayer o f Joseph," OTP,
2:699-714. Citations in t h e text o f the chapter are taken from t h e translation provided
in OTP.
3 9
"The various parallels to both hellenistic a n d Aramaic materials w o u l d suggest a
first century date" (Smith, "Prayer o f Joseph," OTP, 2:700). S e e also t h e discussion o f
E d m u n d Stein in t h e text o f the chapter.
4 0
E d m u n d Stein, "Zur apokryphen Schrift 'Gebet Josephs,'" Monatsschrift fur Geschichte
und Wissenschafl des Judentums 81 (1937): 2 8 0 - 8 6 , esp. 2 8 2 - 8 3 .
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 75
Conf. 1 4 6 reads,
But if it h a p p e n s that s o m e o n e is n o t yet worthy to b e called s o n o f G o d , let h i m
hasten to b e placed with the Logos, His firstborn, the eldest o f angels, a kind o f
a r c h a n g e l , b e i n g many-named; for h e is called ' b e g i n n i n g ' a n d ' n a m e o f G o d '
a n d ' L o g o s ' a n d 'the m a n a c c o r d i n g to the i m a g e ' a n d 'the seer, Israel.' ( m y
translation)
A c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e e p i t h e t s in i ^ a n d t h o s e in Conf. 1 4 6 reveals t h e
p a r a l l e l s s h o w n b e l o w a n d s u g g e s t s that t h e t w o p a s s a g e s m i g h t b e
c o n n e c t e d . W e c a n s e e that PJ p r o v i d e s t h e e t y m o l o g y f o r Israel as ά ν ή ρ
ο ρ ώ ν θ ε ό ν , w h i l e Conf. 1 4 6 h a s s i m p l y ό ό ρ ω ν . It is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t
a l t h o u g h t h e e t y m o l o g y in PJ m e a n s "a m a n w h o s e e s G o d , " t h e p a s s a g e
also d e s c r i b e s "Israel" as a n a n g e l .
PJ Conf. 146
π ν ε ύ μ α άρχικόν [αρχάγγελος]*
r u l i n g spirit [archangel] *
Ισραήλ Ισραήλ
Israel Israel
F o r r e a s o n s h e d o e s n o t e x p l a i n , Stein a s s u m e s that PJ is d e p e n d e n t
u p o n P h i l o . S i n c e PJ is n o t clearly later t h a n P h i l o , s u c h a d e p e n d e n c y is
4 1
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e d . S t e i n , h o w e v e r , b e l i e v i n g that P h i l o d i d n o t
4 1
S e e , e.g., Delling, "The ' O n e W h o Sees G o d ' in Philo," 38, n. 70.
76 CHAPTER TWO
44
f o r m in t h e writings o f P h i l o . "
T h e "de-mythologizing" character of the passage in Philo highlights
a n i n t e r e s t i n g issue r e l a t e d t o h i s e t y m o l o g y f o r "Israel." If i n d e e d t h e
o r i g i n a l G r e e k e t y m o l o g y was ά ν ή ρ o r άνθρωπος όρων θ ε ό ν , that is, if t h e
e t y m o l o g y o r i g i n a l l y i n c l u d e d a w o r d f o r "man," o n e m i g h t w e l l ask
why this fuller f o r m n e v e r a p p e a r s in Philo's works. T h e contrast with PJ
is e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g , s i n c e PJ retains a w o r d f o r "man" e v e n t h o u g h
t h e a u t h o r also calls "Israel" a n a n g e l .
T h e c o n s i s t e n t a b s e n c e o f a w o r d f o r "man" i n P h i l o ' s e t y m o l o g y f o r
"Israel" raises t h e possibility that h e — o r p e r h a p s o n e o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s —
may deliberately o m i t a w o r d for "man" b e c a u s e t h e a m b i g u o u s participle
ό ρ ω ν b e t t e r suits h i s e x e g e t i c a l p u r p o s e s — o r t h o s e o f t h e tradition u p o n
w h i c h h e draws. For e x a m p l e , in Conf. 146, discussed above, όρων refers t o
t h e λ ό γ ο ς — n o t a m a n , b u t a n abstraction. E l s e w h e r e , as w e h a v e s e e n ,
4 2
Smith lists these parallel epithets in "Prayer o f Joseph," OTP, 2:701, n. 11.
4 3
Smith, "The Prayer o f Joseph," Religions, 259.
4 4
Ibid., 260. See also Smith, "Prayer of Joseph," OTP, 2:704.
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 77
Philo's Ideas About Seeing God and Possible Influences Upon These Ideas
4 5
This last possibility was suggested to m e by Prof. J o h n Strugnell in private conver
sation.
4 6
Ebr. 83, Abr. 57, Legat. 4; cf. Praem. 4 3 - 4 6 .
4 7
Post. 63, 92; Congr. 51; Plant. 5 8 - 6 0 ; cf. Praem. 4 3 - 4 6 .
4 8
E.g., Opif. 6 9 - 7 1 , Somn. 1.64-67, Somn. 2.226-27, QG 4.196.
4 9
Examples o f references in his exegetical series are listed above, i n n . 4 8 , a n d below,
in n. 5 1 . References in his non-exegetical writings include Contempl. 11 and Legat. 4 - 6 .
5 0
Abr. 57; Ebr. 82; Conf 72, 148; Migr. 39; Fug. 208. See also the discussion a n d
78 CHAPTER TWO
A n d Moses w e n t u p , and Aaron and N a d a b and Abihu and seventy o f the elders o f
Israel, and they saw the place where the G o d of Israel was standing; a n d there was
u n d e r His feet as it were a work of sapphire stone, just like the appearance of the
firmament of heaven in purity. A n d n o t o n e of the c h o s e n o n e s o f Israel perished;
53
and they appeared in the place of God and ate and drank, (my t r a n s l a t i o n )
h o w e v e r , in w h i c h M o s e s p e t i t i o n s G o d to reveal Himself, t h e n o t i o n is
m a d e e x p l i c i t . G o d tells M o s e s , "You c a n n o t s e e my face; for m a n shall
n o t s e e m e a n d live" ( E x o d . 33:20; cf. E x o d . 3:6 a n d 19:21). T h e r e f o r e G o d
shows h i m H i s back b u t n o t His face (Exod. 33:23).
Even in t h e s e few s a m p l e passages, t h e n , t h e Bible is i n c o n s i s t e n t a b o u t
s e e i n g G o d . G e n . 12:7 a n d 17:1 d o n o t describe t h e e x p e r i e n c e b u t i n s t e a d
take it for g r a n t e d . E x o d . 2 4 : 9 - 1 1 d e p i c t s an a s c e n t with d i r e c t physical
v i s i o n o f t h e p l a c e w h e r e G o d was s t a n d i n g . In G e n . 3 2 : 2 5 - 3 3 , J a c o b
wrestles w i t h a m a n , yet later h e d e c l a r e s that h e h a s s e e n G o d "face t o
face." In contrast, E x o d . 3 3 : 1 2 - 2 3 stresses that s u c h d i r e c t vision is life-
threatening to h u m a n s . N o n e of these passages claims, however, that
54
s e e i n g G o d is impossible; rather it is d a n g e r o u s a n d i n d e e d c a n b e f a t a l .
5 4
For Philo, s e e i n g G o d is impossible rather than dangerous. See, e.g., Fug. 141 o n
Exod. 3:6. See also Michaelis, "όράω," 337, η. 110.
5 5
R e f e r e n c e s p r o v i d e d in the e n s u i n g discussion are representative, n o t c o m p r e
hensive. For g o o d overviews of how Philo discusses seeing God, see Michaelis, "όράω,"
3 3 4 - 3 8 ; D o n a l d A. H a g n e r , "The Vision of G o d in Philo a n d J o h n : A C o m p a r a d v e
Study," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 14 (1971): 8 1 - 9 3 ; Kenneth E. Kirk, The
Vision of God: The Christian Doctrine of the Summum Bonum (New York: Harper 8c Row,
1931), 3 8 - 4 6 ; Winston, Logos and Mystical Theology, 5 4 - 5 5 .
80 CHAPTER TWO
5 6
For a b r o a d e r perspective o n the Hellenistic b a c k g r o u n d o f Philo's ideas, see
Charles H a r o l d D o d d , "Hellenism a n d Christianity," Harvard Divinity School Bulletin
( 1 9 3 7 ) , esp. 2 6 - 3 1 ; Alan F. Segal, "Heavenly A s c e n t in H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m , Early
Christianity, a n d their E n v i r o n m e n t , " ANRW, 2.23.2: Religion (Vorkonstantinisches
Christentum: Verhaltnis zu romischem Staat und heidnischer Religion [Forts.]), ed. Wolfgang
Haase (Berlin: d e Gruyter, 1 9 8 0 ) , 1 3 3 3 - 9 4 ; i d e m , Paul the Convert: The Apostolate and
Apostasy of Saul the Pharisee (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 3 8 - 5 6 .
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 81
h o w e v e r , o f t e n d o e s n o t c o m b i n e t h e s e strands, n o r d o e s h e a d d r e s s h o w
certain n o t i o n s i n his writings are m e a n t t o b e c o n n e c t e d .
R e g a r d i n g t h e s e n s e o f s i g h t a n d its r e l a t i o n t o t h e i n t e l l e c t , P l a t o
d e c l a r e s that sight is t o b e h i g h l y r e g a r d e d b e c a u s e it l e a d s t o c o n t e m
5 7
p l a t i o n o f t h e universe a n d t h e r e b y to p h i l o s o p h y (Timaeus 4 7 a - c ) . T h e
true v a l u e in c o n t e m p l a t i n g w h a t is visible is that it l e a d s to c o n t e m p l a t i o n
o f w h a t really is a n d is invisible (Republic 5 2 9 - 3 1 ) . I n t h e visible w o r l d , t h e
s u n is t h e s o u r c e o f l i g h t a n d t h e r e f o r e e n a b l e s sight t o see; in t h e s a m e
way t h e i d e a o f t h e G o o d in t h e intelligible w o r l d is t h e s o u r c e o f truth
a n d e n a b l e s t h e k n o w e r t o k n o w (Republic 5 0 7 - 8 ) . T h e objects o f t h i n k i n g
are invisible (Phaedo 79a, Timaeus 5 2 a ) ; a n d t h e s u p r e m e i d e a o f t h e G o o d
5 8
is b e y o n d B e i n g (Republic 5 0 8 - 9 ) .
As for w h a t o n e s h o u l d strive for in life, Plato observes that it is a task to
d i s c o v e r t h e C r e a t o r a n d Father o f t h e universe, a n d o n c e o n e d i s c o v e r s
H i m , it is i m p o s s i b l e to r e p o r t it t o e v e r y o n e (Timaeus 2 8 c ) . It b e h o o v e s
h u m a n k i n d to b e c o m e like G o d (Theaetetus 1 7 6 b , Republic 6 1 3 b ) ; a n d t h e
g o a l o f life is t o assimilate that w h i c h t h i n k s t o that w h i c h is t h o u g h t
(Timaeus 9 0 d ) .
Finally, r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f s e e i n g w h a t is u l t i m a t e , t h e b o d y
interferes with the ability o f t h e soul to b e h o l d the truth, a n d o n l y f r e e d o m
f r o m t h e b o d y after d e a t h will p e r m i t a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e d e s i r e d w i s d o m
5 9
(Phaedo 6 6 - 6 7 ) . O n e passage (Symposium 2 1 0 d - 2 1 2 a ) describes a s c e n t to a
vision o f t h e beautiful (τό κ α λ ό ν ) o r divine beauty (τό θείον κ α λ ό ν ) . H e r e
t h e subject o f t h e a s c e n t is left v a g u e , t h o u g h t h e m i n d o r soul is u n d e r
s t o o d . A n o t h e r passage (Phaedrus 2 4 6 e - 2 4 7 e , 2 4 9 c ) s p e a k s specifically o f
t h e a s c e n t o f t h e s o u l t o a vision o f t h e Existent (τό δ ν ) , w h i c h is visible
o n l y t o t h e m i n d , t h e p i l o t o f t h e soul. B o t h passages use t h e l a n g u a g e o f
the mysteries to describe initiation into the lore of these visions
(Symposium 210a, Phaedrus 2 4 9 c ) .
5 7
References provided here are to representative or especially important passages.
5 8
Philo d o e s n o t g o so far as to claim that G o d is beyond Being; see Runia, Philo of
Alexandria and the T i m a e u s of Plato, 135, 435.
5 9
A l t h o u g h Philo similarly believes that the body i m p e d e s the soul, h e d o e s n o t
assert that vision of G o d is possible only after death. Cf., however, Leg. 3.45.
6 0
Wolfson, Philo, 1:200-2; D r u m m o n d , Philo Judaeus, 1:59-60; Runia, Philo of Alexan
dria and the T i m a e u s of Pfoto, 442.
82 CHAPTER TWO
O n e , w h i c h is p r i o r t o a n d s e p a r a t e f r o m all b e i n g . W e f i n d a similar
n o t i o n i n N e o p y t h a g o r e a n writings, n a m e l y , that G o d , t h e craftsman, is
s u p e r i o r t o m i n d a n d stands above t h e two principles o f F o r m a n d Matter,
61
w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d to t h e M o n a d a n d D y a d .
Acknowledging the supreme O n e of the Pythagoreans, the Alexan
drian P l a t o n i s t E u d o r u s (latter part o f the first c e n t u r y B.C.E.) associates
this first p r i n c i p l e with t h e c a u s e o f m a t t e r a n d c r e a t e d t h i n g s a n d calls
this entity t h e s u p r e m e G o d (ό υ π ε ρ ά ν ω θ ε ό ς ) . E u d o r u s a p p e a r s to b e a
significant witness to the p r e s e n c e in Alexandria of a philosophical
a p p r o a c h that h a s c o m e t o b e k n o w n as M i d d l e P l a t o n i s m . Characteristic
o f this a p p r o a c h is b e l i e f in t h e t r a n s c e n d e n c e a n d immateriality o f G o d —
a b e l i e f w h i c h l e a d s to s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y w o r l d b e t w e e n
this t r a n s c e n d e n t B e i n g a n d c r e a t i o n — a n d , in g e n e r a l , a m o r e r e l i g i o u s
62
or t h e o c e n t r i c o u t l o o k .
In his impressive study o f h o w P h i l o u n d e r s t a n d s a n d u s e s t h e Timaeus
o f Plato, David T. R u n i a portrays t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f this o u t l o o k as follows:
T h e difference between Plato and his later followers obviously d o e s n o t lie in their
t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n as such. Plato is passionately c o n c e r n e d with the subject o f
Divinity a n d p r o p o s e s distastefully heavy p u n i s h m e n t s for atheists a n d those w h o
d e n y the workings of divine Providence. H e d o e s retain, however, an (admittedly
t e n u o u s ) separation o f abstract philosophical principles (the Ideas, the G o o d , the
O n e ) a n d theological entities (the d e m i u r g e , the cosmic soul, the g o d s of m y t h ) .
T h e M i d d l e Platonists disregard this separation. Abstract p r i n c i p l e s a n d t h e o
l o g i c a l c o n c e p t i o n s are b r o u g h t i n t o relation with e a c h o t h e r a n d f u s e d in
63
θ ε ο λ ο γ ί α , the highest form of k n o w l e d g e .
P e r v a d i n g t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f M i d d l e P l a t o n i s m , t h e n , is a
d e e p c o n c e r n for the divine a n d its relation to the world.
6 1
J o h n Dillon, The Transcendence of God in Philo: Some Possible Sources, Protocol of the
Colloquy of the Center for Hermeneutical Studies in Hellenistic and M o d e r n Culture,
ed. W i l h e l m Wuellner, n o . 16 (Berkeley: Center for H e r m e n e u t i c a l Studies, 1 9 7 5 ) ,
1 - 3 . D i l l o n e m p h a s i z e s that the d a t i n g o f p s e u d o - P y t h a g o r e a n texts is far f r o m
certain. See also Winston, "Introduction," Philo of Alexandria, 22.
6 2
D i l l o n , The Transcendence of God, 4; idem, The Middle Platonists, 1 1 9 - 2 1 , 1 2 6 - 2 8 ;
T o b i n , The Creation of Man, 1 3 - 1 5 . O n Eudorus and Middle Platonism in general, see
Dillon, The Middle Platonists, 1 1 4 - 3 9 , and Tobin, The Creation of Man, 1 1 - 1 9 .
6 3
Runia, Philo of Alexandria and the T i m a e u s of Plato, 4 9 2 - 9 3 .
6 4
O n the estimation of sight, see ibid., 2 7 1 . Regarding Aristotle, s e e Michaelis,
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 83
souls w h o s e vision has soared above all created things and s c h o o l e d itself to b e h o l d
the u n c r e a t e d a n d divine, the primal g o o d , the excellent, the happy, the blessed,
w h i c h may truly b e called better than the g o o d , m o r e e x c e l l e n t than the e x c e l l e n t ,
m o r e b l e s s e d t h a n b l e s s e d n e s s , m o r e h a p p y than h a p p i n e s s itself, a n d any
perfection there may be greater than these. (Legat. 5)
"δράω," 322; Kirk, The Vision of God, 33, 4 7 5 - 7 9 ; and A. Hilary Armstrong, "Gotteschau
(Visio beatifica)," Reallexicon fur Antike und Christentum: Sachworterbuch zur Auseinander-
setzung des Christentums mit der antiken Welt, ed. T h e o d o r Klauser (Stuttgart: Hierse-
m a n n , 1 9 8 3 ) , 12:8. Aristode himself defines as the purpose (ου ένεκα) of h u m a n life to
worship and contemplate God (τον θεόν θεραπεύειν και θεωρεΐν) (Eudemian Ethics 8:3:15-16
[1249b]; NichomacheanEthics 10:7-8 [ I l 7 7 a - l l 7 8 b ] ) .
6 5
D r u m m o n d provides an impressive list o f Philonic appellations for G o d , Philo
Judaeus, 2:63. See also Wolfson, Philo, 1:210-11, and n. 14 above.
6 6
D i l l o n , The Transcendence of God, 9 - 1 2 ; the suggestion is put forth by Gerard E.
Caspary, a r e s p o n d e n t to Dillon's p r e s e n t a t i o n . N o t e the list o f passages Caspary
adduces o n p. 9. See also Wolfson, Philo, 1:201-2.
84 CHAPTER TWO
S o m e o f P h i l o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f G o d , h o w e v e r , have n o t h i n g to d o w i t h
the p h i l o s o p h i c a l formulations h e occasionally criticizes but instead
a c c o r d m o r e closely with t h e p e r s o n a l G o d o f t h e Bible. In contrast, f o r
e x a m p l e , t o t h e abstract, p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n τό δν ( t h e E x i s t e n t ) ,
P h i l o s o m e t i m e s calls G o d ό ών ( H e that exists), b a s e d u p o n t h e n a m e G o d
e x p r e s s e s t o M o s e s in E x o d . 3:14. As o p p o s e d to t h e r e m o t e a n d transcen
d e n t G o d o f p h i l o s o p h y , t h e Biblical G o d — t h e G o d o f A b r a h a m , Isaac, a n d
J a c o b — r e l a t e s to p e o p l e . T h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t h e two different portrayals o f
67
G o d can be somewhat perplexing.
P e r h a p s few passages so capture t h e p a r a d o x o f Philo's t r a n s c e n d e n t yet
p e r s o n a l G o d as Spec. 1 . 4 1 - 5 0 , an interpretation o f M o s e s ' s r e q u e s t to s e e
G o d ( E x o d . 3 3 : 1 2 - 2 3 ) . In his interpretation, P h i l o p r e s e n t s a d i a l o g u e b e
t w e e n M o s e s a n d G o d in w h i c h M o s e s p l e a d s with G o d , u s i n g t h e s e c o n d
p e r s o n singular, to reveal H i m s e l f to h i m . P h i l o writes,
In these words w e may almost hear plainly the inspired cry 'This universe has
b e e n my teacher, to bring m e to the knowledge that T h o u art and dost subsist. As
thy son, it has told m e of its Father, as Thy work of its contriver. But what T h o u art
in Thy e s s e n c e I desire to understand, yet find in n o part o f the All any to g u i d e
m e to this knowledge. Therefore I pray and beseech T h e e to accept the supplication
of a suppliant, a lover of God, o n e w h o s e m i n d is set to serve T h e e alone; for as
knowledge of the light d o e s n o t c o m e by any other source but what itself supplies,
so too T h o u alone canst tell m e of Thyself.' (Spec. 1.41-42)
In this a n d t h e e n s u i n g d i a l o g u e , P h i l o p r e s e n t s w h a t is essentially a
p e r s o n a l c o n v e r s a t i o n in w h i c h G o d e x p l a i n s H i s t r a n s c e n d e n c e and
6 8
unknowability to M o s e s ! H e r e a n d e l s e w h e r e , t h e qualities o f a r e m o t e
a n d t r a n s c e n d e n t B e i n g are c o u n t e r p o i s e d by t h e qualities o f t h e F a t h e r
a n d Creator w h o cares for H i s creation.
6 7
As to how Philo reconciles the two approaches to God, Runia writes, O n this ques
tion we can d o n o better than highly to r e c o m m e n d the discussion [of G o o d e n o u g h ,
Nikiprowetzky, a n d S a n d m e l ] , each of which is the fruit of a lifetime's study of Philo"
(Philo of Alexandria and the T i m a e u s of Plato, 436, n. 152). His references are to G o o d -
e n o u g h , Introduction to Philo Judaeus, 8 6 - 8 7 ; Nikiprowetzky, Le commentaire de VEcriture,
1 2 8 - 3 0 ; and Sandmel, Philo of Alexandria, 8 9 - 9 4 .
6 8
This passage g o e s o n to discuss apprehension of God's powers (Spec. 1 . 4 6 - 4 9 ) . For
other interpretations of Exod. 3 3 : 1 2 - 2 3 , see, e.g., Post. 13-16, 169; Fug. 1 6 4 - 5 ; and Mut.
8-10.
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 85
T h e Biblical p a s s a g e ( E x o d . 33:20) u p o n w h i c h t h e a b o v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
is b a s e d d e c l a r e s m e r e l y t h a t s e e i n g G o d is n o t p e r m i t t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o
P h i l o , h o w e v e r , s e e i n g G o d is b e y o n d t h e abilities o f a n y t h i n g c r e a t e d . In
postulating an invisible and unknowable God, Philo follows in the
6 9
tradition of Greek p h i l o s o p h y . At t h e s a m e time, h o w e v e r , t h e G o d t h a t is
"seen" is n o t o n l y τό δντως δ ν , t h e truly Existent, b u t a l s o t h e C r e a t o r a n d
F a t h e r o f t h e w o r l d w h o s e activity vis-a-vis H i s c r e a t i o n is n a r r a t e d i n t h e
B i b l e . If P h i l o c a n q u i t e c a p a b l y talk a b o u t G o d i n t h e lofty t e r m s o f a
p h i l o s o p h e r , s o t o o is h e a b l e t o p r e s e n t a s o l i c i t o u s G o d t a l k i n g t o H i s
c r e a t u r e s a b o u t Himself.
B e f o r e w e t u r n away f r o m P h i l o ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s e e i n g G o d , it m a y b e
w o r t h w h i l e t o r e f l e c t briefly u p o n h o w h e c o n c e i v e s o f t h e experience
itself. S c h o l a r s h a v e d e b a t e d w h e t h e r P h i l o c o n s i d e r s t h e h u m a n expe
r i e n c e o f s e e i n g G o d to b e rational or ecstatic—and w h e t h e r Philo in
particular ever e x p e r i e n c e d ecstatic v i s i o n — a n d also w h e t h e r P h i l o b e
l i e v e s t h a t G o d H i m s e l f — o r o n l y H i s i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , s u c h as t h e p o w e r s
or the Logos—can be seen.
O p i n i o n s o n t h e s e q u e s t i o n s vary w i d e l y . S o m e s c h o l a r s distinguish
b e t w e e n a r a t i o n a l a n d ecstatic k i n d o f e x p e r i e n c e , w h i l e o t h e r s d o n o t s e e
7 0
a necessary dichotomy between the t w o . O n e c l a i m s that P h i l o u s e s t h e
6 9
D i l l o n raises t h e question o f whether or n o t Philo was the first to i n t r o d u c e t h e
i d e a o f an u n k n o w a b l e G o d i n t o Greek t h o u g h t (The Middle Platonists, 155), and
Caspary w o n d e r s w h e t h e r or n o t h e may have b e e n "the inventor (or at least t h e
p h i l o s o p h i c a l formulator) o f t h e n o t i o n o f T r a n s c e n d e n t Being" (Dillon, The Tran
scendence of God, 1 2 ) . B o t h acknowledge that the e l e m e n t s that contribute to Philo's
formulations were readily present in his philosophical e n v i r o n m e n t .
7 0
In relation to these issues, many authors m e n t i o n e d below also discuss prophecy.
See Brehier, Philon d'Alexandrie, 2:180-205; Hans Jonas, Gnosis und Spatantiker Geist, pt.
2 / 1 : Von der Mythologie zur mystischen Philosophie, F o r s c h u n g e n zur Religion u n d Litera
tur d e s A l t e n u n d N e u e n Testaments, n o . 6 3 (n.s. 45) (Gottingen: V a n d e n h o e c k &
Ruprecht, 1 9 5 4 ) , 7 0 - 1 2 1 ; Jean-George Kahn, "Israel-Videns D e u m , " Tarbitz 4 3 ( 1 9 7 1 ) :
2 8 5 - 9 2 ( H e b r e w ) ; H a n s Leisegang, Der heilige Geist: Das wesen und werden der mystisch-
intuitiven Erkenntnis in der Philosophie und Religion der Griechen (Leipzig: B. G. T e u b n e r ,
1919) 1:145-231; Hans Lewy, Sobria Ebrietas: Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der antiken Mys-
tik, B e i h e f t e zur Zeitschrift fur d i e n e u t e s t a m e n t l i c h e Wissenschaft u n d d i e K u n d e
der alteren Kirche, n o . 9 (Giessen: Alfred T o p e l m a n n , 1 9 2 9 ) , 3 - 4 1 ; Andrew L o u t h ,
The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition From Plato to Denys ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n
Press, 1 9 8 1 ) , 1 8 - 3 5 ; J o s e p h Pascher, ή βασιλική οδός: Der Konigsweg zu Wiedergeburt und
Vergottung bei Philon von Alexandria, Studien zur Geschichte u n d Kultur d e s Alterums,
vol. 17, n o s . 3 - 4 (Paderborn: S c h o n i n g h , 1931; repr., n.d. [ 1 9 6 8 ] ) , esp. 1 6 0 - 9 1 ; E. Van-
d e r l i n d e n , "Les divers m o d e s d e connaissance d e D i e u selon P h i l o n d'Alexandrie,"
Melanges de Science Religieuse 4 (1947): 2 8 5 - 3 0 4 ; Volker, Fortschritt und Vollendung, e s p .
2 7 9 - 3 1 7 ; David Winston, "Was Philo a Mystic?" Studies in Jewish Mysticism, e d . J o s e p h
86 CHAPTER TWO
l a n g u a g e o f ecstasy m e r e l y as a literary c o n v e n t i o n t o a p p e a l t o h i s
71
a u d i e n c e w i t h o u t actually k n o w i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e f i r s t h a n d . Another
t h i n k s P h i l o c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d o n l y if o n e takes his d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e s e
72
e x p e r i e n c e s s e r i o u s l y . Still a n o t h e r writer h o l d s that a c c o r d i n g t o P h i l o ,
p e o p l e c a n e x p e r i e n c e G o d o n l y t h r o u g h His L o g o s , a n e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h ,
73
t h o u g h rational, m a y c u l m i n a t e in e c s t a s y .
T o e n t e r i n t o t h e s e sundry d e b a t e s w o u l d take us b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f
this study. It is difficult, if n o t i m p o s s i b l e , to arrive at a definitive portrayal
o f w h a t P h i l o m a y m e a n by s e e i n g G o d b e c a u s e his p r e s e n t a t i o n is filled
w i t h c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s . R a t h e r t h a n trying t o r e s o l v e
t h e s e v a r i o u s p r o b l e m s , I shall i n s t e a d s u g g e s t a d d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s
f r o m w h i c h t o c o n s i d e r t h e issue.
I n s o r t i n g o u t t h e several i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in w h a t P h i l o writes a b o u t
s e e i n g G o d , s c h o l a r s have o f t e n f o c u s e d exclusively u p o n his i d e a s with
o u t t a k i n g n o t e o f s u c h o t h e r factors as t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e
i d e a s a n d t h e Biblical t e x t h e is i n t e r p r e t i n g , t h e p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e o f
earlier e x e g e t i c a l traditions, t h e literary g e n r e o f t h e work, P h i l o ' s audi
e n c e ( s ) , a n d finally, t h e very n a t u r e o f s e e i n g G o d . After p r e s e n t i n g two
e x a m p l e s b e l o w o f P h i l o n i c passages a b o u t s e e i n g G o d — o n e passage f r o m
Q G E a n d o n e f r o m t h e A l l e g o r y — I shall d i s c u s s h o w a n d w h y t h e s e
various factors m a y b e important.
In QG 4 . 2 , P h i l o r e s p o n d s to t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n p o s e d b e t w e e n verse 1,
w h i c h says t h a t "God a p p e a r e d , " a n d verse 2, w h i c h says that "three
m e n " w e r e s t a n d i n g b e f o r e A b r a h a m . H e solves this p r o b l e m by a r g u i n g
that G o d c a n n o t b e s e e n a l o n e as a unity b u t o n l y t o g e t h e r w i t h H i s two
p o w e r s , t h e r e b y giving t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f three.
In G e n . 18:3, h o w e v e r , A b r a h a m a d d r e s s e s t h e t h r e e m e n o f verse 2
with a s i n g u l a r n o u n , Κ ύ ρ ι ε , Lord. P h i l o n o t i c e s that A b r a h a m a d d r e s s e s
t h e t h r e e as o n e a n d claims that n o w A b r a h a m ' s m i n d "forms a n i m p r e s
s i o n with m o r e o p e n eyes a n d m o r e lucid vision," a n d t h e r e f o r e h e is able
to p e r c e i v e G o d as o n e . In direct contradiction, t h e n , to what h e says in QG
4.2, n a m e l y , that "God c a n n o t b e s e e n in H i s o n e n e s s w i t h o u t s o m e t h i n g
(else) P h i l o states in QG 4.4 that G o d n o w s h o w s H i m s e l f in H i s
7 5
unity.
T h e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e s e contradictory s t a t e m e n t s is rather striking. Yet
b e c a u s e t h e Q G E c o m m e n t a r y is written in a f o r m a t o f discrete q u e s t i o n s
a n d a n s w e r s , t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s c a n s t a n d s i d e by s i d e . A l t h o u g h t h i s
f o r m a t is u n i q u e to Q G E , it d o e s h i g h l i g h t an i m p o r t a n t feature o f P h i l o ' s
w r i t i n g that m u s t b e taken i n t o a c c o u n t e l s e w h e r e w h e n o n e d e a l s w i t h
h i s m a n y c o n t r a d i c t i o n s : as a careful e x e g e t e , P h i l o c a n b e s o verse-
7 6
f o c u s e d that h e may contradict h i m s e l f f r o m o n e m o m e n t to t h e n e x t .
7 5
QG 4.2 also says, "For w h e n the m i n d begins to have an a p p r e h e n s i o n o f the
Existent O n e , H e is k n o w n to have arrived there, m a k i n g (Himself) u n i q u e , a n d
a p p e a r i n g as c h i e f a n d sovereign." While the m e a n i n g o f this remark is s o m e w h a t
unclear, it may be suggesting that the m i n d is capable of perceiving G o d as o n e . In
Abr. 1 1 9 - 2 3 , in w h i c h Philo interprets the same Biblical passage, h e makes explicit
that there are two stages o f a p p r e h e n s i o n , thus resolving the ambiguity. In o n e stage,
the m i n d can perceive G o d as o n e ; in another, lower stage, it perceives H i m as three.
7 6
See Kugel, "Two Introductions to Midrash," 145-47.
88 CHAPTER TWO
7 7
In Her. 70, it is unclear whether Philo is speaking about God, the O n e that really
is, as ό δντως ών (m.) or τό όντως όν ( η . ) , since the expression appears in the genitive.
Later in the passage, the p r o n o u n α υ τ ό appears, t h o u g h different manuscripts have
different readings: αυτω, αυτόν, αυτήν (see L e o p o l d C o h n and Paul W e n d l a n d , eds.,
Philonis Alexandrini: Opera Quae Supersunt [Berlin: Reimer, 1898; repr., Berlin: d e
Gruyter, 1 9 6 2 ] , 3:16). I have followed the reading "αυτόν," u n d e r s t a n d i n g the first
expression to be ό όντως ών.
7 8
Philo g o e s o n to explain that the m i n d leaving itself b e h i n d signifies that the
m i n d r e c o g n i z e s the limits o f its own abilities a n d a c k n o w l e d g e s G o d as the true
source of these abilities (Her. 7 3 - 7 4 ) . In this way, the m i n d b e c o m e s the heir of divine
things. In Her. 78, P h i l o links the o n e w h o g o e s "outside" with the o n e w h o sees
God, "Israel," thereby implicitly c o n n e c t i n g ecstasy with s e e i n g G o d .
7 9
See, e.g., Her. 7 5 - 7 8 o n Gen. 15:5 and the series of interpretations of this verse and
others in Leg. 3 . 3 9 - 4 8 .
"ISRAEL" AND THE VISION OF GOD 89
2. Different Traditions. A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e s e i n c o n s i s
t e n c i e s is that P h i l o m a y b e drawing f r o m d i f f e r e n t e x e g e t i c a l t r a d i t i o n s
8 0
w h i c h e m p h a s i z e d i f f e r e n t e l e m e n t s . A l t h o u g h t h e two e x a m p l e s g i v e n
a b o v e are b o t h a b o u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e soul, t h e i r different c o n c e r n s
may well reflect the existence of different pre-Philonic traditions. O n e
tradition, for e x a m p l e , m a y f o c u s u p o n G o d a n d H i s p o w e r s o r i n t e r m e
diaries ( Q G 4.2 a n d 4 ) , w h i l e a n o t h e r may c o n c e n t r a t e u p o n t h e j o u r n e y o f
the soul itself (Her. 6 8 - 8 5 ) .
8 0
T h e possible e x i s t e n c e of earlier traditions in Philo's work has b e e n e x p l o r e d in
different ways by a n u m b e r o f scholars. See n. 49 in the Introduction.
8 1
Similar r e q u i r e m e n t s of literary g e n r e , for e x a m p l e , may lead Philo to tie togeth
er in Abr. 1 1 9 - 2 3 the disparate explanations found in QG 4.2 and 4. See above, n. 75.
8 2
For a consideration o f Philo's a u d i e n c e ( s ) , see the Introduction.
8 3
E x a m p l e s in w h i c h Philo discusses s e e i n g G o d at l e n g t h in the E x p o s i t i o n are
Opif. 6 9 - 7 1 ; Abr. 5 7 - 5 9 , 7 7 - 8 0 , 1 1 9 - 1 2 3 ; Spec. 1.36-50; Virt. 2 1 5 - 1 7 ; and Praem. 3 6 - 4 6 . H e
m e n t i o n s s e e i n g G o d considerably less, if at all, in Ios. Mos. 1-2, Decal., a n d Spec. 2 -
y
4. Cf., however, Mos. 1.66, 158, 272, 289, and Mos. 2.69, which report but d o n o t e x p a n d
u p o n vision e x p e r i e n c e s d e s c r i b e d in the Bible. T h i s q u e s t i o n o f h o w P h i l o may
approach this topic differently in his various writings requires further investigation.
8 4
Abr. 1 1 9 - 2 3 (see n n . 75 and 81) a n d Spec. 1.45-50 are exceptions to this observation.
As an e x a m p l e o f the contrast b e t w e e n the Allegory and the E x p o s i t i o n , c o m p a r e
Somn. 1.129 o f the Allegory with Praem. 4 3 - 4 6 in the Exposition. In Somn. 1.129, the
λ ό γ ο ς (Logos) c h a n g e s Jacob's n a m e to "Israel, the o n e w h o sees," while in Praem. 4 3 -
46, "Israel" is granted the vision o f G o d through G o d Himself. Philo's discussion o f
intermediaries in the three series requires further investigation.
90 CHAPTER TWO
By e x a m i n i n g p a s s a g e s w h i c h explicitly m e n t i o n "Israel," w e d i s c o v e r e d
that P h i l o u s e s "Israel" m o s t frequently with r e f e r e n c e to s e e i n g or s e e i n g
G o d , a n association that derives f r o m his e t y m o l o g y for t h e t e r m as ο ρ ώ ν
θ ε ό ν , o r o n e that s e e s G o d . W e shall n o w seek to u n d e r s t a n d h o w P h i l o
identifies "Israel" as a g r o u p that can see a n d to d e t e r m i n e w h a t relation
s h i p , if any, this g r o u p m a y have to t h e historical Biblical p e o p l e o r t o
Philo's Jewish contemporaries.
T o a c c o m p l i s h t h e s e aims, it is first necessary to c o l l e c t all r e f e r e n c e s to
"Israel" as a n e n t i t y t h a t c a n s e e , w h e t h e r P h i l o m e n t i o n s "Israel"
explicitly or u s e s substitute e x p r e s s i o n s s u c h as 6 [or τό] ορών [ τ ο ν ] θ ε ό ν ,
t h e o n e that s e e s G o d ; ό ορών, the o n e that sees; or τό όρατικόν γένος, t h e
r a c e / c l a s s that c a n s e e . B e f o r e w e c o n s i d e r t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s in detail, a
few p r e l i m i n a r y observations are in o r d e r a b o u t t h e s e l e c t i o n o f p a s s a g e s
a n d P h i l o ' s vocabulary.
Selection of Passages
1
Below are Philo's etymologically-related interpretations that refer to abstractions. I
have o m i t t e d s o m e additional adjectives. Translations are m i n e . T h e interpretations
are as follows: ή όρατικη διάνοια, the m i n d that can see (Migr. 14, Congr. 56 [here the
phrase has αυτός, H i m , as an object, referring to God, θεός]); ό όρατικός και φιλοθεάμον
ν ο υ ς , the m i n d that can see and loves to contemplate (Mut. 209); ή όρατικη ψυχή, the
soul that can see (Ebr. I l l , Fug. 139); ό όρατικός τρόπος, the character that can see (Plant.
6 0 ) ; ή φ ι λ ο θ ε ά μ ο ν ψ υ χ ή , the soul that loves to c o n t e m p l a t e (Her. 79, Mut. 8 8 ) ; α ί
φιλοθεάμονες διάνοιαι, minds that love to contemplate (Fug. 138); δρασις θεοΰ, vision of
G o d (Ebr. 8 2 ) ; δρασις ψυχής, sight of the soul (Conf. 72); θεωρία ή τοΰ μονού σοφοΰ,
c o n t e m p l a t i o n of the only wise b e i n g (Sacr. 120); ό νους θεωρητικός θεοΰ τε καΐ κόσμου,
the m i n d that is able to contemplate God and the cosmos (Somn. 2.173); τό θεωρητικόν
των τής φύσεως πραγμάτων ερνος, the plant able to survey the things of nature (Her. 279);
92 CHAPTER THREE
A l t h o u g h in t h e P e n t a t e u c h — t h e f o c u s o f m o s t o f P h i l o ' s e x e g e t i c a l
activity—"Israel" m a y refer t o e i t h e r t h e patriarch J a c o b / I s r a e l o r t h e
n a t i o n o f his d e s c e n d a n t s , in Philo's e x e g e s i s , b o t h t h e patriarch Israel a n d
t h e n a t i o n Israel may b e called ό [or τ ό ] όρων [τον] θ ε ό ν . T o u n d e r s t a n d ,
t h e r e f o r e , w h a t P h i l o m e a n s by "Israel, t h e o n e that s e e s G o d , " w e shall
c o n s i d e r all r e f e r e n c e s to "Israel" as t h e o n e that sees, regardless o f w h e t h
er t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s c o r r e s p o n d in t h e Bible to the patriarch o r t h e n a t i o n .
Finally, P h i l o o f t e n u s e s periphrastic e x p r e s s i o n s for "Israel" w h e r e t h e
t e r m itself d o e s n o t appear, b o t h within Biblical q u o t a t i o n s a n d in interpre
tations w h e r e t h e periphrasis clearly signifies "Israel." T o c o l l e c t all refer
e n c e s t o s e e r s w h o m P h i l o e q u a t e s w i t h "Israel," t h e n , I h a v e g a t h e r e d
e v i d e n c e n o t o n l y f r o m passages in w h i c h "Israel" a p p e a r s explicitly, b u t
2
also f r o m several studies o f h o w P h i l o uses words related to s e e i n g .
W h a t e m e r g e s f r o m t h e s e several s t u d i e s is that P h i l o m e n t i o n s t h o s e
w h o s e e in a variety o f c o n t e x t s , a n d it is s o m e t i m e s difficult t o d e t e r m i n e
w h e t h e r o r n o t h e e q u a t e s t h e s e seers with "Israel." Obviously, r e f e r e n c e s
to t h o s e w h o s e e in a purely physical s e n s e are n o t r e l e v a n t t o this study
s i n c e "Israel"'s d i s t i n c t i o n is its ability to s e e in a p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e . T h e
r e l e v a n c e o f s o m e o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s , however, is less clear.
In a surprising n u m b e r o f cases, for e x a m p l e , P h i l o m a y b e u s i n g t h e
l a n g u a g e o f s e e i n g m e t a p h o r i c a l l y t o d e s c r i b e p e o p l e w i t h k e e n intelli
g e n c e , w h o m h e d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y identify with "Israel." H e s p e a k s ,
for i n s t a n c e , a b o u t Scriptural i n t e r p r e t e r s o r s i m p l y p e o p l e w h o h a v e
special i n s i g h t as o i όρατικοί a n d oi ό ρ α ν δ υ ν ά μ ε ν ο ι ( b o t h o f w h i c h m e a n
τό ψυχής δμμα δ δή μόνον τον θεόν όραν πεπαίδευται, the soul's best eye which alone has
b e e n trained to see God (Mut. 203); 6 ψυχής οφθαλμός ό διαυγέστατος και καθαρώτατος και
πάντων όξυωπέστατος ω μόνω τον θεόν εξεστι καθοράν, the eye of the soul, most translucent,
m o s t p u r e , a n d m o s t sharp-sighted of all, the eye to w h i c h a l o n e it is p e r m i t t e d to
b e h o l d God ( C o w / 9 2 ) .
2
T h e passages selected are based u p o n studies of the following words: ά ν α β λ έ π ω , look
up; β λ έ π ω , see; ε ϊ δ ω , ο ΐ δ α , see, know; θ έ α , sight; θ έ α ο μ α ι , b e h o l d ; θ ε ω ρ έ ω , b e h o l d ,
contemplate; θεωρητικός, contemplative; θεωρία, contemplation; καθοράω, see disdncdy;
δ μ μ α , eye; ό ξ υ δ ε ρ κ έ ω , see sharply; ο ξ υ δ ε ρ κ ή ς , sharp-sighted; ό ξ υ ω π ή ς , sharp-sighted;
δ ρ α σ ι ς , sight; δ ρ α τ ι κ ό ς , able to see; ό ρ ά ω , see; ο φ θ α λ μ ό ς , eye; δ ψ ι ς , sight, eye;
φ ι λ ο θ ε ά μ ω ν , f o n d of c o n t e m p l a t i n g . All of these words are suggested by the various
expressions for s e e i n g that occur in passages in which "Israel" appears explicitly, as
discussed in Chapter Two. T h e list d o e s n o t exhaust all Philonic words c o n n e c t e d to
sight a n d therefore s o m e references to seers may be missing. B e c a u s e the list d o e s
capture P h i l o ' s basic vocabulary in this area, however, t h e results are certainly
representative of his references to those w h o see. I have also identified two additional
passages about "seers" (Prob. 74 and Spec. 2.44-48) through a careful reading of Philo's
works.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 93
3
E x p r e s s i o n s for seers w h o m w e c a n n o t identify with "Israel" are listed b e l o w .
Translations are my o w n . T h e expressions are as follows: oi όρατικοί, those w h o c a n
see (Somn. 1.39, Decal. 2 6 ) ; oi όρατικοί ά ν δ ρ ε ς , m e n w h o can s e e (Plant. 3 6 ) ; o i
όξυδερκέστερον όρώντες, those w h o see fairly sharply (Decal. 7); oi όξύ καθοραν δυνάμενοι,
those w h o can see sharply (Opif. 76, Somn. 2.3); oi φιλοθεάμονες, those w h o are f o n d o f
c o n t e m p l a t i n g (Opif. 158, Ebr. 124, Migr. 191, Somn. 1.39); oi όξυδερκοΰντες, those w h o
see sharply (Ebr. 8 8 ) ; οί δ ι ά ν ο ι α ν όξυδερκοΰντες, those w h o s e e sharply with t h e m i n d
(Somn. 1.11, Somn. 2.171, Decal. 82); οΐς τό της διανοίας όμμα όξυδερκεΐ, those in w h o m the
eye o f t h e m i n d sees sharply (Ios. 106); oi όξύ τη διανοία βλέπειν δυνάμενοι, those w h o
can s e e sharply with the m i n d (Mos. 1.188); τό όξυωπέστατον γένος, t h e m o s t sharp-
sighted r a c e / c l a s s (Migr. 46); ασώματα δσοι και γυμνά θεωρεΐν τά πράγματα δύνανται, as
many as can contemplate incorporeal a n d naked facts (Abr. 2 3 6 ) .
In Q G E , t h e following expressions are in t h e LCL English translation, b u t there
are n o parallel Greek fragments to verify Philo's original language: "those w h o are
able to s e e from afar what is distant with the sharp-sighted eyes o f t h e m i n d " (QG
2.65); "those w h o are able to see" (QG 4.2).
For m o r e elaborate descriptions o f seers w h o c a n n o t b e clearly identified with
"Israel," s e e Spec. 1.37; Spec. 2 . 4 4 - 4 8 (see also below, n. 3 9 ) ; Spec. 4.115; Praem. 26; Prob.
63, 74. In o n e passage (Spec. 3.161), Philo speaks about p e o p l e as "seers" w h o c a n n o t
clearly b e e q u a t e d with "Israel," at a specific historical m o m e n t . H e r e , h e narrates an
i n c i d e n t in w h i c h a regional tax collector wreaked v e n g e a n c e u p o n the relatives o f
debtors w h o h a d fled. T o escape torture, s o m e o f these relatives took their own lives.
Philo describes t h e m as p e o p l e "who perceived m o r e clearly through their souls than
t h r o u g h their eyes."
4
Expressions that describe specific individuals are as follows: ό βλέπων, t h e s e e i n g
o n e : Leg. 2.93 (Moses); ό ορών, the seeing o n e : Leg. 3.24 (Abraham), 38 (an individual
Israelite); Cher. 67 (Jacob, but n o t "Israel"; here ορών has as an object ή άποιος φύσις,
the nature without quality); Somn. 1.33 (Reuben—this reference, however, may imply
physical s e e i n g ) ; ό τοΰ δντος όρατικός, t h e o n e that can s e e t h e Existent: Ebr. 107
(Abraham).
5
Deus 139, Migr. 38, Her. 78, QG 4.138 (here the Greek is uncertain).
94 CHAPTER THREE
Philo's Vocabulary
6
T h e e t y m o l o g y όρων θεόν appears with or without the definite article e i g h t e e n
times in the extant Greek works and o n c e in QG 3.49, where the Greek is uncertain.
T h e passages from the extant Greek works are as follows: Leg. 3.38, 172, 186, 212; Sacr.
134; Post. 63, 92; Conf. 56; Her. 78; Congr. 51; Fug. 208; Mut. 81 (2); Somn. 1.171; Somn.
2.173; Abr. 57; Praem. 44; Legat. 4. Two of these references are equated with abstractions
and are therefore n o t i n c l u d e d in my examination of passages: Leg. 3.186, in w h i c h
the expression is τό όρων τον θεόν (η.) and refers to the part of the m i n d ( ν ο υ ς ) that
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 95
sees G o d , a n d Somn. 2.173, in which the etymology explains what "Israel" m e a n s , but
"Israel" symbolizes "the m i n d that is able to contemplate G o d a n d the cosmos" (see n.
1).
T h e e x p r e s s i o n τό όρατικόν γένος appears eleven times in the extant Greek works
and possibly four other d m e s in QGE where the Greek is uncertain. T h e extant Greek
passages are as follows: Deus 144; Conf. 9 1 ; Migr. 18, 5 4 (here the phrase is τό όρατικόν
του δντος γένος, t h e race/class that can see the Existent); Fug. 140; Mut. 109, 189; Somn.
2.276, 2 7 9 ; Mos. 2 . 1 9 6 ( h e r e t h e phrase is amplified as follows: τό όρατικόν κ α ι
επιστημονικό ν γένος, the race/class that can see a n d know); QE 2.46 (this passage has a
Greek f r a g m e n t i n w h i c h t h e phrase appears). T h e QE passages where the Greek is
uncertain are QE 1.21; QE 2.42, 43, 76.
7
ό ρ ω ν stands for "Israel" thirteen times in the e x t a n t Greek works a n d in Q G E
possibly four times, b u t t h e Greek is uncertain. Passages in w h i c h ό ρ ω ν stands for
"Israel" in the extant Greek works are Leg. 2.34; Leg. 3.15; Sobr. 13; Conf. 146, 148, 159;
Migr. 2 1 , 39, 113, 125; Somn. 1.129; Somn. 2.23, 44. In Somn. 2.23, the plural όρώντες is
used. Conf. 146 is n o t i n c l u d e d in the examination o f passages because "Israel," t h e
ό ρ ω ν , is e q u a t e d with an abstraction, the λόγος (Logos). (This passage is discussed in
the previous chapter in c o n n e c t i o n with t h e Prayer of Joseph.) Passages in Q G E in
w h i c h t h e Greek is uncertain are QG 4.233; QE 2.38, 47 ( 2 ) . For passages in w h i c h
β λ έ π ω ν stands for "Israel," see below, n. 20.
8
E.g., Congr. 5 1 , Fug. 208, Abr. 57, Praem. 44, QG 3.49, QG 4.233, Legat. 4.
9
E.g., Leg. 2.34; Conf. 56; Migr. 113, 125, 224; Somn. 1.129, 171; Somn. 2.44. In s o m e o f
these examples, the shorter form o f the etymology, i.e., όρων or βλέπων is used.
1 0
For t h e etymology or a shorter form as a substitute, see, e.g., Leg. 3.15, 8 1 , 172; Sobr.
13; Conf. 159; QE 2.47. For t h e etymology as an alternative expression, s e e , e.g., Leg.
3.212; Sacr. 134; Post. 6 3 , 9 2 . Passages in which the phrase όρατικόν γένος serves as a
substitute include Migr. 18; Fug. 140; Mut. 109, 189; Somn. 2.276; Mos. 1.196; QE 1.21; QE
2.42, 4 3 , 4 6 , 76. Passages in which όρατικόν γένος serves as an alternative expression
include Deus 144, Conf. 9 1 , Migr. 54, Somn. 2.279.
96 CHAPTER THREE
The Relationship Between the Etymology ορών θεόν and the Phrase όρατικόν
γένος
1 1
oi όρατικοι, those w h o can see: Plant. 46 (here the referent is "Israel"); Somn. 1.39
and Decal. 24 (here the referent is unclear), oi όρώντες, those w h o see: Somn. 2.23 (here
the referent is "Israel"); Deus 139 and Her. 78 (here the word describes p r o p h e t s ) .
1 2
For other examples, see n. 3.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 97
s e e i n g G o d , h o w e v e r , is quite different f r o m t h e k i n d o f s e e i n g i m p l i e d in
t h e G e n e s i s narrative.
Like the etymology, the expression όρατικόν γένος may have h a d a
s i m i l a r p r e - P h i l o n i c history. A p p e a r i n g t h r o u g h o u t P h i l o ' s e x e g e t i c a l
writings a n d w i t h i n b o t h literal a n d symbolic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , this e x p r e s
sion may also be an inherited c o m m o n p l a c e , w h i c h originally served
simply as a title for t h e n a t i o n Israel. A c c o r d i n g l y , ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς m a y
h a v e b e e n a n e x e g e t i c a l "family n a m e " a d a p t e d f r o m t h e " e p o n y m o u s
1 3
a n c e s t o r " ο ρ ώ ν θ ε ό ν , [ t h e ] o n e that s e e s G o d . As s u c h , t h e p h r a s e
ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς m a y n o t originally have d e n o t e d t h e k i n d o f s e e i n g P h i l o
associates w i t h it. Instead, this e x p r e s s i o n t o o may have b e e n l i n k e d t o t h e
e x p e r i e n c e n a r r a t e d in G e n e s i s 3 2 o f its e p o n y m o u s a n c e s t o r "Israel,"
[ t h e ] o n e that s e e s G o d , or p e r h a p s to a separate e x p e r i e n c e in the n a t i o n ' s
history, s u c h as t h e revelation at M o u n t Sinai (see, e.g., E x o d . 2 0 : 2 2 ) .
B o t h ορών θ ε ό ν a n d ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γένος, t h e n , may have c h a n g e d in m e a n
i n g o v e r t i m e . W e h a v e j u s t o b s e r v e d that t h e k i n d o f s e e i n g o r i g i n a l l y
d e n o t e d by e a c h t e r m is q u i t e different f r o m P h i l o ' s p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n
c e p t i o n s o f s e e i n g G o d . A s e c o n d i m p o r t a n t observation is that o c c a s i o n a l
ly w h e n P h i l o u s e s t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s , t h e ability to s e e o r to s e e G o d d o e s
n o t a d d any m e a n i n g to t h e discussion. ( H e r e , o f c o u r s e , I a m s p e a k i n g o f
s e e i n g in t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e . ) Instead, t h e t e r m s are simply equiva
l e n t n a m e s o r a u t o m a t i c substitutes for "Israel."
W h e n t h e ability to see or to s e e G o d is relevant to the passage, t h e titles
carry t h e i r "semantic w e i g h t , " that is, they s e e m t o e m p h a s i z e t h e s e n s e
o f p e o p l e w h o c a n really s e e o r s e e G o d . W h e n t h e ability to s e e is n o t
relevant, t h e n this ability appears to exist in n a m e only. T h u s , in t h e s a m e
way t h a t s o m e o n e t o d a y w i t h t h e s u r n a m e "Baker" is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a
b a k e r o r s o m e o n e w i t h t h e s u r n a m e "Little" is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o f s m a l l
stature, s o t o o , t h e entity c a l l e d ορών θ ε ό ν o r ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς m a y n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y b e spiritually s i g h t e d .
In brief, t h e n , t h e k i n d o f s e e i n g originally signified by ορών θ ε ό ν a n d
ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς m a y h a v e b e e n q u i t e different f r o m t h e k i n d o f s e e i n g
w h i c h P h i l o so h i g h l y values; a n d , in s o m e P h i l o n i c c o n t e x t s , t h e ability
t o s e e o r s e e G o d is n o t relevant, so that t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s a p p e a r m e r e l y
as a u t o m a t i c e q u i v a l e n t s for "Israel." T h e s e two o b s e r v a t i o n s h i g h l i g h t
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t ορών θ ε ό ν a n d ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς m a y h a v e g r a d u a l l y
1 3
In the Bible, the nation Israel derives its n a m e from the patriarch J a c o b / I s r a e l .
T h u s Israel the patriarch is the e p o n y m o u s ancestor, i.e., the original f o u n d e r w h o s e
n a m e b e c o m e s attached to the d e s c e n d a n t nation. In the case of the etymology, my
a r g u m e n t is that ορών θεόν serves somewhat inexactly as an "eponymous ancestor" of
the "descendant" όρατικόν γένος. While the γ έ ν ο ς d o e s n o t have precisely the same
n a m e , i.e., ορών θεόν, the adjective όρατικόν is adapted from the original etymology.
98 CHAPTER THREE
The Etymology
As w e saw i n t h e last c h a p t e r , e x t e r n a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h e e t y m o l o g y
ο ρ ώ ν θ ε ό ν was p a r t o f a c o m m o n e x e g e t i c a l v o c a b u l a r y w h i c h P h i l o
i n h e r i t e d . Scholars have s p e c u l a t e d that it may b e b a s e d u p o n a n original
Hebrew etymology, ΠΚΊ a m a n [who] saw/sees God, and may be
d e r i v e d f r o m J a c o b ' s e n c o u n t e r d e s c r i b e d in G e n e s i s 3 2 . A l t h o u g h P h i l o
h i m s e l f n e v e r u s e s a n e q u i v a l e n t for man, some other Greek and
1 4
Latin s o u r c e s have ά ν ή ρ o r άνθρωπος ορών θ ε ό ν . Most o f t h e s e s o u r c e s are
later t h a n P h i l o , b u t o n e — t h e Prayer of Joseph—may b e c o n t e m p o r a r y t o
h i m . T h i s w o r k g i v e s t h e e t y m o l o g y as ά ν ή ρ ορών θ ε ό ν , a m a n w h o
sees G o d .
In t h e last c h a p t e r , I also s u g g e s t e d that P h i l o h i m s e l f — o r p e r h a p s a n
e a r l i e r t r a d i t i o n — m a y p u r p o s e l y d r o p a w o r d f o r en*, m a n , f r o m t h e
e t y m o l o g y i n o r d e r t o separate it f r o m i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with t h e historical
patriarch a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s ; to allow for m o r e flexibility to i n t e r p r e t t h e
e t y m o l o g y as a n abstraction, like t h e m i n d , soul, o r λ ό γ ο ς ( L o g o s ) ; o r to
d o w n p l a y t h e i m p r e s s i o n that a m a n c o u l d possibly s e e G o d . E l i m i n a t i o n
o f a w o r d f o r "man," t h e n , m a y e n a b l e P h i l o to d i s t a n c e t h e e t y m o l o g y
f r o m its original association with t h e patriarch's e n c o u n t e r in G e n e s i s 3 2
a n d to e m p h a s i z e i n s t e a d t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f
seeing God.
As w e h a v e n o t e d , P h i l o d i s c u s s e s t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f
1 5
s e e i n g G o d n o t o n l y in r e l a t i o n to "Israel," b u t also in o t h e r c o n t e x t s .
Accordingly, s e e i n g G o d may have had an i n d e p e n d e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l
significance, which eventually b e c a m e c o n n e c t e d with the etymology.
At s o m e p o i n t — p e r h a p s e v e n b e f o r e P h i l o — t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p o r t a n c e
o f t h e ability to s e e G o d may have a d d e d to o r e v e n r e p l a c e d t h e original
h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i m p l i e d by t h e e t y m o l o g y . T h i s s p e c i f i c c a s e ,
1 4
For specific references, see Lampe, PatHstic Greek Lexicon, 678, u n d e r "Ισραήλ"; and
Smith, "The Prayer of Joseph," Religions, 266, n. 3.
1 5
E.g., Opif. 6 9 - 7 1 ; Somn. 1.64-67; Somn. 2.226-27; Abr. 119-30; Contempt. 11; QG 4.138,
196; QE 2.51.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 99
T h e c a s e f o r a n e v o l u t i o n in m e a n i n g o f ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς is b u i l t u p o n
similar a s s u m p t i o n s to t h o s e j u s t described. Unfortunately, w e d o n o t have
e x t e r n a l e v i d e n c e , as w e d o with t h e e t y m o l o g y , to c l a i m that ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν
γ έ ν ο ς b e l o n g s t o a c o m m o n vocabulary. P h i l o is t h e o n l y writer w h o u s e s
this p r e c i s e p h r a s e , a n d variations o c c u r o n l y twice in later patristic
1 6
s o u r c e s . T h e a r g u m e n t offered b e l o w , t h e n , is b a s e d u p o n o b s e r v a t i o n s
o n l y a b o u t P h i l o ' s works t h e m s e l v e s .
D e s p i t e t h e lack o f o u t s i d e e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r , o n e can p o i n t t o s o m e
distinct d i f f e r e n c e s within t h e P h i l o n i c works. In QE, for e x a m p l e , as w e
shall s e e , t h e p h r a s e όρατικόν γ έ ν ο ς appears to serve o n l y as an a u t o m a t i c
r e p l a c e m e n t for "Israel," b e c a u s e t h e ability t o s e e is n o t relevant. S i n c e
t h e c o n t e x t s o f t h e QE interpretations d o n o t provide positive i n f o r m a t i o n ,
we c a n n o t decisively identify the όρατικόν γένος with any particular
g r o u p , a l t h o u g h two p a s s a g e s favor u n d e r s t a n d i n g this entity as Biblical
Israel.
In t h e E x p o s i t i o n , specifically in Mos. 2.196, t h e p h r a s e ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς
o c c u r s o n c e as a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Biblical n a t i o n , a l t h o u g h P h i l o d o e s n o t
u s e t h e w o r d "Israel" in this treatise. H e r e , t h e ability t o s e e d o e s c o n
tribute t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e interpretation. In this passage, t h e n , it is clear
that P h i l o u s e s όρατικόν γένος to d e s i g n a t e t h e Biblical n a t i o n a n d that h e
also i n t e n d s t h e p h r a s e to h i g h l i g h t t h e n a t i o n ' s ability to "see."
Finally, in t h e A l l e g o r y , t h e p h r a s e ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς f u n c t i o n s in a
variety o f ways. It may, for e x a m p l e , serve as an a u t o m a t i c substitute for
"Israel" w h e n t h e w o r d itself d o e s n o t a p p e a r or as an alternative e x p r e s
s i o n w h e n it d o e s appear. In s o m e c o n t e x t s , t h e ability to s e e is relevant to
t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p a s s a g e , w h i l e in o t h e r c o n t e x t s , it is n o t . M o s t
i m p o r t a n t , n o n e o f t h e passages ever provides e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n t o allow
c o n c l u s i v e identification o f t h e όρατικόν γένος, so that w h e t h e r t h e p h r a s e
is a m e r e title o r a m e a n i n g f u l d e s c r i p t i o n , w e c a n n o t link it w i t h any
particular social g r o u p .
T h e different characteristics, just described, a m o n g Philo's various
w r i t i n g s m a y b e r e l a t e d t o his d i f f e r e n t a i m s a n d a u d i e n c e s f o r e a c h
series, as I shall s u g g e s t at t h e e n d o f this chapter. T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s m a y
1 6
T h e phrase διορατικόν γένος occurs o n c e in Origen, Fragmenta in Evangelium Joannis
26:1, and o n c e in Eusebius, Demonstratio Evangelica 4:7:2.
100 CHAPTER THREE
"Israel"
1 7
See Danell, Studies in the Name Israel; Kuhn, "Ισραήλ, Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ς , Εβραίος"; Gutbrod,
" Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ς , Ι σ ρ α ή λ , Ε β ρ α ί ο ς " ; N e u s n e r , "Israel: Judaism and Its Social Metaphors";
i d e m , Judaism and Its Social Metaphors.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 101
p r o b a b l y , P h i l o a v o i d s this t e r m h e r e b e c a u s e f o r h i m "Israel" h a s a
different c o n n o t a t i o n , namely, as t h e g r o u p o f p e o p l e that s e e s o r s e e s G o d .
1 8
For expressions that include abstractions, see η . 1. Also, in three cases (Leg. 3.186,
Conf. 146, a n d Somn. 2 . 1 7 2 - 7 3 — s e e above, n n . 6 and 7 ) , even t h o u g h the expression for
seers itself d o e s n o t i n c l u d e an abstraction, the passage direcdy links the e x p r e s s i o n
with an abstraction, a n d so these passages are n o t c o u n t e d a m o n g the Fifty-four. In
s o m e o t h e r cases, Philo's expressions for seers may be part o f an interpretation a b o u t
the soul or m i n d , but the link between the expression a n d the abstraction is unclear.
See, e.g., the discussion below of Migr. 18 and n. 25.
1 9
Somn. 1.117 and Somn. 2.271 are discussed in Chapter Two as comprising Category
D — t h e unclear references. In S o m n . 1.117, "Israel" is n o t explicitly i n t e r p r e t e d b u t
serves as an i m p l i e d contrast to "those w h o are blind in the eyes o f the soul rather
than o f the body a n d d o n o t know the rays o f virtue" (my translation). Somn. 2 . 2 7 1 ,
w h i c h interprets N u m . 21:17, m e n t i o n s οί φιλοθεάμονες, those w h o are f o n d o f c o n t e m
plating, b u t it is unclear w h e t h e r these p e o p l e are i n t e n d e d to c o r r e s p o n d to "Israel,"
w h i c h is cited in the verse. Mos. 2.271 speaks of the Biblical n a t i o n as "the w h o l e
p e o p l e w h o until recently had b e e n the m o s t sharp-sighted o f all the nations" (my
t r a n s l a t i o n ) . Similarly, Spec. 1.54 describes apostates—i.e., "members o f t h e n a t i o n
[ w h o ] betray the h o n o u r d u e to the One"—as c h o o s i n g "darkness in preference to the
brightest l i g h t a n d [ b l i n d f o l d i n g ] the m i n d w h i c h h a d the power o f k e e n vision."
In the two latter cases, it is n o t certain w h e t h e r the characterizations are related to
t h e e t y m o l o g y for "Israel" or are instead simply metaphorical descriptions.
2 0
For a list o f passages that use όρων, όρων θεόν, and όρατικόν γένος, see above, n n . 6
102 CHAPTER THREE
and 7. β λ έ π ω ν occurs in Leg. 2.46; Leg. 3.81, 172 (this passage has 6 ών, the O n e w h o
exists, as an object); Migr. 224; Somn. 1.114. όρατικός occurs in Mut. 258 (here the word
appears in the dative singular and may be either masculine or n e u t e r ) ; a n d Plant. 4 6
(here the word appears in the plural as ό ρ α τ ι κ ο ί ) . In QE 1.12, the word ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ς may
appear, but the Greek is uncertain. T h e phrase οί όξύ καθορώντες occurs in Agr. 81 and
Fug. 19.
2 1
See above, n n . 6 and 7.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 103
c o n v e n i e n c e , t h e e x e g e t i c a l s e r i e s t o w h i c h e a c h p a s s a g e b e l o n g s is
i n d i c a t e d i n p a r e n t h e s e s n e x t t o t h e n a m e o f t h e passage. O n l y Legat. 4
c o m e s f r o m a n o n - e x e g e t i c a l work.
For the Egyptians almost alone a m o n g the nations have set u p earth as a power to
c h a l l e n g e heaven. Earth they h e l d to be worthy of the h o n o u r s d u e to a g o d , a n d
refused to r e n d e r to heaven any special tribute of reverence, acting as t h o u g h it
were right to shew respect to the outermost regions rather than to the royal palace.
(Mos. 2.194)
C h a n g i n g f r o m t h e aorist to t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e , P h i l o t h e n g o e s o n to
e x p l a i n that t h e Egyptians revere t h e earth b e c a u s e , u n l i k e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s
w h i c h are w a t e r e d by rain f r o m h e a v e n , t h e l a n d o f Egypt is w a t e r e d by
t h e yearly f l o o d i n g o f t h e N i l e . T h e Egyptians t h e r e f o r e r e g a r d t h e river
with t h e k i n d o f r e v e r e n c e o w e d to a g o d (Mos. 2 . 1 9 5 ) .
After this brief d i g r e s s i o n f r o m t h e story, P h i l o d e s c r i b e s t h e e n c o u n t e r
b e t w e e n t h e b l a s p h e m e r a n d t h e Israelite:
E s c h e w i n g s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e quarrel, P h i l o e x p a n d s
i n s t e a d u p o n t h e character o f t h e half-Egyptian m a n , t e l l i n g that h e l o s e s
c o n t r o l o f h i m s e l f b e c a u s e o f h i s a n g e r a n d also that h e is z e a l o u s for
Egyptian a t h e i s m . W h a t m a k e s his transgression e s p e c i a l l y o u t r a g e o u s is
that h e dares t o curse G o d w h e n e v e n to bless H i m is reserved for o n l y t h e
b e s t a n d purest. It is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r P h i l o m e a n s by this last characteri
z a t i o n t o d e s c r i b e o n l y t h e priests o r w h e t h e r h e m a y also i n c l u d e o t h e r s
w h o h a v e p u r i f i e d t h e m s e l v e s properly. In any event, t h e p e r s o n f r o m t h e
r a c e / c l a s s that is able to s e e a n d k n o w stands in sharp contrast to t h e half-
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 105
Legat. 4 (Non-Exegetical)
T h i s is a n o t h e r p a s s a g e in w h i c h w e c a n identify "Israel," t h e o n e t h a t
s e e s G o d , w i t h a real s o c i a l g r o u p , i.e., t h e J e w s . P h i l o e x p l a i n s t h a t
"Israel" m e a n s "one that s e e s G o d " in his p r o l o g u e to this treatise, w h i c h
tells a b o u t t h e travels o f a n A l e x a n d r i a n J e w i s h e m b a s s y to C a l i g u l a a n d
t h e e v e n t s that l e a d u p to it. T h i s is the only e x t a n t n o n - e x e g e t i c a l work in
w h i c h P h i l o u s e s t h e w o r d "Israel," a n d h e m e n t i o n s it h e r e o n l y o n c e ,
a l o n g w i t h t h e e t y m o l o g y . M u c h o f t h e treatise d e s c r i b e s t h e suffering o f
A l e x a n d r i a n Jewry a n d t o s o m e e x t e n t t h e travails o f Palestinian Jewry as
well. B e c a u s e t h e larger c o n t e x t o f t h e treatise is a b o u t t h e Jews, it is clear
that P h i l o m e a n s t o identify t h e m with "Israel."
O n e o f t h e c h i e f p u r p o s e s o f t h e p r o l o g u e is t o a r g u e for divine provi
d e n c e . P h i l o b e g i n s with t h e o b s e r v a t i o n that p e o p l e p l a c e m o r e faith in
fate t h a n in n a t u r e , a n d h e attributes this m i s p l a c e d faith t o r e l i a n c e u p o n
s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n i n s t e a d o f i n t e l l e c t (Legat. 1 - 2 ) . W h i l e t h e sight o f t h e
s e n s e s s e e s o n l y w h a t is n e a r , t h e k e e n e r sight o f r e a s o n s e e s i n t o t h e
future. P e o p l e w e a k e n r e a s o n ' s vision, h o w e v e r , t h r o u g h drink a n d o t h e r
i n d u l g e n c e or, e v e n w o r s e , t h r o u g h i g n o r a n c e (Legat. 2 ) . N o n e t h e l e s s
106 CHAPTER THREE
P h i l o a r g u e s that t h e c u r r e n t situation s h o u l d c o n v i n c e e v e n t h o s e w h o
have lost faith in G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e :
If t h e s i g h t o f h u m a n m o d e l s i n s p i r e s p r o p e r c o n d u c t , b e c a u s e G o d
e x e m p l i f i e s t h e h i g h e s t e x c e l l e n c e , it follows that vision o f H i m m u s t call
f o r t h w e l l - f o u n d e d virtue a n d e x c e l l e n c e in t h e b e h o l d e r s . H e r e , P h i l o
d e s c r i b e s G o d in s u c h a way as t o p l a c e H i m a b o v e any p h i l o s o p h i c a l
c o n c e p t , like the G o o d (τό αγαθόν) or t h e Beautiful (τό κ α λ ό ν ) .
P h i l o g o e s o n to say that r e a s o n (ό λόγος) c a n n o t s u c c e e d in ascending
to G o d , n o r c a n it e v e n find words to describe H i m or His p o w e r s (Legat. 6 ) .
In t h e rest o f t h e p r o l o g u e , P h i l o c o m m e n t s a b o u t G o d ' s p o w e r s (Legat. 6)
a n d a b o u t t h e b e n e f i c i a l a s p e c t s o f H i s p u n i t i v e p o w e r s in particular
(Legat. 7).
S i n c e this treatise d e p i c t s t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e Jews, "Israel" m u s t b e
u n d e r s t o o d implicitly t o refer to t h e m . B e s i d e s u s i n g t h e d e s i g n a t i o n s
"Israel" a n d "one that s e e s G o d , " P h i l o also describes t h e m as "the suppli
ants' r a c e / c l a s s w h i c h has b e e n allotted or has allotted itself ( π ρ ο σ κ ε κ λ ή -
2 2
ρωται) t o G o d . " T h e n o t i o n that this r a c e / c l a s s is G o d ' s special p o r t i o n
2 2
Legat. 3 is the o n l y passage in w h i c h Philo uses the e x p r e s s i o n "suppliants'
race/class" (ίκετικόν γένος). O n c e again, his use of γένος, race/class, as o p p o s e d to έθνος,
n a t i o n , is worth n o t i n g as typical, since h e usually uses γ έ ν ο ς rather than έ θ ν ο ς in
relation to "Israel." T h r o u g h o u t Legat., Philo uses τό έθνος to refer to the Jews and
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 107
seems to m e a n by this specifically the Jews of Alexandria. H e uses γένος to describe the
Jews in Legat. 178, 2 0 1 , a n d 346. In each of these three cases, h e s e e m s to m e a n the
e n t i r e Jewish race ( w h e t h e r by birth or c h o i c e ) , as o p p o s e d to the A l e x a n d r i a n
Jewish έ θ ν ο ς .
A l t h o u g h the adjective ίκετικός d o e s n o t appear elsewhere, Philo d o e s use the word
ικέτης, suppliant, in a variety of ways to describe those w h o are suppliants of o t h e r
p e o p l e (e.g., the Jews in Egypt, Mos. 1.34-36; see also Prob. 64) and suppliants of G o d
(e.g., Migr. 124, Fug. 56, Spec. 2 . 2 1 7 ) . It is interesting that h e describes two specific
g r o u p s as suppliants: the Levites, as suppliants of G o d (Ebr. 94, Somn. 2 . 2 7 3 ) , a n d
proselytes, as suppliants o f God (Spec. 1.309) and of the law (Spec. 2.118). Philo's use of
Ικέτης in general suggests that the designation "the suppliants' r a c e / c l a s s " may be
i n t e n d e d to e m p h a s i z e that "Israel" or the Jews have a relationship to G o d w h i c h
m i g h t b e available to a n y o n e w h o c h o o s e s to b e c o m e His suppliant. Elsewhere in
P h i l o ' s works, for e x a m p l e , the s u p p l i a n t r e p r e s e n t s s o m e o n e w h o has a d i r e c t
relationship to G o d w h e t h e r or n o t that person b e l o n g s to a particular ethnic g r o u p .
Especially striking are Virt. 79 a n d 185, in which Philo suggests that the suppliant's
direct relationship to G o d is m o r e important than m e m b e r s h i p in the n a t i o n (i.e.,
Biblical Israel).
2 3
T h e s e verses are discussed in the n e x t chapter. T h e language in Deut. 32:9, w h i c h
says that Israel b e c a m e the portion of God's inheritance ( σ χ ο ί ν ι σ μ α κ λ η ρ ο ν ο μ ι ά ς ) , is
s o m e w h a t similar to the wording here, which says that Israel was allotted or allotted
itself (προσκεκλήρωται) to God. For Philo's use of the verb προσκληρόω in relation to the
Jews, see Chapter Five.
108 CHAPTER THREE
h o w e v e r , i n w h i c h P h i l o speaks a b o u t "Israel" as p e o p l e w h o c a n s e e , w e
c a n n o t decisively identify t h e s e p e o p l e with a real social g r o u p .
T o illustrate t h e n a t u r e o f t h e difficulties in i d e n t i f y i n g "Israel" w i t h a
p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p , b e l o w are six r e p r e s e n t a t i v e e x a m p l e s f r o m e a c h o f
Philo's e x e g e t i c a l series: t h r e e f r o m t h e Allegory (Congr. 5 1 , Migr. 18, Mut.
1 8 9 ) ; o n e f r o m the E x p o s i t i o n (Praem. 4 4 ) ; a n d two f r o m Q G E (QE 1.21 a n d
QE 2 . 4 3 ) . In a later s e c t i o n I shall review the overall characteristics o f e a c h
series.
Congr. 51 (Allegory)
N o w to see the best, that is the truly existing, is the lot o f the best [ r a c e / c l a s s ] ,
Israel, for Israel m e a n s [ o n e that sees G o d ] . T h e [race/class] that strives for s e c o n d
place sees the s e c o n d best, that is the heaven o f our senses, a n d therein the well-
o r d e r e d host of the stars, the choir that moves to the fullest and truest music. Third
are the sceptics, w h o d o n o t c o n c e r n themselves with the best things in nature,
w h e t h e r p e r c e i v e d by the s e n s e s or the m i n d , but s p e n d t h e m s e l v e s o n petty
quibbles a n d trifling disputes. T h e s e are the h o u s e m a t e s of R e u m a h , w h o 'sees
s o m e t h i n g , ' even the smallest, m e n incapable o f the quest for the better things
which m i g h t bring profit to their lives. (Congr. 5 1 - 5 2 )
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 109
By i n t r o d u c i n g t h e f i g u r e o f "Israel," P h i l o sets u p t h r e e g r o u p s o f
learners: Israel, M i l c a h , a n d R e u m a h . Israel, t h e b e s t class, s e e s t h e b e s t ,
i.e., G o d , "the truly e x i s t i n g (το δντως ov)"; in s e c o n d p l a c e is M i l c a h o r
t h e C h a l d e a n s , w h o s e e t h e h e a v e n s ; a n d last is R e u m a h o r t h e s c e p t i c s ,
w h o "see s o m e t h i n g . "
Clearly, h e r e "Israel" is t h e b e s t r a c e / c l a s s b e c a u s e it c a n s e e G o d .
M o r e o v e r , all t h r e e g r o u p s are d e f i n e d by w h a t t h e y c a n s e e , n o t by
ancestry. T o b e sure, Philo frequently uses the word "Chaldean" to
d e s c r i b e a s t r o n o m e r s , n o t necessarily a race d e f i n e d by birth. T h e sceptics
t o o are certainly n o t a g r o u p d e f i n e d by d e s c e n t . In a d d i t i o n , t h e p r e s e n t
s e n s e o f t h e verbs in this passage further l e n d s t h e i m p r e s s i o n that P h i l o is
d e s c r i b i n g t h r e e k i n d s o f c o n t e m p o r a r i e s w h o are classed a c c o r d i n g t o
what they can perceive.
In this passage, t h e n , "Israel" represents the class o f p e o p l e w h o c a n s e e
G o d , r e g a r d l e s s o f ancestry. A l t h o u g h w e c a n n o t rule o u t t h e possibility
that P h i l o m a y e q u a t e "Israel" with t h e Biblical n a t i o n o r h i s c o n t e m
porary Jews, n o t h i n g in t h e passage o r in the larger c o n t e x t o f t h e passage
m a k e s this e q u a t i o n definite. M o r e o v e r , Philo's earlier s t a t e m e n t that t h e
story p r e s e n t s facts a b o u t t h e s o u l a n d n o t a historical g e n e a l o g y o n l y
r e i n f o r c e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n that "Israel" d o e s n o t refer to t h e real historical
n a t i o n — e i t h e r in t h e past or p r e s e n t — b u t instead to a g r o u p d e f i n e d solely
2 4
by its ability to s e e G o d .
Migr. 18 (Allegory)
2 4
E x a m p l e s o f o t h e r passages in the Allegory where "Israel" appears to be u n d e r
stood primarily as o n e or a group that sees or sees God, but where we c a n n o t rule o u t
the possibility that it may also c o r r e s p o n d to the Biblical nation or the Jews, are as
follows: Post. 63; Deus 144; Sobr. 13; Conf. 148; Migr. 54, 113, 125; Her. 78; Fug. 19, 208;
Mut. 258; Somn. 2.276, 279. Similarly, in the following passages a b o u t J a c o b , it is
unclear w h e t h e r or n o t his identity as the o n e that sees God replaces or merely adds
to his historical identity: Migr. 39, Mut. 8 1 , Somn. 1.171-72.
110 CHAPTER THREE
are b u r i e d a n d f o r g o t t e n , any v i r t u e - l o v i n g t e n d e n c y is p r e s e r v e d by
m e m o r y . J o s e p h ' s b o n e s , t h e n , w h i c h t h e s o n s o f Israel will carry o u t
f r o m Egypt, r e p r e s e n t "those e l e m e n t s o f s u c h a s o u l as are left u n c o r -
r u p t e d a n d worthy o f b e i n g r e m e m b e r e d " (Migr. 17, m y translation).
O n e e x a m p l e o f w h a t r e n d e r s this soul worthy o f b e i n g r e m e m b e r e d is
J o s e p h ' s faith that G o d will save Israel f r o m Egypt o r i g n o r a n c e . P h i l o
writes, "These t h i n g s w e r e w o r t h y o f b e i n g r e m e m b e r e d : t h e b e l i e f that
' G o d will visit' t h e r a c e / c l a s s that c a n s e e a n d will n o t c o m p l e t e l y h a n d it
over to i g n o r a n c e , that b l i n d mistress" (Migr. 18, my translation).
T h i s e x e g e s i s , t h e n , is an allegory o f t h e s o u l — t h a t is, t h e "Joseph soul,"
part o f w h i c h l o v e s t h e b o d y a n d part o f w h i c h l o v e s virtue. Egypt, t h e
l a n d f r o m w h i c h G o d will b r i n g o u t t h e p e o p l e , is i n t e r p r e t e d symboli
cally as i g n o r a n c e . A m i d t h e s e s y m b o l s , P h i l o ' s e x a c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h e p h r a s e ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς is u n c l e a r . H e m a y i n t e n d t h e p h r a s e t o
s y m b o l i z e w h a t is g o o d in t h e s o u l — i . e . , t h e quality o r n a t u r e o f b e i n g
able to s e e — a n d thus, J o s e p h ' s w o r d s e x p r e s s faith that G o d will preserve
w h a t is g o o d in t h e soul f r o m i g n o r a n c e . O n the o t h e r h a n d , h e may also
i n t e n d t h e ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς to refer to t h e Biblical p e o p l e o r t o a l o o s e l y
d e f i n e d g r o u p o f t h o s e w h o s e e , w h o m G o d will save f r o m i g n o r a n c e .
S i n c e t h e p h r a s e όρατικόν γένος c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d in a variety o f ways, t h e
2 5
identity o f this γ έ ν ο ς r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s .
2 5
E x a m p l e s of o t h e r passages in the Allegory in which e x p r e s s i o n s for the "Israel
seers" are i n c l u d e d in allegorical or symbolic interpretations, a n d i t is difficult to
know h o w to interpret these expressions, include the following: Leg. 2.34; Leg. 3.38, 8 1 ,
172, 212; Sacr. 134; Post. 92; Agr. 81; Plant. 46; Conf. 56, 91; Migr. 224; Somn. 1.114.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 111
T o begin with S h e m , the son of the just N o a h , the ancestor of the [ r a c e / c l a s s that
can s e e ] ; h e is said to have b e e n a h u n d r e d years old w h e n h e begat Arphaxad, the
m e a n i n g of w h o s e n a m e is 'he disturbed affliction.' A n d surely it is e x c e l l e n t that
the soul's offspring s h o u l d harass and c o n f o u n d a n d destroy injustice, afflicted and
full o f evils as it is.
P h i l o m e n t i o n s S h e m b e c a u s e his a g e o f o n e h u n d r e d at t h e birth o f
A r p h a x a d illustrates t h e larger t h e m e h e is discussing. R e f e r e n c e t o S h e m
as s o n o f t h e j u s t N o a h a n d a n c e s t o r o f t h e ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς s e e m s t o b e
purely p a r e n t h e t i c a l . I n d e e d since P h i l o g o e s o n to allegorize A r p h a x a d as
t h e s o u l ' s o f f s p r i n g , it is n o t e v e n c l e a r w h e t h e r h e is t a l k i n g a b o u t
biological or symbolic relationships.
T h e p h r a s e ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς is similarly a m b i g u o u s . S e r v i n g as a
r e p l a c e m e n t p h r a s e for "Israel," it c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d e i t h e r as t h e Biblical
n a t i o n o r as a g r o u p o f s e e r s w h o s e d e s c e n t is irrelevant. In any c a s e ,
r e f e r e n c e to t h e όρατικόν γ έ ν ο ς is b e s i d e the m a i n p o i n t — i . e . , S h e m ' s a g e
o f o n e h u n d r e d at t h e birth o f A r p h a x a d — a n d t h e ability to s e e is n o t
e m p h a s i z e d in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . It is t h e r e f o r e n o t clear w h e t h e r t h e
p h r a s e is m e a n t to d e s c r i b e a quality that "Israel" h a s o r s i m p l y t o
2 6
substitute for t h e n a m e .
Praem. 4 4 (Exposition)
T h i s p a s s a g e illustrates y e t a g a i n t h e difficulty in i d e n t i f y i n g a r e f e r e n t
for "Israel" w h e n t h e t e r m a p p e a r s to describe a g r o u p d e f i n e d solely by
its ability t o s e e . T h e larger c o n t e x t o f t h e passage (Praem. 3 6 - 4 6 ) is a d e
scription o f t h e life o f J a c o b , "the practicer" (ό α σ κ η τ ή ς ) , a n d h i s rewards,
especially the reward—i.e., the vision of G o d — w h i c h h e receives w h e n
h i s n a m e is c h a n g e d t o "Israel." T h e portrayal o f J a c o b as a "practicer,"
t h e i d e a o f patriarchal rewards as this treatise p r e s e n t s t h e m , a n d t h e
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f J a c o b ' s n e w n a m e "Israel" as "one that s e e s G o d " are n o t
f o u n d in t h e Bible, h o w e v e r , b u t only in Philo's interpretations. F r o m t h e
start, t h e n , Praem. is n o t d i s c u s s i n g t h e Biblical o r historical reality o f
J a c o b b u t rather h i s symbolic role in P h i l o n i c e x e g e s i s .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , this treatise d o e s n o t provide sufficient i n f o r m a t i o n for
u s t o d e t e r m i n e h o w far P h i l o i d e n t i f i e s t h e "practicer" o f h i s i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n s w i t h t h e Biblical o r historical patriarch J a c o b . In fact, Praem.
d o e s n o t e v e n m e n t i o n t h e Biblical figures by n a m e .
C o m m e n t i n g that p e o p l e vary i n their m e t h o d s o f a p p r e h e n d i n g G o d
(Praem. 4 0 - 4 6 ) , P h i l o e n d s his a c c o u n t o f the practicer's life by d e s c r i b i n g
2 6
O t h e r passages in the Allegory in w h i c h expressions for "Israel seers" may b e
substitute phrases, w h o s e intrinsic m e a n i n g is n o t e m p h a s i z e d , i n c l u d e the follow
ing: Leg. 3.15, Conf. 159, Fug. 140, Mut. 109, and Somn. 2.23.
112 CHAPTER THREE
2
QE 1.21 ( Q G E ) *
2 7
T h e o n e other passage in the Exposition that m e n t i o n s "Israel" and the etymology
όρων θεόν is Abr. 57. H e r e t o o , Philo e x p o u n d s u p o n s e e i n g God, calling this "the
h e i g h t o f happiness." It is difficult in this passage to discern w h e t h e r Philo has in
m i n d the Biblical nation and its Jewish d e s c e n d a n t s or any p e o p l e w h o are able to
see God.
2 8
A l t h o u g h there is a Greek f r a g m e n t for this passage, it d o e s n o t i n c l u d e the
relevant part w h i c h may have the phrase όρατικόν γένος ( r a c e / c l a s s that can s e e ) .
Again, since the fragment for QE 2.46 d o e s attest to Philo's use of this phrase, I have
a s s u m e d that h e uses it in his other QE interpretations, and I have substituted this
phrase in my translation of this passage a n d the next, w h e r e Marcus uses "seeing
nation" a n d "contemplative race," respectively.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 113
QE2A3 (QGE)
In this s e c o n d e x a m p l e f r o m Q G E , t h e phrase ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς o n c e a g a i n
a p p e a r s t o b e an a u t o m a t i c substitute for "Israel." H e r e t o o , h o w e v e r , w e
c a n n o t identify this γ έ ν ο ς conclusively with a real g r o u p . QE 2 AS is also
o n e o f f o u r passages in w h i c h P h i l o uses t h e p h r a s e ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς i n a n
interpretation of Exodus 24, which describes the establishment of the
2 9
T h i s translation is modified according to the suggestion o f Petit, Quaestiones, ΟΡΑ,
33:237. In the LCL edition, Marcus translates the s e c o n d to last s e n t e n c e as follows:
"For g o o d m e n are the pillars of w h o l e communities, and they support cities a n d city-
g o v e r n m e n t s as if they were great houses."
3 0
T h e "literal" interpretation cited h e r e is followed by a "deeper m e a n i n g , " w h i c h
speaks o f "force" as the godly piety o f the soul. T h e "deeper sense" d o e s n o t contribute
to this investigation. O t h e r e x a m p l e s from QGE in which ό ρ ω ν , όρώντες, or ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν
γ έ ν ο ς may serve as automatic substitutes for "Israel" are QE 1.12; QE 2.38, 42, 4 3
(discussed b e l o w ) , 46, 47, and 76.
114 CHAPTER THREE
T h e two [Moses and Joshua] are potentially o n e , since n o o n e w o u l d say that those
w h o are o f like m i n d a n d like sentiments with o n e a n o t h e r are the same single
(person) e x c e p t in respect of another species. For J o s h u a ' is to be interpreted as
'salvation.' But is b e i n g saved by G o d m o r e appropriate to a n y o n e else than the
inspired soul, in w h i c h p r o p h e c y resounds, since even in (Moses') lifetime h e was
over the rulers and at (Moses') death h e was his successor? Rightiy, therefore, d o e s
h e g o u p as an assurance of two most necessary things: o n e , of the election of the
[ ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς ] , a n d the other, that the Law s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d n o t as an
invention of the h u m a n m i n d but as a divine c o m m a n d and divine words.
P h i l o ' s m e a n i n g h e r e is o b s c u r e . T h e f o l l o w i n g is a p o s s i b l e construal:
M o s e s a n d J o s h u a m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d as o n e , s i n c e b o t h h a v e p r o p h e t i c
ability. T h i s s u g g e s t s that w h e n G o d calls o n l y M o s e s , J o s h u a is a l s o
i n c l u d e d implicitly. M o r e o v e r , s i n c e J o s h u a leads t h e p e o p l e b o t h b e f o r e
a n d after M o s e s ' s d e a t h , h i s a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f M o s e s t o g e t t h e law
assures t h o s e after M o s e s that t h e όρατικόν γένος is i n d e e d c h o s e n a n d that
t h e law has a divine a n d n o t a h u m a n origin.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , P h i l o ' s o t h e r writings d o n o t p r o v i d e f u r t h e r i l l u m i n a
t i o n a b o u t this passage. T h e o t h e r i n s t a n c e s in w h i c h h e refers to J o s h u a
32
are n o t p e r t i n e n t , a n d h e d o e s n o t interpret E x o d . 24:13 anywhere else.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , P h i l o ' s e x e g e s i s in QE 2.43 s e e m s t o u n d e r s t a n d G o d ' s
g i v i n g t h e law t o M o s e s in t h e c o m p a n y o f J o s h u a as t h e e l e c t i o n o f t h e
ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς . T h e ability o f this γ έ ν ο ς to see d o e s n o t c o n t r i b u t e to t h e
s e n s e o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n o r d o e s this ability s e e m to b e c o n n e c t e d with
the e l e c t i o n o f the γένος. T h e e x p r e s s i o n όρατικόν γένος, t h e n , appears to b e
m e r e l y a substitute for t h e n a m e "Israel." T h a t P h i l o d o e s n o t e x p l a i n this
3 3
p h r a s e suggests that h e a s s u m e s its m e a n i n g is u n d e r s t o o d .
3 1
This observation will be discussed further in the conclusions to this chapter. Other
QGE passages in which Philo describes "Israel" or the όρατικόν γένος as c h o s e n are QG
3.49; QE 2.38, 4 2 , a n d 46. In QG 3.49, h e s e e m s to link c h o s e n n e s s with the
c o m m a n d m e n t for circumcision; in the QE 2 passages, e l e c t i o n is linked with the
giving o f the law.
3 2
Ebr. 96; Mut. 121; Mos. 1.216; Virt. 55, 6 6 - 6 9 .
3 3
T h e e n d of QE 2.43 gives a n o t h e r explanation of why J o s h u a a c c o m p a n i e s Moses,
but this d o e s n o t add to the present discussion.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 115
As o n e c a n o b s e r v e f r o m t h e e x a m p l e s j u s t d i s c u s s e d , w h e n t h e l a r g e r
c o n t e x t o f a p a s s a g e d o e s n o t p r o v i d e e n o u g h relevant i n f o r m a t i o n , it is
difficult, if n o t i m p o s s i b l e , to d e t e r m i n e w h o m P h i l o h a s in m i n d w h e n
h e speaks o f "Israel" as t h e o n e that sees G o d or the r a c e / c l a s s that c a n s e e .
S i n c e h e p r o v i d e s n o f u r t h e r g u i d a n c e o n this m a t t e r , o n e c a n o n l y
s p e c u l a t e a b o u t w h o t h e s e God-seers o r seers may b e . F o u r g r o u p s , listed
b e l o w , s u g g e s t t h e m s e l v e s as possibilities for w h o m a y b e l o n g to P h i l o ' s
"Israel." T h e s e g r o u p s are c o m p o s e d o f the following:
1) all r e s p e c t e d p h i l o s o p h e r s , o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y - m i n d e d people,
w h e t h e r they are Jews o r not;
2) a s u b s e t o f t h e Jews w h o are p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y - m i n d e d ;
3) all Jews; o r
4) all Jews, w h e t h e r p h i l o s o p h e r s or n o t , a n d all r e s p e c t e d non-Jewish
34
philosophers.
L e t u s c o n s i d e r e a c h o f t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s m o r e carefully. (All t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n s o f f e r e d b e l o w a b o u t P h i l o ' s attitude toward t h e J e w s are fully
d e v e l o p e d in C h a p t e r Five.)
T h e first p o s s i b i l i t y — t h a t "Israel" m a y consist o f all r e s p e c t e d p h i l o s
o p h e r s o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y - m i n d e d p e o p l e , w h e t h e r Jewish o r n o t — p l a c e s
i m p o r t a n c e u p o n p h i l o s o p h i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n b u t n o t e t h n i c affiliation.
W e have n o t e d that P h i l o ' s very ideas a b o u t t h e vision o f G o d are strongly
i n f l u e n c e d by his n o n j e w i s h p h i l o s o p h i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t . S i n c e h e k e e p s
his d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t s e e i n g G o d fairly separate f r o m his d i s c u s s i o n s about
J e w i s h b e l i e f s a n d p r a c t i c e s , it w o u l d s e e m that a n y o n e — J e w o r n o n -
J e w — w h o is spiritually c a p a b l e o f s e e i n g G o d m i g h t b e e l i g i b l e t o b e l o n g
to "Israel." P h i l o also speaks, h o w e v e r , a b o u t s e e i n g G o d in elitist t e r m s ,
o f t e n e m p h a s i z i n g h o w rare a n e x p e r i e n c e this is a n d h o w few are able to
attain it. T h e s e various observations suggest that "Israel" m i g h t e n c o m p a s s
a p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y k n o w l e d g e a b l e elite o f b o t h Jews a n d non-Jews.
T h e s e c o n d p o s s i b i l i t y — t h a t P h i l o has in m i n d a p h i l o s o p h i c a l e l i t e
consisting only of Jews—places importance u p o n both philosophical
s o p h i s t i c a t i o n a n d e t h n i c affiliation. As w e shall s e e , P h i l o b e l i e v e s t h e
J e w s are t h e o n l y p e o p l e w h o w o r s h i p the true G o d . T h o u g h h e d o e s n o t
say s o , h e m a y also t h i n k that o n l y m e m b e r s o f t h e p e o p l e w h o w o r s h i p
G o d c a n b e c a p a b l e o f s e e i n g H i m . In a d d i t i o n , w e have o b s e r v e d t h a t
3 4
I a m grateful to Prof. Alan M e n d e l s o n for p o i n t i n g o u t that Philo w o u l d n o t
i n c l u d e a thinker like Epicurus in the company of "Israel." I have therefore qualified
my s u g g e s t i o n s that n o n j e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r s m i g h t be part o f Philo's "Israel" by
speaking only o f respected n o n j e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r s .
116 CHAPTER THREE
3 5
S e e , e.g., Cher. 4 2 , Det. 22, Migr. 45, Somn. 1.39. See also Shroyer, "Alexandrian
Jewish Literalists," esp. 2 7 1 - 7 9 ; and Wolfson, Philo, 1:57-66. A l t h o u g h Philo d o e s n o t
specifically call t h e m "Jews," presumably h e is speaking only a b o u t Jews.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 117
3 6
O t h e r passages in w h i c h Philo highly praises n o n j e w i s h sages i n c l u d e Prob. 74
and Spec. 2 . 4 4 - 4 8 (see, e.g., below, n. 39).
3 7
This passage is discussed earlier in this chapter, and later, in Chapter Five. For
a n o t h e r passage in w h i c h Philo h o l d s the Jewish way o f life s u p e r i o r to that of
p h i l o s o p h e r s , s e e Contempl. 5 7 - 6 4 , w h e r e h e derisively c o m p a r e s t h e b a n q u e t s
described by X e n o p h o n and Plato with the banquets of the T h e r a p e u t a e , w h o live in
c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f the truths of nature, "following the truly sacred instructions o f the
p r o p h e t Moses" (Contempl. 6 4 ) . Strictly speaking, however, Philo's comparison here is
between the philosophers and the Therapeutae, n o t all Jews.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 119
3 8
O n this question, see Wolfson, Philo, 2:46-52, 61.
3 9
In this passage (Spec. 2 . 4 4 - 4 8 ) , Philo pays tribute to "all w h o practice w i s d o m
e i t h e r in Grecian or barbarian lands" (Spec. 2.44). H e describes t h e m as "the best
observers (θεωροί) of nature and all things in it" (my translation) and writes, "While
their b o d i e s are firmly p l a n t e d o n the land, they provide their souls with wings, so
that they may traverse the upper air and gain full contemplation ( π ε ρ ι α θ ρ ώ σ ι ) of the
powers w h i c h dwell there..." (Spec. 2.45). T h e context of this intriguing passage is a
discussion o f the Jewish holidays in general and, in specific, of the n o t i o n that every
d a y . i s a holiday. As Philo portrays it, the life of these p h i l o s o p h e r s e x e m p l i f i e s a
year-round holiday.
A l t h o u g h o n e m i g h t well i m a g i n e that such p e o p l e m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d part of
"Israel," Philo d o e s n o t call t h e m "Israel" nor d o e s h e address the question o f h o w
the two g r o u p s m i g h t be related. It is also interesting that this passage has n o n e of
the vocabulary for seeing that Philo uses in passages explicitly about "Israel" (see n. 2 ) .
120 CHAPTER THREE
4 0
M e m b e r s h i p r e q u i r e m e n t s for "Israel"—and for the Jews—are discussed further
in Chapter Six.
4 1
Abr. 57; Praem. 44; QG 3.49; QG 4.233; QE 2.30, 37; Legat. 4.
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 121
r a c e / c l a s s t h a t c a n s e e a n d k n o w " refers to t h e B i b l i c a l n a t i o n a n d
p e r h a p s its J e w i s h d e s c e n d a n t s , w h i l e in Legat. 4, P h i l o associates "Israel,"
t h e o n e that s e e s G o d , with his Jewish c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . B o t h p a s s a g e s are
f o u n d in works that are probably i n t e n d e d at least in part for "outsiders,"
a n d , as w e shall s e e , P h i l o m a y h a v e a s p e c i a l p u r p o s e h e r e w h e n h e
p r e s e n t s t h e past a n d p r e s e n t n a t i o n in this way.
B e l o w is a s u m m a r y , o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o series, o f h o w P h i l o u s e s
"Israel," t h e e t y m o l o g y , t h e p h r a s e όρατικόν γένος, a n d o t h e r e x p r e s s i o n s
f o r "Israel seers." T h e d i f f e r e n c e s w e c a n o b s e r v e a m o n g h i s v a r i o u s
w r i t i n g s c a n p e r h a p s b e b e s t u n d e r s t o o d w h e n w e take i n t o a c c o u n t
P h i l o ' s different a i m s a n d a u d i e n c e s , as discussed in t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n .
The Allegory
4 2
For this use of the etymology or a shorter form, see, e.g., Leg. 3.15, 81; Sobr. 13. For
όρατικόν γένος, see, e.g., Fug. 140; Mut. 109, 189 (on this last passage, see earlier in the
c h a p t e r ) . Cf. Plant. 4 6 a n d Mut. 258, in which ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ς is u s e d . T h e s e i s o l a t e d
o c c u r r e n c e s , in w h i c h the terms s e e m to be m e r e exegetical n i c k n a m e s a n d d o n o t
122 CHAPTER THREE
The Exposition
QGE
In Q G E , t h e w o r d "Israel" a p p e a r s f o u r t i m e s — t w i c e i n P h i l o ' s c o m
m e n t a r y (QG 3.49 a n d QG 4 . 2 3 3 ) , b o t h times with t h e e t y m o l o g y , a n d twice
in q u e s t i o n s that e i t h e r paraphrase ( Q E 2 . 3 0 ) or q u o t e (QE 2.37) t h e Bible.
(In t h e latter two r e f e r e n c e s , "Israel" a p p e a r s w i t h o u t a c o r r e s p o n d i n g
e x p r e s s i o n for seers.) In QE, "Israel" o c c u r s o n l y in two Biblical c i t a t i o n s
(just n o t e d ) ; it is n e v e r u s e d in t h e c o m m e n t a r y . E x p r e s s i o n s for s e e r s
serve as substitute p h r a s e s in this work n o t o n l y in t h e c o m m e n t a r y (QE
1.12, 2 1 ; QE2A2, 4 3 , 4 6 , 7 6 ) , b u t also in two Scriptural q u o t a t i o n s (QE 2.38
a n d 4 7 ) . S i n c e QE c o m m e n t s u p o n t h e B o o k o f E x o d u s , w h i c h p e r t a i n s
s p e c i f i c a l l y t o B i b l i c a l Israel's d e p a r t u r e f r o m E g y p t a n d its j o u r n e y
t h r o u g h t h e desert, it is especially surprising that t h e t e r m "Israel" a p p e a r s
so rarely t h e r e .
P h i l o ' s t e n r e f e r e n c e s in Q G E to seers w h o are "Israel" are strikingly
d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e in his o t h e r e x e g e t i c a l writings for several r e a s o n s .
First, t h e ability to s e e is a l m o s t always i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e
43
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In two cases (QG 3.49 a n d QG 4 . 2 3 3 ) , P h i l o m e n t i o n s t h e
e t y m o l o g y o r a s h o r t e n e d f o r m as m e r e l y p a r e n t h e t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
t h e m e a n i n g o f "Israel," w i t h o u t at all d e v e l o p i n g t h e t h e m e o f s e e i n g o r
s e e i n g G o d . I n t h e e i g h t r e m a i n i n g p a s s a g e s , l i s t e d a b o v e , in w h i c h
e x p r e s s i o n s for seers o c c u r , t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s appear to serve exclusively as
a u t o m a t i c s u b s t i t u t i o n s for "Israel." W h e t h e r "Israel" o r t h e s u b s t i t u t e
e x p r e s s i o n refers to t h e Biblical n a t i o n or to a g r o u p d e f i n e d o n l y by t h e
ability t o s e e is i m p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e .
S e c o n d , c o n t r i b u t i n g to t h e i m p r e s s i o n that the expression^ for seers d o
n o t e m p h a s i z e t h e m e a n i n g o f a g r o u p that is able to s e e o r s e e G o d is that
P h i l o d o e s occasionally c o m m e n t in Q G E a b o u t the vision o f G o d as a c o n
4 4
t e m p o r a r y p h i l o s o p h i c a l pursuit o r g o a l , b u t n e v e r in passages in w h i c h
"Israel" o r e x p r e s s i o n s for "Israel seers" o c c u r . Instead, in this series, t h e
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l g o a l o f s e e i n g G o d is a c k n o w l e d g e d
separately f r o m d i s c u s s i o n s o f "Israel seers." T h i s s e p a r a t e n e s s s u g g e s t s
t h e r e m a y well i n d e e d h a v e b e e n a n earlier stage o f u s e for b o t h t h e
e t y m o l o g y o f "Israel" a n d t h e p h r a s e ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς , w h e r e i n t h e s e
4 3
T h e t h e m e of s e e i n g G o d is pertinent in QE 2.47, which interprets E x o d . 24:17:
"Now the appearance of the glory of the Lord was like a devouring fire o n the top of
the m o u n t a i n in the sight of ( ε ν α ν τ ί ο ν ) the p e o p l e of Israel." In the question, Philo
quotes the verse as follows: "The form of the glory of the Lord (was) like a fire burn
ing before the sons of the s e e i n g o n e . " In the answer, however, Philo c o n c e n t r a t e s
u p o n the appearance of G o d rather than the ability of Israel to see H i m . "The s e e i n g
o n e " s e e m s to be merely a substitute expression for "Israel."
4 4
See, e.g., QG 2.34; QG 3.34; QG 4.1, 8, 2 1 , 138, 196; QE 2.39, 5 1 , 52. Especially striking
is QE 2.51: "For the b e g i n n i n g and e n d of happiness is to be able to see God."
"ISRAEL" AND THE ONES WHO CAN SEE 125
4 5
For references to interpretations of verses from Exodus 2 4 in Philo's other works,
see Biblia Patristica: Supplement, 67—68.
4 6
T h e QGE passages in w h i c h Philo describes "Israel" as c h o s e n are QG 3.49; QE
2.38, 4 2 , 4 3 , 46. Philo explicitiy describes "Israel" as the c h o s e n r a c e / c l a s s in Post 92
(το έπίλεκτον γένος) and possibly in Conf. 56 (γένος των επίλεκτων). T h e latter passage is
a m b i g u o u s a b o u t w h e t h e r the γένος is part of or the same as "Israel." For two instances
in w h i c h P h i l o uses the d e s i g n a t i o n "chosen r a c e / c l a s s " w i t h o u t the word "Israel,"
see QG 2.58, w h e r e "Israel" is n o t necessarily i n t e n d e d , and QG 2.65, w h e r e "Israel"
is clearly i n t e n d e d , e v e n t h o u g h the word itself is n o t m e n t i o n e d . For a discussion
a b o u t h o w P h i l o interprets these phrases a n d also Biblical verses that d e p i c t the
covenantal reladonship between G o d and Israel, see the n e x t chapter.
4 7
S e e G e n . 17:11; E x o d . 19:5, 2 4 : 7 - 8 . Philonic passages outside QGE that m e n t i o n
circumcision are Sobr. 8, Migr. 92, Somn. 2.25, and Spec. 1.1-11. O n the giving o f the
law generally, see Decal., especially 1-49, and Her. 1 6 7 - 7 3 . Most of Philo's discussions
126 CHAPTER THREE
Non-Exegetical Works
PHILONIC INTERPRETATIONS
OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD
AND BIBLICAL ISRAEL
1
T h e s e promises appear several times with variations. For God's promises to Abra
ham, see, e.g., G e n . 12:1-3, 7; 15:13-16, 1 8 - 2 1 ; 17:1-14, 16, 1 9 - 2 1 ; 18:18-19; 22:17-18;
Isaac: G e n . 2 6 : 2 - 5 , 24; Jacob: Gen. 2 8 : 1 3 - 1 5 ; 3 5 : 9 - 1 2 . God also establishes a covenant
with A b r a h a m .
2
For scholarly discussion about the covenant and related issues, see Klaus Baltzer,
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND BIBLICAL ISRAEL 129
Basically, t h e d i v i n e p r o m i s e s t o t h e p a t r i a r c h s a n d t h e c o v e n a n t
b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel involve G o d ' s c h o i c e o f o n e n a t i o n u p o n w h i c h
H e bestows His blessings. T h e covenant with the nation i n c l u d e s the
a d d e d feature o f a f o r m a l a g r e e m e n t e n t a i l i n g specific c o n d i t i o n s for t h e
3
p e o p l e t o f o l l o w , n a m e l y , o b e d i e n c e t o G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s . Israel
r e c e i v e s G o d ' s laws a n d statutes with few, if any, e x p l a n a t i o n s a b o u t t h e i r
i n t r i n s i c w o r t h o r m e a n i n g . F o r t h e m o s t part, t h e s e s t i p u l a t i o n s are
d e l i v e r e d with divine authority a n d n o o t h e r e x p l i c i t rationale.
T h e Bible d o e s n o t provide a c o n s i s t e n t reason for G o d ' s c h o i c e o f Israel
or its a n c e s t o r s . At t i m e s this c h o i c e r e m a i n s u n e x p l a i n e d ; at o t h e r t i m e s ,
it s e e m s t o b e b a s e d u p o n G o d ' s love; at still o t h e r times, G o d ' s c h o i c e o f t h e
n a t i o n is l i n k e d with H i s previous c o m m i t m e n t to t h e patriarchs.
In E x o d . 6 : 2 - 8 , for e x a m p l e , G o d declares that H e will bring t h e p e o p l e
o f Israel o u t o f Egypt t o t h e l a n d that H e p r o m i s e d t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s ,
i n s t r u c t i n g M o s e s t o tell t h e n a t i o n , "I will take y o u for m y p e o p l e , a n d I
4
will b e y o u r G o d " ( E x o d . 6:7) .
E l s e w h e r e , G o d stresses that t h e p e o p l e m u s t fulfill certain o b l i g a t i o n s :
"And n o w , if y o u will o b e y My v o i c e a n d k e e p My c o v e n a n t , y o u shall
b e t o M e a special p e o p l e a m o n g all t h e nations; for all t h e earth is M i n e ,
a n d y o u shall b e to M e a royal p r i e s t h o o d a n d a h o l y n a t i o n " ( E x o d . 1 9 : 5 -
6, m y t r a n s l a t i o n ) . Similarly, i n Lev. 2 6 : 3 - 1 3 , G o d a n n o u n c e s that if t h e
p e o p l e fulfill H i s c o m m a n d m e n t s , H e will u p h o l d H i s c o v e n a n t w i t h
The Covenant Formulary in Old Testament, Jewish, and Early Chnstian Writings, trans. David
E. G r e e n (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1 9 7 1 ) ; Walther Eichrodt, Theology of the Old
Testament, trans. J. A. Baker, 2 vols., T h e Old Testament Library (Philadelphia: West
minster Press, 1 9 6 1 ) , esp. vol. 1; Delbert R. Hillers, Covenant: The History of a Biblical
Idea, S e m i n a r s in t h e History o f Ideas (Baltimore: J o h n s H o p k i n s Press, 1 9 6 9 ) ;
Jaubert, La notion d'Alliance, esp. 2 7 - 6 6 ; J o n D. Levenson, Sinai and lion: An Entry into the
Jewish Bible, N e w V o i c e s in Biblical Studies, ed. A d e l a Yarbro Collins a n d J o h n J.
C o l l i n s (San Francisco: H a r p e r & Row, 1 9 8 5 ) ; D e n n i s J. McCarthy, Treaty and
Covenant: A Study in Form in the Ancient Oriental Documents and in the Old Testament, 2 n d ed.,
Analecta Biblica, 21 (Rome: Biblical Institute, 1978); George E. M e n d e n h a l l , Law and
Covenant in Israel and the Ancient Near East (Pittsburgh: Biblical C o l l o q u i u m , 1 9 5 5 ) ;
Gerhard v o n Rad, Old Testament Theology, trans. D. M. G. Stalker, 2 vols. (New York:
Harper & Row, 1962 and 1965), esp. vol. 1; Harold Henry Rowley, The Biblical Doctrine
of Election ( L o n d o n : Lutterworth Press, 1 9 5 2 ) ; Seock-Tae S o h n , The Divine Election of
Israel (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1991).
3
S o m e divine blessings to the patriarchs also m e n t i o n c o n d i t i o n s but, aside from
circumcision (Genesis 1 7 ) , these c o n d i t i o n s pertain generally to o b e d i e n c e to God's
c o m m a n d s , w h i c h are n o t specified. See, e.g., Gen. 17:1, 18:19, 22:18, 26:5.
4
As e x p l a i n e d in t h e N o t e to the Reader, Bible translations are from t h e RSV
( 1 9 5 2 ) , u n l e s s otherwise indicated. Occasionally the Greek Bible, w h i c h Philo uses,
differs significantly from the H e b r e w text, u p o n w h i c h the RSV is based. In these
i n s t a n c e s , I have e i t h e r m o d i f i e d the RSV translation to reflect t h e G r e e k a n d
i n s e r t e d the m o d i f i c a t i o n within brackets, or I have provided my own translations
based u p o n the Greek.
130 CHAPTER FOUR
For you are a p e o p l e holy to the Lord your God; the Lord your God has chosen y o u to
be [a special p e o p l e to H i m beyond all the nations] that are o n the face of the earth.
It was n o t because you [are] m o r e in n u m b e r than [all the nations] that the Lord
[preferred] you and chose you, for you [are] the fewest of all [the n a t i o n s ] ; but it is
because the Lord loves you, and is k e e p i n g the oath which h e swore to your fathers
... (Deut. 7:6-8)
Finally, w h i l e m o s t o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s d e p i c t G o d as i n i t i a t i n g t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p by s e l e c t i n g Israel or its ancestors, D e u t . 2 6 : 1 6 - 1 9 s u g g e s t s a
mutual choice indicating the nation's o b e d i e n c e to divine c o m m a n d
m e n t s as a central c o m p o n e n t :
O n this day the Lord your G o d has c o m m a n d e d you to d o all these ordinances and
d e c r e e s a n d you shall k e e p and d o t h e m with all your heart and with all your soul.
Today you have c h o s e n God to be your God and to walk in His ways a n d k e e p His
ordinances a n d decrees and obey His voice; and the Lord has c h o s e n you today to be
a special p e o p l e to H i m , just as H e said to you, to keep all His c o m m a n d m e n t s , and
that you be above all the nations, as H e has m a d e you famous and an object Of pride
and glorified, that you be a holy p e o p l e to the Lord your God, just as H e has spoken.
(Deut. 2 6 : 1 6 - 1 9 , my translation)
A s is typical o f h i s a p p r o a c h t o m o s t Biblical t h e m e s , P h i l o d o e s n o t
a d d r e s s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel i n o n e p l a c e o r in a
u n i f o r m way. E v e n i n his treatises o n Moses, w h i c h retell in part t h e story
5
Our p r e s e n t c o n c e r n is with Philo's interpretations of the Biblical account. In the
n e x t chapter, we shall consider his remarks about the Jews a n d their ancestors.
6
O n s o m e o f these problems, see Attridge, The Interpretation of Biblical History, 149,
esp. η . 1; Ephraim E. Urbach, The Sages: Their Concepts and Beliefs, trans. Israel Abra
h a m s (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), 5 2 5 - 5 4 .
132 CHAPTER FOUR
o f Israel's e x o d u s f r o m Egypt, P h i l o c o n c e n t r a t e s m o r e u p o n t h e r o l e o f
M o s e s t h a n u p o n t h e n a t i o n . W h e r e t h e Bible narrates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n G o d a n d Biblical Israel as a series o f e n c o u n t e r s b e t w e e n G o d a n d
t h e patriarchs a n d G o d a n d t h e n a t i o n , P h i l o deals with t h e s e e n c o u n t e r s
s y n c h r o n i c a l l y — n o t as a s e r i e s o f e v e n t s b u t as s e p a r a t e p a s s a g e s i n
d i f f e r e n t e x e g e t i c a l c o n t e x t s . T o l e a r n h o w h e u n d e r s t a n d s this r e l a t i o n
ship, t h e n , r e q u i r e s that w e e x a m i n e his discrete t r e a t m e n t s o f individual
p a s s a g e s . B e f o r e t u r n i n g t o this e x a m i n a t i o n , h o w e v e r , l e t u s briefly
c o n s i d e r h o w P h i l o d e a l s w i t h two specific t e r m s o r n o t i o n s w h i c h also
merit our attention, namely, the idea of the covenant and the phrase
"chosen p e o p l e [or r a c e / c l a s s ] . "
7
T h e word διαθήκη appears in the following Philonic passages: Leg. 3.85 (2); Sacr. 57
(2); Det. 6 7 - 6 8 ; Her. 313; Mut. 5 1 , 52 (3), 53, 57, 58 (3), 263; Somn. 2.223 (2), 224 ( 2 ) , 237;
Spec. 2.16. In addition, covenants are s p o k e n of in QG 3.40, 42, 60 and QE 2.34, 106.
E x c e p t for Spec. 2.16, in w h i c h the w o r d d e n o t e s a p e r s o n ' s will, all t h e o t h e r
references pertain to God's covenants with p e o p l e , e.g., N o a h , Abraham, Isaac, or the
n a t i o n Israel. For a survey of h o w Philo interprets God's covenant, see Jaubert, La
notion d 'Alliance, 4 1 4 - 3 7 .
8
In the Exposition, the word διαθήκη appears o n c e , in Spec. 2.16, where it refers to a
person's will. See also Colson, Philo, LCL, 7:316, nn. 1 and a.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND BIBLICAL ISRAEL 133
9
p e o p l e u n f a m i l i a r w i t h J e w s a n d J u d a i s m . A p o s s i b l e r e a s o n for this lack
o f a t t e n t i o n is t h a t writers m a y f e e l t h e d e p i c t i o n o f a n e x c l u s i v e , a n d
a p p a r e n t l y arbitrary, r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel o r b e t w e e n G o d
a n d t h e J e w s c o u l d b e offensive to outsiders. P e r h a p s this k i n d o f sensitiv
ity t o h i s a u d i e n c e m a y e x p l a i n why P h i l o d o e s n o t discuss t h e c o v e n a n t
in t h e E x p o s i t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e fact that h e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e t e r m in a
variety o f ways i n h i s o t h e r w r i t i n g s a n d t h a t h e n e v e r affirms t h e
Biblical s e n s e o f t h e c o v e n a n t suggests that h e may i n d e e d n o t c o n s i d e r it
central to t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel. W i t h o u t his treatises o n
t h e subject, h o w e v e r , w e c a n n o t draw any firm c o n c l u s i o n s .
General Observations
9
Attridge, The Interpretation of Biblical History, 149, esp. η. 1. For a different perspec
tive o n the use or non-use of a word for "covenant" in the rabbinic tradition, see Alan
F. Segal, "Covenant in Rabbinic Writings," The Other Judaisms of Late Antiquity, Brown
Judaic Studies, ed. Jacob N e u s n e r et al., n o . 127 (Adanta: Scholars Press, 1987), 1 4 8 - 6 5 .
1 0
Post. 92: τό έπίλεκτον γένος; Conf 56: γένος των επίλεκτων; Praem. 123: λ α ό ς εξαίρετος.
Post. 9 1 - 9 2 a n d Praem. 123 are e x a m i n e d further below. In Conf 56, it is unclear
w h e t h e r the c h o s e n o n e s are part o f or equal to "Israel." This is because w h e n Philo
m e n t i o n s the race/class of the chosen o n e s of Israel, γένος των επίλεκτων του Ι σ ρ α ή λ , h e
is interpreting the following phrase from Exod. 24:11: οί επίλεκτοι του Ι σ ρ α ή λ , the
c h o s e n o n e s o f Israel, which indicates only s o m e m e m b e r s of Israel.
134 CHAPTER FOUR
The Allegory
Sacr. 57
In this p a s s a g e — t h e o n l y o n e in t h e A l l e g o r y w h i c h e x p a n d s u p o n G o d ' s
c o v e n a n t w i t h I s r a e l — P h i l o u n d e r s t a n d s "covenant" differently f r o m t h e
Bible. In a d d i t i o n , h e u s e s D e u t . 9:5, w h i c h m e n t i o n s t h e c o v e n a n t , as a
p r o o f t e x t to s u p p o r t a p o i n t u n c o n n e c t e d to G o d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p with Israel.
D e u t . 9:5, q u o t e d b e l o w , explicitly speaks o f G o d ' s c o v e n a n t with Israel's
forefathers as a basis for H i s special favor to t h e p e o p l e in b r i n g i n g t h e m
i n t o t h e p r o m i s e d land:
1 1
This is the only passage in which Philo interprets Deut. 9:5. In Mut. 52, the term
"covenant" is also e x p l a i n e d as a symbol of God's grace. This passage interprets G e n .
17:2, a verse that speaks of God's covenant with Abraham.
136 CHAPTER FOUR
Sacr. 87
W h e n t h e n you acknowledge as G o d wills these four things, the 'new,' that is the
b l o s s o m or vigour; the 'roasted,' that is the fire-tested and invincible reason; the
'sliced,' that is the division o f things into their classes; the ' p o u n d e d , ' that is the
persistent practice a n d exercise in what the m i n d has grasped, y o u will bring an
offering of the first-fruits, even the first and best offspring of the soul.
i m m e d i a t e w i l l i n g n e s s to take to H i m s e l f true w o r s h i p p e r s , u n d e r s t o o d t o
b e t h o s e w h o offer "first fruits" in t h e way P h i l o d e s c r i b e s earlier. By
concentrating only u p o n the element of God's adoption of the people and
u s i n g this e l e m e n t t o s u p p o r t his o w n observation a b o u t G o d ' s r e a d i n e s s ,
12
P h i l o brackets entirely t h e original m e a n i n g o f t h e v e r s e s .
Post 91-92
W h e n G o d divided and partitioned off the nations o f the soul, separating those o f
o n e c o m m o n s p e e c h from those of a n o t h e r t o n g u e , and causing t h e m to dwell
apart; w h e n H e dispersed a n d p u t away from H i m s e l f the children o f the earth,
w h o m t h e lawgiver calls 'sons o f A d a m , ' t h e n did H e fix the b o u n d a r i e s of the
offspring o f virtue c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the n u m b e r of the angels; for there are as
many forms or 'nations' o f virtue as there are words o f God.
1 2
T h i s is the only passage w h i c h m e n t i o n s Exod. 6:7. T h e following passages also
interpret Lev. 26:12: Post. 122, Mut. 2 6 5 - 6 6 , Somn. 1.148, Somn. 2.248, Praem. 123. Except
for Praem. 123, discussed below, these other e x e g e s e s focus u p o n the first part o f the
verse—"I shall walk a m o n g you"—and redefine t h o s e a m o n g w h o m or "in w h o m "
G o d walks. Praem. 123 also interprets the s e c o n d part o f the verse: "You shall be a
p e o p l e to me."
1 3
T h e H e b r e w a n d Greek differ in the last part of Deut. 32:8. In the Hebrew, G o d
1
sets the b o u n d a r i e s of nations "according to the n u m b e r o f the sons of Israel (nBOD ?
' » ) " ; in the Greek, it is "according to the n u m b e r o f the angels o f G o d ( κ α τ ά
αριθμόν αγγέλων θεοΰ)."
138 CHAPTER FOUR
But what are t h e portions o f His angels, a n d what is the allotted share o f the All-
Sovereign Ruler? T h e particular virtues b e l o n g to the servants, to t h e Ruler t h e
c h o s e n [ r a c e / c l a s s ] o f Israel. For h e that sees G o d , drawn to h i m by surpassing
beauty, has b e e n allotted [or has allotted himself] as His portion to H i m [ w h o is
s e e n ] . (Post. 92)
1 4
See, e.g., Conf. 28, Migr. 173, Somn. 1.148.
1 5
S e e Plant. 5 8 - 6 0 for another e x a m p l e o f h o w Philo redefines Israel in an interpre
tation of the same passage, Deut. 32:7-9.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND BIBLICAL ISRAEL 139
Migr. 53-61
T h e fairly i n t r i c a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n this p a s s a g e p r o v i d e s a g o o d
i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t ways i n w h i c h P h i l o c h a n g e s t h e s e n s e o f
Biblical verses a b o u t G o d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p to Israel. T h e p a s s a g e i n t e r p r e t s
t h r e e r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s : G e n . 12:2, in w h i c h G o d p r o m i s e s A b r a h a m that
H e will m a k e h i m a "great n a t i o n " (Migr. 5 3 ) ; D e u t . 4 : 6 - 7 , w h i c h e m p h a
sizes that G o d is n e a r to t h e n a t i o n , calling it "a wise a n d k n o w i n g p e o p l e "
(Migr. 5 6 - 5 8 ) ; a n d D e u t . 7 : 7 - 8 , w h i c h says that G o d c h o o s e s t h e p e o p l e o f
Israel n o t b e c a u s e they are n u m e r o u s b u t b e c a u s e H e loves t h e m a n d is
k e e p i n g H i s o a t h with their forefathers (Migr. 5 9 - 6 1 ) . In this passage, P h i l o
c h a n g e s t h e s e n s e o f "great nation"; p r o v i d e s a different basis f r o m t h e
Bible for c a l l i n g it "a wise a n d k n o w i n g people"; r e d e f i n e s t h e "nation" t o
w h i c h G o d is near; a n d u s e s D e u t . 7 : 7 - 8 as a p r o o f text for an o b s e r v a t i o n
u n c o n n e c t e d to t h e Biblical c o n t e x t .
Migr. 5 3 - 6 1 is part o f a n e x t e n d e d allegory o f t h e soul, in w h i c h P h i l o
interprets G o d ' s d i r e c t i o n s to A b r a h a m t o leave his h o m e l a n d ( G e n . 1 2 : 1 -
3 ) . In this particular s e c t i o n , P h i l o is interpreting G e n . 12:2, in w h i c h G o d
p r o m i s e s A b r a h a m , "And I will m a k e o f y o u a great n a t i o n (έθνος μ έ γ α ) . "
P h i l o c o n s t r u e s this b l e s s i n g o f a "great n a t i o n " t o b e " i m p r o v e m e n t o f
t h e d o c t r i n e s o f virtue toward n u m b e r a n d g r e a t n e s s t o g e t h e r " (Migr. 5 3 ,
m y t r a n s l a t i o n ) . H e f o c u s e s u p o n t h e phrase "great n a t i o n " to d e v e l o p t h e
i d e a t h a t "great" signifies g r o w t h a n d i m p r o v e m e n t w h i l e "nation" d e
n o t e s p o p u l o u s n e s s o r large n u m b e r (Migr. 5 3 ) . T h e e n s u i n g t r e a t m e n t
( t h r o u g h Migr. 69) e x p o u n d s u p o n this t h e m e o f greatness a n d n u m b e r , or
quality a n d quantity, t h r o u g h e x p l o r a t i o n o f o t h e r o c c u r r e n c e s o f w o r d s
s u c h as "great," "many," o r "great n a t i o n " in o t h e r Biblical verses.
After Migr. 5 3 , o u r particular interest is in Migr. 5 6 - 5 8 , in w h i c h P h i l o
i n t e r p r e t s D e u t . 4 : 6 - 7 , a n d Migr. 5 9 - 6 1 , in w h i c h h e cites D e u t . 7 : 7 - 8 .
B e c a u s e this e x e g e s i s is fairly c o m p l i c a t e d , I h a v e d i v i d e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n
i n t o two sections.
1 6
This is the only instance in which the LXX translates *D as π ο ι ο ς . More c o m m o n
ly, it uses τίς or τις.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND BIBLICAL ISRAEL 141
So far it has b e e n shown that [at God's side a ready helpful power lies in wait to be
o f assistance] a n d that the Sovereign Ruler will H i m s e l f draw near for the benefit
o f those w h o are worthy to receive His benefits. But who are they that are worthy to
obtain these J Is it not clear that all the lovers of wisdom and knowledge are so? For these are
the wise a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g p e o p l e which was spoken of, e a c h m e m b e r o f w h i c h
is with g o o d reason great, since h e reaches o u t after great things; a n d after o n e
m o s t eagerly, never to be severed from God, the supremely Great, but without dis
may stedfasdy to abide His approach as H e draws near. (Migr. 5 7 - 5 8 , my emphasis)
A n d for this reason the sacred oracles contain this utterance: 'Not because ye are
n u m e r o u s b e y o n d all the nations did the Lord prefer a n d c h o o s e you out; for ye
surpass all the nations in fewness; but because the Lord loveth you.' For were a m a n
to desire to distribute, as it were i n t o nations, the crowd c o n t a i n e d in a single
soul, m a n y disorderly c o m p a n i e s w o u l d h e find, c o m m a n d e d by p l e a s u r e s or
desires or griefs or fears or again by follies a n d w r o n g d o i n g s , a n d the nearest
kinsfolk of these, but o n e only well-ordered, of which right reason is the captain.
{Migr. 60)
in fewness." P h i l o t h e n p r o v i d e s a n allegory o f t h e s o u l to e m p h a s i z e t h e
rarity o f w h a t is g o o d . Even t h e soul is a m i x t u r e o f g o o d a n d b a d , with t h e
b a d o u t n u m b e r i n g t h e g o o d . O n l y o n e e l e m e n t in t h e soul, right r e a s o n (o
ορθός λ ό γ ο ς ) , is w e l l - o r d e r e d . In this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f D e u t . 7 : 7 - 8 , t h e n ,
right reason, the only g o o d e l e m e n t a m o n g the e l e m e n t s of the soul,
c o r r e s p o n d s t o Israel, t h e smallest a m o n g the n a t i o n s .
P h i l o n o w shifts h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n away f r o m t h e a l l e g o r y o f t h e s o u l .
In Migr. 6 1 - 6 3 , h e a r g u e s that w h i l e h u m a n b e i n g s v a l u e t h e u n j u s t
m u l t i t u d e o v e r t h e s i n g l e j u s t p e r s o n , G o d p r e f e r s t h e few g o o d t o t h e
m a n y unjust. H e a d d u c e s further p r o o f t e x t s for this a r g u m e n t , b u t n o n e
pertains directly t o t h e s e l e c t i o n o f Israel.
In Migr. 5 9 - 6 1 , t h e n , P h i l o eclipses any s e n s e o f G o d ' s s e l e c t i o n o f t h e
e t h n i c g r o u p Israel by i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e n a t i o n as a symbol o f right r e a s o n
in t h e s o u l . M o r e o v e r , by a r g u i n g that G o d prefers t h e few g o o d t o t h e
m a n y evil, h e suggests that divine c h o i c e is b a s e d u p o n virtue rather t h a n ,
as t h e B i b l e i m p l i e s , l i n e a g e .
The Exposition
In t h e E x p o s i t i o n t o o , P h i l o c h a n g e s t h e m e a n i n g o f Biblical verses a b o u t
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d I s r a e l — b u t in a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t
way. T h e A l l e g o r y f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r p r e t s i n d i v i d u a l t e r m s a n d w h o l e
verses allegorically o r else u s e s verses as prooftexts to s u p p o r t p o i n t s u n r e
lated to t h e Biblical c o n t e x t . T h e E x p o s i t i o n , in contrast, o f t e n universalizes
t h e m e a n i n g o f Scripture by a p p l y i n g to all g o o d p e o p l e w h a t is said o f
Israel in particular.
As n o t e d earlier, P h i l o d o e s n o t m e n t i o n c o v e n a n t s b e t w e e n p e o p l e a n d
G o d at all in this series, e v e n t o give t h e m a n e w m e a n i n g . H e d o e s
emphasize the importance of observing God's c o m m a n d m e n t s , but he
g e n e r a l i z e s h i s d i s c u s s i o n in two ways. First, h e p r e s e n t s G o d ' s i n j u n c
t i o n s as e x h o r t a t i o n s c a l l i n g for u p r i g h t o r virtuous b e h a v i o r in g e n e r a l
i n s t e a d o f as specific l e g a l o r ritual r e q u i r e m e n t s that are part o f a n
a g r e e m e n t . S e c o n d , h e s p e a k s as t h o u g h t h e s e c o m m a n d m e n t s w e r e
d i r e c t e d t o w a r d any v i r t u o u s p e r s o n — n o t j u s t toward a specific n a t i o n .
T h e s e f e a t u r e s m a y p e r h a p s b e a c c o u n t e d for w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s that
P h i l o m a y b e w r i t i n g for a s s i m i l a t e d J e w s o r non-Jews u n f a m i l i a r w i t h
Jewish beliefs a n d practices.
1 7
A n o t h e r e x a m p l e from the Allegory in which Philo brackets the original m e a n
ing o f a verse by using it as a prooftext is Sobr. 66, which c o m m e n t s o n E x o d . 19:6:
"You shall b e to m e a royal priesthood and a holy nation." See also the interpretation
of this verse in the Exposition passage Abr. 57, and below, n. 18.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND BIBLICAL ISRAEL 145
A n d now, Israel, what d o e s the Lord your God require of you, but to fear the Lord
your G o d , to walk in all his ways, to love him, to serve the Lord your G o d with all
your heart a n d with all your soul, and to k e e p the c o m m a n d m e n t s and statutes o f
the Lord, which I c o m m a n d you this day for your good? (Deut. 10:12-13)
P h i l o p r e s e n t s t h e s e words o f M o s e s as follows:
1 8
Also of interest are Abr. 5 6 - 5 9 and Virt. 163-74. In Abr. 5 6 - 5 9 , Philo refers to Exod.
19:6: "You shall be to Me a royal p r i e s t h o o d a n d a holy nation" (my translation).
Philo e x p l a i n s that the n a m e o f the nation is "Israel," w h i c h m e a n s "one that sees
God," and h e g o e s o n to elaborate about the vision of God. H e r e t h e n , h e introduces
ambiguity a b o u t w h e t h e r "Israel" is the historical nation or a g r o u p d e f i n e d by its
ability to see G o d , ignoring the idea that G o d chooses the nation Israel to be a special
p e o p l e to H i m . In Virt. 1 6 3 - 7 4 , Philo interprets Deut. 8:11-18, which refers to God's
covenant with Israel. Philo omits m e n t i o n o f the covenant and interprets the verses as
applying to p e o p l e in general.
1 9
Philo also places love of God above fear of H i m in Deus 69; cf. Migr. 21.
146 CHAPTER FOUR
Praem. 79-126
Praem. 83-84
T h i s first s e c t i o n c o m m e n t s u p o n D e u t . 4 : 6 - 7 , w h i c h P h i l o also interprets
in Migr. 5 6 - 5 9 , d i s c u s s e d above. In that passage f r o m t h e Allegory, P h i l o
o m i t s t h e Biblical e m p h a s i s o n t h e n a t i o n ' s o b e d i e n c e to t h e c o m m a n d
m e n t s . H e r e in Praem., h o w e v e r , h e a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e
c o m m a n d m e n t s but generalizes the a u d i e n c e to w h o m the Biblical
m e s s a g e is a d d r e s s e d .
A g a i n , Scripture reads as follows:
o f all the n a t i o n s , as many as will hear all these o r d i n a n c e s , a n d they will say,
' B e h o l d this great n a t i o n is a wise a n d knowing p e o p l e . ' 7For what great n a t i o n
is there that has G o d drawing near to it as the Lord our G o d [draws near to us] in
all things for w h i c h we may call u p o n Him? (Deut. 4:5-7, my translation)
H e r e Israel is d i s t i n g u i s h e d , o n t h e o n e h a n d , by its c o m m a n d m e n t s
(verse 6) a n d , o n t h e o t h e r , by its special access to G o d (verse 7 ) .
As n o t e d a b o v e , t h e t r e a t m e n t o f this passage in Praem. 8 3 - 8 4 is part o f
P h i l o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e rewards g r a n t e d for o b e d i e n c e t o t h e d i v i n e
c o m m a n d m e n t s . T h e first c a t e g o r y o f b l e s s i n g s is victory o v e r o n e ' s
e n e m i e s . P h i l o i n t r o d u c e s this category (Praem. 8 0 - 8 1 ) with s o m e g e n e r a l
c o m m e n t s b a s e d u p o n D e u t . 3 0 : 1 1 - 1 4 a b o u t h o w t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s are
n o t t o o b u r d e n s o m e a n d s h o u l d b e f o l l o w e d in w o r d s , t h o u g h t s , a n d
d e e d s . In Praem. 8 2 , h e turns to D e u t . 4:6 a n d writes,
2 0
Cf. the often-quoted Migr. 93, in which Philo writes that observance of the laws is
as i m p o r t a n t as their spiritual m e a n i n g .
2 1
Perhaps since Philo is about to discuss victory over o n e ' s e n e m i e s as a reward for
following the c o m m a n d m e n t s , h e wishes to suggest that o b e d i e n c e to the laws w o u l d
stir a d m i r a t i o n e v e n a m o n g o n e ' s e n e m i e s . T h u s h e claims that the observation
148 CHAPTER FOUR
that t h e n a t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o d e s e r v e a d m i r a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , s i n c e P h i l o
speaks in t h e past t e n s e a b o u t t h e γ έ ν ο ς that has fulfilled G o d ' s c o m m a n d
m e n t s , h e appears to b e talking a b o u t t h e Jews a n d their ancestors.
Finally, h e c o n c l u d e s ,
Such a [ r a c e / c l a s s ( γ έ ν ο ς ) ] has its dwelling n o t far from God; it has the vision o f
ethereal loveliness always before its eyes, and its steps are g u i d e d by a heavenward
yearning. So that if o n e should ask 'what m a n n e r of nation is great?' (ποιον έθνος
μ έ γ α ) o t h e r s m i g h t aptly answer 'a n a t i o n which has G o d to listen to its [most
r e v e r e n t ] prayers a n d to draw n i g h w h e n they call u p o n h i m with a c l e a n
conscience.' (Praem. 84)
A g a i n , t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n i n D e u t . 4:7 c a n b e
u n d e r s t o o d e i t h e r as "What k i n d o f g r e a t n a t i o n is t h e r e ? " o r as "What
great n a t i o n is there?" as t h e H e b r e w i n t e n d s . In Migr. 5 6 - 5 9 , P h i l o an
swers this q u e s t i o n with t h e w o r d s that p r e c e d e in D e u t . 4:6, n a m e l y , that
t h e great n a t i o n is m a d e u p o f wise a n d k n o w i n g p e o p l e . H e r e , h o w e v e r ,
h e divides t h e e n t i r e q u e s t i o n p o s e d in D e u t . 4:7 i n t o a q u e s t i o n a n d a n
answer. I n s t e a d o f "What k i n d o f great n a t i o n is t h e r e that has G o d draw
i n g n e a r t o it? ..." h e asks, "What k i n d o f n a t i o n is great?" H i s answer is
b a s e d u p o n t h e rest o f D e u t . 4:7: t h e great n a t i o n is t h e o n e that has G o d
drawing n e a r to it w h e n e v e r its m e m b e r s call u p o n H i m .
In t h e q u e s t i o n p o s e d in Scripture, M o s e s i m p l i e s that Israel is t h e great
n a t i o n a n d h e calls G o d "our God." P h i l o , however, stops short o f identify
i n g t h e n a t i o n . I n s t e a d h e simply answers in t h e third p e r s o n , amplifying
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e call a n d t h e i n t e n t i o n o f the callers. T h u s h e writes that
t h e great n a t i o n is t h e o n e whose most reverent prayers r e a c h G o d a n d w h o s e
m e m b e r s f i n d H i m n e a r w h e n t h e y call u p o n H i m with pure conscience
(Praem. 8 4 , m y e m p h a s i s ) . U n l i k e t h e Scriptural verse, w h i c h gives t h e
s e n s e that G o d r e s p o n d s a u t o m a t i c a l l y t o t h e n a t i o n Israel w h e n e v e r its
p e o p l e s u m m o n H i m , this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n suggests that H e r e s p o n d s o n l y
w h e n a call is m o t i v a t e d by g e n u i n e h o l i n e s s a n d purity.
W h a t is especially striking a b o u t this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n — a t least c o m p a r e d
with h i s t r e a t m e n t in t h e A l l e g o r y — i s P h i l o ' s e m p h a s i s u p o n f o l l o w i n g
t h e laws in p r a c t i c e . H e r e h e u p h o l d s b o t h characteristics o f t h e g r e a t
n a t i o n m e n t i o n e d in t h e B i b l e — o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e laws a n d n e a r n e s s t o
G o d . W h i l e t h e o r i g i n a l w o r d s in D e u t e r o n o m y are a d d r e s s e d t o t h e
historic p e o p l e Israel, h o w e v e r , P h i l o derives f r o m t h e m a g e n e r a l l e s s o n
for all t i m e : e v e n o n e ' s "worst e n e m i e s " will a d m i r e t h e k i n d o f p e o p l e
w h o u p h o l d t h e laws. By u s i n g t h e past t e n s e , h e i m p l i e s that u p u n t i l
n o w , t h e s e p e o p l e have b e e n t h e Jews a n d their ancestors.
Praem. 123
By i d e n t i f y i n g t h e " c h o s e n p e o p l e " as t h e m i n d o f t h e m a n o f w o r t h ,
P h i l o c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g e s t h e original m e a n i n g o f a verse that d e s c r i b e s
G o d ' s c h o i c e o f t h e n a t i o n Israel to b e His p e o p l e . T h e universal "God o f
all" b e c o m e s t h e p e r s o n a l G o d o f t h e m i n d o f t h e m a n o f w o r t h , n o t o f a
specific n a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , u n l i k e a specific p e o p l e , t h e m i n d is n o t subject
to any particular ruler, b u t to G o d a l o n e . In c h a n g i n g t h e r e c i p i e n t o f t h e
150 CHAPTER FOUR
b l e s s i n g s f r o m t h e n a t i o n Israel to t h e m a n o f w o r t h a n d in u n d e r s t a n d
i n g t h e " c h o s e n p e o p l e " to b e t h e m i n d o f s u c h a m a n , P h i l o s h o w s h i s
readers that t h e particular t e a c h i n g s o f J u d a i s m carry universal i m p o r t .
Virt. 184-86
For the Lord your G o d will again rejoice in you for g o o d , j u s t as H e rejoiced in
your fathers, if you will listen to the voice of the Lord your God, to observe a n d d o
all His c o m m a n d m e n t s a n d His o r d i n a n c e s and His d e c r e e s that are written in
the b o o k o f this law, if you turn to the Lord your God with all your heart a n d with
all your soul. For this c o m m a n d m e n t which I c o m m a n d you today is n o t excessive
n o r is it far from you... T h e word is very near you, in your m o u t h a n d in your
heart and in your hands, that you may d o it. (Deut. 3 0 : 9 - 1 1 , 14, my translation)
In Virt. 1 8 4 - 8 5 , P h i l o writes,
2 2
Further discrepancies—which are n o t immediately relevant to the present discus
s i o n — c a n be f o u n d in other manuscripts of this passage. See David T. Runia, "Under
n e a t h C o h n and Colson: T h e T e x t o f Philo's De Virtutibus," SBL 1991 Seminar Papers,
SBL Seminar Paper Series, ed. E u g e n e Lovering, Jr., n o . 30 (Atlanta: Scholars Press),
126.
2 3
In the LCL edition, F. H. Colson n o t e s that the phrase καθάπερ αυτός αίρεΐται,
w h i c h h e translates, "what God's own c h o i c e makes him," is obscure, a n d h e suggests
several possible emendations. See LCL, 8:276-77, n. 3 and 448, n o t e o n Virt. 185.
152 CHAPTER FOUR
T h i s e x e g e s i s is b a s e d u p o n a p o i n t o f g r a m m a r i n D e u t . 2 6 : 1 7 - 1 8 ,
n a m e l y , t h a t t h e p r o n o u n "you" i n t h e s e v e r s e s is s i n g u l a r . B e c a u s e
M o s e s ' s w o r d s are a d d r e s s e d to a singular "you," a n d b e c a u s e a s i n g u l a r
"you" is said t o c h o o s e a n d b e c h o s e n , P h i l o derives t h e l e s s o n that a n
i n d i v i d u a l s u p p l i a n t is o f e q u a l value t o a w h o l e n a t i o n . H e c o n c l u d e s ,
"Against t h e w o r t h o f a w h o l e n a t i o n t h e wise m a n c a n h o l d h i s o w n ,
p r o t e c t e d by t h e i m p r e g n a b l e wall o f godliness" (Virt. 1 8 6 ) .
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , P h i l o d o e s n o t a c k n o w l e d g e t h e literal s e n s e o f t h e
Biblical verses that G o d a n d t h e p e o p l e o f Israel c h o o s e e a c h o t h e r , a n d h e
o m i t s r e f e r e n c e t o t h e n a t i o n ' s a g r e e m e n t to o b e y G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s .
I n s t e a d , h e c h a n g e s t h e s e n s e o f a passage that d e s c r i b e s t h e e x c l u s i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e historical n a t i o n to give t h e i m p r e s s i o n
that s u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n b e a c h i e v e d by any g e n u i n e suppliant, a wise
m a n , w h o seeks t o p l e a s e G o d a n d to serve H i m .
QGE
p a s s i n g w h e n s p e a k i n g o f t h e ark o f t h e c o v e n a n t . In a d d i t i o n , t h e E n g l i s h
translation uses the phrase "chosen race" several times, a n d s o m e
passages refer to t h e e l e c t i o n o f Israel o r t h e όρατικόν γένος ( t h e r a c e / c l a s s
2 4
that c a n s e e ) .
As w e saw i n t h e last c h a p t e r , P h i l o c o m m e n t s m o r e h e r e t h a n i n h i s
o t h e r e x e g e t i c a l w o r k s o n verses f r o m E x o d u s 2 4 , i n w h i c h G o d estab
l i s h e s H i s c o v e n a n t with t h e p e o p l e o f Israel. O u t o f s e v e n r e f e r e n c e s in
Q G E to t h e " c h o s e n race" or to t h e e l e c t i o n o f t h e race, f o u r o c c u r in h i s
d i s c u s s i o n o f E x o d u s 2 4 . Finally, P h i l o links e l e c t i o n with t h e c o m m a n d
m e n t f o r c i r c u m c i s i o n a n d with t h e giving o f t h e law, b o t h o f w h i c h t h e
B i b l e associates w i t h G o d ' s c o v e n a n t s , first with A b r a h a m , a n d t h e n w i t h
Israel. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e relevant p a s s a g e s in this series
is fairly o b s c u r e . B e f o r e e x a m i n i n g two s a m p l e passages (QG 3.49 a n d QE
2 . 4 2 ) , I shall first review briefly Philo's c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e c o v e n a n t w i t h
Israel a n d a b o u t t h e "chosen race."
2 4
For r e f e r e n c e s , s e e b e l o w u n d e r "The ' C h o s e n Race"' a n d also n. 27. W h e n
q u o t i n g from LCL, I use the expression "chosen race," as Marcus translates it, since we
have so few Greek fragments to verify Philo's original l a n g u a g e . S e e , however, the
discussion o f QE 2.42 and n. 31 below.
2 5
This is presumably a reference to Philo's two treatises about covenants, which have
n o t survived; cf. Mut. 53.
2 6
QE 2.106 is q u o t e d below. For a discussion of this passage, see Jaubert, La notion
d 'Alliance, 4 2 9 - 3 1 . T h e text of the passage is as follows:
Why d o e s H e say that they shall light the lamps 'outside the veil which is over the
covenant'?
May it n o t b e b e c a u s e the things within (the veil) were incorporeal a n d intelli
gible a n d h a d n o n e e d o f sense-perceptible light, for they were themselves their
o w n l i g h t a n d m o r e l u m i n o u s stars than those w h i c h are seen? But the o n e
within the veil h e calls 'of testimony,' symbolically indicating that the c o v e n a n t o f
G o d is the o n l y true o n e , and that those w h i c h ( m e n ) write in testaments are
p e r m a n e n t a n d secure in themselves and are similar. A n d this is the m e a s u r e o f
all things in c o m m o n , the ideas a n d intelligible forms. N o w external things are
also secure but still n o t in the same way, since they have a sense-perceptible a n d
154 CHAPTER FOUR
J o s h u a a c c o m p a n i e s M o s e s u p t h e m o u n t a i n "as a n a s s u r a n c e ... o f t h e
e l e c t i o n o f t h e [όρατικόν γ έ ν ο ς ] . " H e r e Philo d o e s n o t elaborate u p o n divine
e l e c t i o n b u t simply takes it for g r a n t e d . T h e s a m e is true for all t h e o t h e r
p a s s a g e s in w h i c h h e m e n t i o n s e i t h e r t h e "chosen race" or t h e e l e c t i o n o f
t h e race.
T h e f o l l o w i n g two p a s s a g e s illustrate s o m e o f t h e f e a t u r e s d i s c u s s e d
a b o v e : QG 3 . 4 9 s h o w s h o w P h i l o links t h e e l e c t i o n o f "Israel" w i t h t h e
c o m m a n d m e n t f o r c i r c u m c i s i o n , a n d QE 2 . 4 2 s h o w s h o w t h e p h r a s e
" c h o s e n race" s e e m s to b e an a u t o m a t i c d e s i g n a t i o n .
QG3A9™
In this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , P h i l o u n d e r s t a n d s t h e c o m m a n d for c i r c u m c i s i o n
as a sign o f t h e divine e l e c t i o n o f Israel. H e also draws parallels b e t w e e n
t h e e l e c t i o n o f Israel a n d creation (cf. QE 2 . 4 6 ) . H i s e x a c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
"Israel," h o w e v e r , is n o t clear, a n d his e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e link b e t w e e n
c h o s e n n e s s a n d c i r c u m c i s i o n is vastly different f r o m t h e Biblical d e p i c
t i o n o f c i r c u m c i s i o n as a sign o f the covenant.
B a s i n g h i m s e l f u p o n G e n . 17:12, in w h i c h G o d c o m m a n d s A b r a h a m
that all m a l e s s h o u l d b e c i r c u m c i s e d o n t h e e i g h t h day, P h i l o asks w h y
c i r c u m c i s i o n is c o m m a n d e d for t h e e i g h t h day. After d e s c r i b i n g various
qualities a s s o c i a t e d with t h e n u m b e r e i g h t , h e e x p l a i n s w h y this n u m b e r
is l i n k e d w i t h c i r c u m c i s i o n :
A l t h o u g h t h e t h o u g h t in this passage is s o m e w h a t o b s c u r e , P h i l o s e e m s
t o b e saying that t h e n u m b e r e i g h t signifies two g r o u p s o f s e v e n ( h e b
d o m a d s ) , since eight encompasses o n e group of seven and the b e g i n n i n g
o f a s e c o n d g r o u p o f seven. T h e first h e b d o m a d is associated with c r e a t i o n ,
2 8
T h e Greek fragment for this passage d o e s n o t parallel the section u n d e r discussion.
2 9
I am i n d e b t e d to Prof. Sze-kar Wan for his assistance with this translation from
the A r m e n i a n . Bracketed suggestions and m i n o r modifications for the sake of clarity
are my own. U s e o f the word γένος is explained in n. 30.
156 CHAPTER FOUR
w h i l e t h e s e c o n d is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e l e c t i o n o f Israel. S e v e n is
a s s o c i a t e d with c r e a t i o n b e c a u s e G o d c o m p l e t e d c r e a t i o n in six days a n d
c e l e b r a t e d this c o m p l e t i o n o n t h e seventh.
N o d i r e c t e x p l a n a t i o n is g i v e n for t h e link b e t w e e n e l e c t i o n a n d t h e
s e c o n d g r o u p o f s e v e n . A n implicit a s s u m p t i o n , h o w e v e r , s e e m s to b e that
c i r c u m c i s i o n s i g n i f i e s e l e c t i o n . S i n c e c i r c u m c i s i o n is c o m m a n d e d f o r
t h e e i g h t h day, t h a t is, t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e c o n d h e b d o m a d , this
second h e b d o m a d thereby represents election. Moreover, the passage
s e e m s t o c o n t e n d that t h e fact that c i r c u m c i s i o n is c o m m a n d e d for t h e
e i g h t h day s h o w s — t h r o u g h t h e s e two s y m b o l i c g r o u p s o f s e v e n — t h a t
Israel is naturally r i g h t e o u s , h a v i n g b e e n c r e a t e d that way, a n d is also
30
c h o s e n by G o d , as signified t h r o u g h t h e c o m m a n d for c i r c u m c i s i o n .
A n i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n a b o u t this passage is h o w P h i l o u n d e r s t a n d s
"Israel." H e writes that t h e n a t i o n w h i c h was c o m m a n d e d t o c i r c u m c i s e
is c a l l e d "Israel," w h i c h m e a n s "one that s e e s G o d . " T h i s c o m m e n t , h o w
ever, s e e m s m e r e l y t o p r o v i d e a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e n a m e a n d a d d s
n o t h i n g to t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e passage. B e c a u s e P h i l o u s e s t h e past t e n s e
a n d b e c a u s e , a c c o r d i n g to t h e Bible, Israel is i n d e e d t h e d e s c e n d a n t n a t i o n
o f A b r a h a m to w h o m t h e c o m m a n d m e n t was g i v e n , t h e m o s t r e a s o n a b l e
way to c o n s t r u e "Israel" h e r e is as t h e Biblical n a t i o n . P h i l o ' s c o n c e r n
with this n a t i o n , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t have to d o with its historical o r c o n
t e m p o r a r y reality o r with t h e m e a n i n g o f its e l e c t i o n . I n s t e a d , h e f o c u s e s
u p o n t h e s y m b o l i c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e e i g h t h day w h e n c i r c u m c i s i o n is
commanded.
3 1
QE2.42
T h e m e a n i n g o f this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w h i c h s p e a k s a b o u t t h e " c h o s e n
γ έ ν ο ς " in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e g i v i n g o f t h e law, is similarly o b s c u r e .
N o n e t h e l e s s this p a s s a g e s h o w s that for P h i l o t h e p h r a s e " c h o s e n γ έ ν ο ς "
s e e m s t o b e a n a u t o m a t i c d e s i g n a t i o n . Even if P h i l o m a y i n t e n d to speak
o f t h e Biblical p e o p l e by u s i n g this d e s i g n a t i o n , h e d o e s n o t elaborate u p o n
t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f their b e i n g c h o s e n .
3 0
T h e n e x t part of this interpretation—which is n o t directly relevant to the present
d i s c u s s i o n — s e e m s to play u p o n Philo's various understandings of the word γ έ ν ο ς as a
g e n u s or idea a n d as a r a c e / c l a s s . In several places, Philo speaks a b o u t a γένος ( i . e . ,
g e n u s or idea) as incorruptible, in contrast to a species, which is corruptible. (See Cher.
5 - 7 , Post. 105, Her. 118, Mut. 7 8 - 8 0 , QG3.53; cf. Leg. 1.22-23 and Leg. 2.12-13.) W h e n h e
writes, therefore, that the γ έ ν ο ς will always be a γένος, presumably h e is playing u p o n
the different n u a n c e s o f the word. That is, the well-ordered γ έ ν ο ς (i.e., race or class)
will always be incorruptible γένος (genus or i d e a ) , never corruptible species.
3 1
B e c a u s e this passage has the phrase "contemplative race," I a m a s s u m i n g the
original Greek e x p r e s s i o n is όρατικόν γένος (race/class that can see) a n d have sub
stituted γένος for "race" in the phrase "chosen race."
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND BIBLICAL ISRAEL 157
3 2
In Opif. 1 - 3 , Philo simply distinguishes between the law ( ν ό μ ο ς ) a n d t h e world
( κ ό σ μ ο ς ) . In Abr. 3 - 5 , h e uses designations such as special laws (νόμοι έπι μ έ ρ ο υ ς ) ,
e n a c t e d ordinances (τεθειμένα διατάγματα), a n d laws laid down (κείμενοι νόμοι), o n the
o n e h a n d , a n d , o n the other, nature ( φ ύ σ ι ς ) , unwritten law (άγραφος ν ο μ ο θ ε σ ί α ) , a n d
laws e n d o w e d with life a n d reason (έμψυχοι καΐ λογικοί νόμοι).
158 CHAPTER FOUR
QGE: A Summary
T h e b r i e f i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d by Q G E r e g a r d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n G o d a n d Biblical Israel is c o n s o n a n t with o u r p r e v i o u s f i n d i n g s
that this c o m m e n t a r y has features uncharacteristic o f P h i l o ' s o t h e r works.
H e r e , for e x a m p l e , P h i l o associates t h e c h o s e n n e s s o f Israel w i t h c i r c u m
c i s i o n a n d t h e giving o f t h e law, a c o n n e c t i o n w h i c h t h e Bible m a k e s b u t
w h i c h Philo himself d o e s n o t make elsewhere. A d d i n g to o u r earlier
o b s e r v a t i o n s is that P h i l o s e e m s to u s e t h e p h r a s e " c h o s e n race" as a n
a u t o m a t i c d e s i g n a t i o n . H i s u s e o f this p h r a s e , m o r e o v e r , a n d his discus
s i o n o f t h e e l e c t i o n o f t h e race s e e m to p r e s u p p o s e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
w h a t e l e c t i o n m e a n s a n d w h o t h e "chosen race" is.
O n c e a g a i n , t h e n , o n e m i g h t c o n j e c t u r e that t h e atypical f e a t u r e s in
this series m a y reflect t h e o p i n i o n s o f a b r o a d e r c o m m u n i t y o f A l e x a n
drian Jewish e x e g e t e s than Philo's own l i k e m i n d e d associates. Even
t h o u g h n o t all s e g m e n t s o f this c o m m u n i t y may share t h e s a m e o u t l o o k
o n Scripture, t h e m e a n i n g o f a certain e x e g e t i c a l vocabulary is a s s u m e d
and understood.
e l e m e n t s as G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s , H i s p r e v i o u s c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e
patriarchs, o r H i s love o f t h e n a t i o n . In fact, by u s i n g r e l e v a n t verses as
p r o o f t e x t s , h e c o m p l e t e l y sidesteps t h e literal m e a n i n g o f t h e s e verses. In
this series, p r e s u m a b l y P h i l o w i s h e s t o u n c o v e r t h e d e e p e r m e a n i n g o f
S c r i p t u r e f o r t h o s e like himself, w h o c a n o r w h o w a n t t o "see" it. H e
t h e r e f o r e has n o n e e d to dwell u p o n the literal m e a n i n g o f Scripture o r its
ramifications.
In t h e E x p o s i t i o n , P h i l o p r e s e n t s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d
Biblical Israel as available t o a n y o n e w h o c h o o s e s to turn to G o d a n d live
virtuously. H e r e t h e " c h o s e n p e o p l e " b e c o m e t h e m i n d o f t h e w o r t h y
p e r s o n , a n d any true s u p p l i a n t is e q u a l in w o r t h to a w h o l e n a t i o n . P h i l o
d o e s e n j o i n f o l l o w i n g t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s , b u t h i s e x h o r t a t i o n s are n o t
restricted to t h e n a t i o n Israel. T h i s a p p r o a c h , w h i c h portrays a r e l a t i o n s h i p
to G o d as accessible to all, is well-suited t o a n a u d i e n c e o f "outsiders," i.e.,
p e o p l e w h o are n o t familiar with J u d a i s m o r w h o m a y b e p u t off by its
c l a i m s t o a n exclusive r e l a t i o n s h i p with G o d or by t h e s e e m i n g b u r d e n o f
its laws.
Finally, Q G E i m p a r t s very little i n f o r m a t i o n o n this subject. O n e c a n ,
h o w e v e r , n o t i c e that certain features are n o t typical o f Philo's o t h e r works,
s u c h as u s e o f t h e p h r a s e " c h o s e n race" as a n a u t o m a t i c d e s i g n a t i o n ;
assumption of a c o n n e c t i o n between chosenness and circumcision or
c h o s e n n e s s a n d t h e giving o f t h e law; a n d a t t e n t i o n to parts o f t h e B i b l e
like E x o d u s 2 4 u p o n w h i c h P h i l o d o e s n o t otherwise c o n c e n t r a t e . A g a i n ,
s u c h f e a t u r e s m a y reflect t h e c o n c e r n s o f o t h e r J e w i s h e x e g e t e s , a n d this
series m a y b e i n t e n d e d for a b r o a d e r e x e g e t i c a l c o m m u n i t y t h a n P h i l o ' s
o w n particular circle.
W h a t e v e r factors m a y i n f l u e n c e Philo's p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n G o d a n d Biblical Israel, h e d o e s i n t r o d u c e to this r e l a t i o n s h i p a
r a n g e o f n e w m e a n i n g s . If, h o w e v e r , h e d o e s n o t affirm that Israel stands
in a c o v e n a n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p with G o d a n d if t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p portrayed in
t h e Bible is a p p l i c a b l e to any g o o d p e r s o n or virtuous soul, t h e n h o w d o e s
P h i l o view Israel's d e s c e n d a n t s , t h e Jews, a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o G o d ?
T h i s is t h e q u e s t i o n to w h i c h we n o w turn.
CHAPTER FIVE
P h i l o d i s c u s s e s t h e J e w s m o s t e x t e n s i v e l y in o n e e x e g e t i c a l series, t h e
E x p o s i t i o n ; his two political treatises, Flacc. a n d Legat.; a n d his a p o l o g e t i c
work, t h e Hypothetica. H e also m e n t i o n s t h e J e w s s p o r a d i c a l l y in two
1
p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r e a t i s e s , Prob. a n d Aet. Of the r e m a i n i n g works, the
A l l e g o r y n e v e r a l l u d e s t o t h e Jews by n a m e a n d s p e a k s o n l y rarely a n d
1
Philo refers to the nation itself in Prob. 75, but most of his references to the Jews in
the p h i l o s o p h i c a l works are primarily to Moses, w h o m h e calls "the lawgiver o f the
Jews" (Prob. 29, 43, 68; Aet. 19). In Prob. 57, Philo m e n t i o n s the legislation of the J e w s .
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 161
2
in p a s s i n g a b o u t m e m b e r s o f t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . T h e E n g l i s h trans
lation of QGE m e n t i o n s the Jews only o n c e , but in the A r m e n i a n , the
3
w o r d is "Hebrews. "
F o r t h e m o s t part, P h i l o refers t o t h e p e o p l e o f his t i m e as t h e J e w s ( o i
Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ι ) , t h e n a t i o n o f Jews (τό Ι ο υ δ α ί ω ν έ θ ν ο ς ) , o r simply "the n a t i o n "
o r "our n a t i o n " (τό o r ήμέτερον έ θ ν ο ς ) . S o m e t i m e s t o o , h e speaks o f t h e Jews
as a polity ( π ο λ ι τ ε ί α ) o r a γένος (see, eg., above, p . 5 9 ) . As for t h e Biblical
n a t i o n , P h i l o calls t h e m t h e H e b r e w s (οί Ε β ρ α ί ο ι ) o r t h e p e o p l e (ό λ α ό ς ) .
O c c a s i o n a l l y , P h i l o also u s e s t h e t e r m "Jews" t o refer t o t h e B i b l i c a l
p e o p l e a l o n e o r e l s e t o refer t o t h e n a t i o n as a c o n t i n u o u s entity f r o m
B i b l i c a l t i m e s t o h i s o w n . F o r e x a m p l e , h e writes t h a t t h e J e w s w e r e
strangers i n Egypt (Mos. 1.34) e v e n t h o u g h , stricdy s p e a k i n g , h e is talking
a b o u t t h e H e b r e w s o f Biblical times. H e also describes t h e m o t h e r o f a s o n
by m i x e d m a r r i a g e as a J e w e s s ( Ι ο υ δ α ί α ) rather t h a n a H e b r e w i n relat
4
i n g a n e p i s o d e f r o m Lev. 2 4 : 1 0 - 1 6 . Finally, h e calls M o s e s "the legislator
5
o f t h e Jews" (ό των Τ ο υ δ α ί ω ν ν ο μ ο θ έ τ η ς ) a n d d e s c r i b e s A b r a h a m as "the
f o u n d e r o f t h e w h o l e J e w i s h n a t i o n " (ό του σ ύ μ π α ν τ ο ς Ι ο υ δ α ί ω ν έ θ ν ο υ ς
ά ρ χ η γ έ τ η ς , Mos. 1.7), u s i n g t h e t e r m "Jew" to d e n o t e t h e n a t i o n f r o m t h e
past u p t o his o w n time.
T h e Hypothetica, o n l y f r a g m e n t s o f w h i c h survive, h a s n o p r o p e r n a m e
f o r t h e n a t i o n e i t h e r b e f o r e o r d u r i n g P h i l o ' s t i m e ; i n s t e a d it u s e s ό
λ α ό ς ( t h e p e o p l e ) for t h e Biblical p e o p l e (Hypoth. 6.1, 2) o r τό έθνος ( t h e
n a t i o n ) f o r t h e past a n d p r e s e n t p e o p l e (Hypoth. 6 . 1 ) . O t h e r w i s e i n this
work, P h i l o s p e a k s o f b o t h past a n d p r e s e n t p e o p l e u s i n g a third p e r s o n
plural p r o n o u n .
T o s o m e e x t e n t , Philo's p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e J e w s — b o t h b e f o r e a n d c o n
t e m p o r a r y t o h i m — i s i n f l u e n c e d by a desire to portray t h e m in t h e b e s t
p o s s i b l e l i g h t , s i n c e all t h e w o r k s w h i c h m e n t i o n t h e m e x t e n s i v e l y
a p p e a r t o b e i n t e n d e d for a m i x e d a u d i e n c e o f J e w s a n d non-Jews. It is
striking that P h i l o d o e s n o t discuss t h e real Biblical o r J e w i s h n a t i o n i n
w o r k s m o s t likely i n t e n d e d f o r a s y m p a t h e t i c J e w i s h a u d i e n c e — i . e . , t h e
6
A l l e g o r y a n d Q G E . K e e p i n g in m i n d that P h i l o probably wants t o portray
t h e J e w s t o t h e i r b e s t advantage, I shall f o c u s n o t o n l y u p o n w h a t h e says
2
See, e.g., Migr. 8 9 - 9 3 and Somn. 2 . 1 2 3 - 2 4 .
3
QG 3.48 (see LCL, suppl. 1:243, n o t e d ) . In the context o f the passage, "Jews" makes
m o r e s e n s e than "Hebrews," since Philo is speaking a b o u t his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s w h o
practice circumcision. O n Philo's use of "Hebrews," see Chapter O n e .
4
Mos. 2.193. For a discussion o f this passage, see Chapter T h r e e .
5
Mos. 1.1; Prob. 29, 4 3 , 68; Aet. 19.
6
As I have argued earlier, Philo probably d o e s n o t discuss the nation in these works
b e c a u s e his readers are already familiar with Jewish beliefs a n d practices a n d are
i n s t e a d i n t e r e s t e d in e x p l o r i n g the m a n i f o l d m e a n i n g s o f Scripture. For further
discussion about Philo's different audiences, see the Introduction.
162 CHAPTER FIVE
Five Features That Characterize the Relationship Between God and the Jews
7
C o m m e n t s that o c c u r only o n c e w i t h o u t elaboration are f o u n d in Abr. 98, Mos.
2.189, a n d Virt. 77. In Abr. 98, Philo claims that the nation o f Abraham a n d Sarah's
descendants receives the office of prophecy for all humanity. (This passage is discussed
later in this chapter and in n. 60.) In Mos. 2.189, h e describes oracles that G o d directs
toward all h u m a n i t y a n d particularly toward "the r a c e / c l a s s that worships H i m for
w h o m H e o p e n s u p the road which leads to happiness" (my translation; see below, n.
6 0 ) . Finally, in Virt. 77, P h i l o describes the n a t i o n as h o l d i n g "the h i g h e s t rank
u n d e r the c o m m a n d o f the Creator a n d Father of all." This d e p i c t i o n may be based
u p o n perceived military imagery in Deut. 3 3 : 2 - 3 .
8
C o m p a r e , e.g., Mos. 1.279, in w h i c h Philo writes of the H e b r e w s that they are
"near o f kin to God" ( ά γ χ ί σ π ο ρ ο ι θ ε ο ΰ ) , and Spec. 4.14, in which h e says the same
thing a b o u t p e o p l e in general (άνθρωπος άγχίσπορος θεοΰ). See LCL, 6:420, n o t e b; cf.
also Virt. 79.
9
For o n e of the few instances where Philo presents a list of ideas, see Opif. 1 7 0 - 7 2 ,
in w h i c h h e summarizes the five lessons taught by Moses in the creation a c c o u n t .
G o o d e n o u g h calls this list "the first creed of history" (Introduction to Philo Judaeus, 3 7 ) .
Cf. Wolfson, Philo, 1:164-65; M e n d e l s o n , Philo's Jewish Identity, 2 9 - 4 9 .
1 0
Also significant w o u l d be a characteristic m e n t i o n e d only o n c e but with s o m e
elaboration; Philo, however, d o e s n o t provide any such instances. Since h e offers n o
further e x p l a n a t i o n a b o u t the o n e - t i m e c o m m e n t s cited in n. 7, it is difficult to
evaluate their significance in his overall thought.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 163
t h e s e c r i t e r i a , o n e c a n d i s t i n g u i s h f r o m a m o n g all h i s w r i t i n g s t h e
f o l l o w i n g five features that characterize t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d
t h e Jews:
1) T h e J e w s b e l i e v e in t h e o n e true G o d a n d w o r s h i p H i m by f o l l o w i n g
specific laws a n d c u s t o m s .
2) T h e J e w s serve as priestly intercessors b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e w h o l e
world.
3) T h e Jews have b e e n allotted or have allotted t h e m s e l v e s t o G o d .
4) T h e J e w s are especially b e l o v e d by G o d o r are especially G o d - l o v i n g .
5) T h e Jews are particular beneficiaries o f G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e .
The Biblical Sources Behind Philo's Discussion and Their Potential Ramifications
As n o t e d in t h e last c h a p t e r , t h e Bible p r e s e n t s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
G o d a n d Israel by d e s c r i b i n g G o d ' s p r o m i s e s to t h e patriarchs a b o u t t h e i r
d e s c e n d a n t s a n d by t e l l i n g o f H i s c o v e n a n t with t h e n a t i o n Israel itself, a
c o v e n a n t w h i c h e n t a i l s t h e c o n d i t i o n o f o b e d i e n c e to H i s c o m m a n d
m e n t s . It is n o t clear why G o d c h o o s e s Israel o r its ancestors. O n e e x p l a
n a t i o n is that H e loves t h e p e o p l e (e.g., D e u t . 7 : 7 - 8 ) ; a n o t h e r is that H e
c h o o s e s t h e m b e c a u s e o f H i s previous c o m m i t m e n t to t h e patriarchs (e.g.,
D e u t . 4:31, 7 : 7 - 8 , cf. 10:15). S o m e t i m e s G o d ' s c h o i c e is simply u n e x p l a i n e d
(e.g., Exod. 19:3-6, Deut. 2 6 : 1 6 - 1 9 ) .
It was also n o t e d that the Biblical portrayal may b e offensive to different
p e o p l e for a variety o f r e a s o n s . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i n c l i n e d i n d i v i d u a l s , f o r
e x a m p l e — w h e t h e r J e w s o r n o n - J e w s — m i g h t b e t r o u b l e d by t h e a p p a r e n t
1 1
In Mos. 2.196 a n d Legat. 4, Philo applies language h e uses for "Israel" to the Jews.
S e e the discussion o f these exceptional passages in Chapter T h r e e . In addition, Philo
uses the m e t a p h o r o f sight in Mos. 2.271 and Spec. 1.54. In Mos. 2.271, h e n o t e s that
b e f o r e their worship of the g o l d e n calf, the p e o p l e h a d b e e n the m o s t sharp-sighted
( ό ξ υ ω π έ σ τ α τ ο ς ) of all the nations. In Spec. 1.54, h e says that m e m b e r s o f the nation
w h o give u p h o n o r of the O n e — i . e . , apostates—"have c h o s e n darkness in preference to
the brightest light a n d b l i n d f o l d e d the m i n d which h a d the p o w e r of k e e n vision
(τυφλήν άπεργαζόμενοι διάνοιαν όξύ καθοραν δυναμένην)." Neither passage quite says,
however, that the Biblical nation or Philo's Jewish contemporaries can "see God."
164 CHAPTER FIVE
1. The Jews believe in the one true God and worship Him by following specific
laws and customs.
P h i l o d i s c u s s e s J e w i s h laws a n d p r a c t i c e s at l e n g t h in h i s Exposition
treatises, especially in Decal.-Spec. 4, a n d h e occasionally observes that t h e
ancestral c u s t o m s o f t h e p e o p l e set t h e m apart f r o m o t h e r n a t i o n s (Mos.
1 2
It s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d , o f course, that Philo inherits a tradition of exegesis and
d o e s n o t approach his Biblical sources in a vacuum. (See, e.g., the Introduction, esp. n.
49.) S o m e r e f e r e n c e s to o t h e r interpretations are cited in n n . 16, 2 2 , 35, a n d 38.
While it is n o t my p u r p o s e to trace the relationship b e t w e e n these interpretations
a n d t h o s e o f P h i l o , I offer these r e f e r e n c e s to illustrate h o w various e x e g e t e s in
antiquity a p p r o a c h e d similar Scriptural problems.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 165
1.278, Spec. 4 . 1 7 9 ) . T h r o u g h o u t t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s a n d e l s e w h e r e , t h e
n o t i o n that t h e J e w s b e l i e v e in t h e o n e true G o d is certainly implicit. In
t h r e e passages (Spec. 2 . 1 6 5 - 6 7 , Virt. 6 4 - 6 5 , a n d Legat. 1 1 5 ) , h o w e v e r , P h i l o
c o n n e c t s t h e J e w s ' b e l i e f in G o d with t h e i r laws a n d c u s t o m s , a s s e r t i n g
e x p l i c i t l y that t h e J e w s b e l i e v e in G o d a n d w o r s h i p H i m via t h e s e laws
and customs.
T h e t h r e e p a s s a g e s a p p e a r within different c o n t e x t s . Spec. 2 . 1 6 5 - 6 7 a n d
Virt. 6 4 - 6 5 are f r o m t h e E x p o s i t i o n , w h i l e Legat. 115 is part o f P h i l o ' s
political treatise a b o u t t h e embassy to Gaius. Spec. 2 . 1 6 5 - 6 7 — a n a l y z e d i n
m o r e d e t a i l l a t e r in this c h a p t e r — o c c u r s in a p a s s a g e i n w h i c h P h i l o
d e s c r i b e s t h e S h e a f Feast. T h e larger c o n t e x t o f t h e treatise is a d i s c u s s i o n
o f t h e J e w i s h h o l i d a y s in g e n e r a l . P h i l o n o t e s t h a t t h e J e w i s h n a t i o n
c h o o s e s ( έ λ ό μ ε ν ο ν , Spec. 2.166) w o r s h i p only o f t h e U n c r e a t e d a n d Eternal
a n d that it serves t h e truly existing G o d t h r o u g h its prayers, holidays, a n d
first-fruit offerings.
Virt. 6 4 - 6 5 o c c u r s in a passage in w h i c h P h i l o praises M o s e s for a s k i n g
G o d to c h o o s e his successor rather than c h o o s i n g the p e r s o n himself.
H e r e P h i l o writes t h a t t h e p e r s o n s e l e c t e d will l e a d n o t a n o r d i n a r y
n a t i o n , b u t t h e o n e that m a k e s supplication to the truly Existent, t h e M a k e r
a n d F a t h e r o f all. M o r e o v e r , t h r o u g h t h e i r laws a n d c u s t o m s , t h e J e w s
gain knowledge of God, a knowledge which others gain through the most
excellent teachings of philosophy.
Finally, Legat. 115 e x p l a i n s that t h e e m p e r o r Gaius dislikes t h e J e w s
b e c a u s e t h e y refuse to w o r s h i p h i m . Instead, trained by parents, t e a c h e r s ,
a n d t h e i r laws a n d unwritten c u s t o m s , they r e c o g n i z e t h e o n e G o d w h o is
F a t h e r a n d Maker o f all.
T o f i n d t h e Biblical roots o f t h e s e statements, o n e n e e d n o t s e a r c h far.
M o s t obviously, in t h e B o o k o f E x o d u s , c h a p t e r s 1 9 - 2 4 , w h e n G o d estab
l i s h e s H i s c o v e n a n t w i t h t h e p e o p l e o f Israel, t h e i r o b e d i e n c e t o H i s
c o m m a n d m e n t s is part a n d parcel o f H i s c o v e n a n t . G o d c h a r g e s , "If y o u
will o b e y My v o i c e a n d k e e p My c o v e n a n t , y o u shall b e to M e a s p e c i a l
p e o p l e a m o n g all t h e nations" ( E x o d . 19:5, m y translation). T h i s c h a r g e is
f o l l o w e d by r e c i t a t i o n o f t h e T e n C o m m a n d m e n t s a n d a variety o f o t h e r
laws p e r t a i n i n g to social a n d ritual matters ( E x o d u s 2 0 - 2 3 ) . I n d e e d , G o d ' s
c o m m a n d m e n t s t o Israel, w h i c h apply to a w i d e r a n g e o f d o m a i n s , are
p r e s e n t e d as a n integral part o f H i s c o v e n a n t with t h e n a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t
s u b s e q u e n t parts o f t h e P e n t a t e u c h as well. T h u s , a c c o r d i n g to t h e B i b l e ,
Israel's o b s e r v a n c e o f G o d ' s laws r e p r e s e n t s t h e p e o p l e ' s s i d e o f a n
a g r e e m e n t w h i c h H e initiates with t h e m .
W h e n P h i l o , h o w e v e r , m e n t i o n s t h e Jews' b e l i e f in G o d a n d t h e i r wor
s h i p o f H i m t h r o u g h their laws a n d c u s t o m s , h e departs f r o m t h e Biblical
portrayal i n i m p o r t a n t ways, e m p h a s i z i n g s o m e details, w h i l e o m i t t i n g
166 CHAPTER FIVE
2 . The Jews serve as pnestly intercessors between God and the whole world.
1 3
Abr. 98 and Spec. 2 . 1 6 2 - 6 7 are analyzed in the last section of this chapter.
1 4
B o t h o f these passages are discussed in the last section of this chapter. Cf. Mos.
2 . 1 8 9 , in w h i c h P h i l o calls the B i b l i c a l — a n d p e r h a p s c o n t e m p o r a r y — n a t i o n the
race/class that worships H i m (τό θεραπευτικόν αυτού γένος). O n Mos. 2.189, see above, n.
7, a n d below, n. 60.
1 5
It s h o u l d be n o t e d that this remark refers only to the Jewish h i g h priest a n d n o t
to the w h o l e n a t i o n . Philo arrives at the idea that the h i g h priest serves a universal
role based u p o n the symbols of the universe represented by his special garments. See
also Mos. 2 . 1 1 7 - 3 5 .
1 6
In general, Philo seems to speak about the Jews as priests in a metaphorical sense,
m e a n i n g , that is, that they serve as representatives for all humanity in the worship of
God. Spec. 2 . 1 6 2 - 6 7 , however, pertains to a real priestly ritual, namely, the offering of
first fruits. See also Spec. 1.168 a n d 190, w h i c h describe sacrifices m a d e o n behalf o f
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 167
A l t h o u g h P h i l o f r e q u e n t l y portrays t h e J e w s as w o r s h i p p e r s o f G o d
w h o s e p r a c t i c e s a n d c u s t o m s are a m e a n s f o r s e r v i n g H i m , w h a t dis
1 7
t i n g u i s h e s t h e m f r o m o t h e r p e o p l e is that they alone serve G o d a n d that
t h e y serve H i m o n b e h a l f o f all h u m a n i t y . Related to this t h e m e is P h i l o ' s
d e n u n c i a t i o n o f all f o r m s o f false w o r s h i p . U n d e r this rubric h e i n c l u d e s ,
for e x a m p l e , w o r s h i p o f t h e four e l e m e n t s a n d parts o f nature (Decal. 5 3 - 6 5 ,
Spec. 1 . 1 3 - 2 0 ) ; i d o l s (Decal. 6 6 - 7 6 , Spec. 1 . 2 1 - 2 7 ) ; a n i m a l s (Decal 7 6 - 8 0 ) ;
a n d m y t h i c g o d s (Spec. 1 . 2 8 - 2 9 , Spec. 2.164) (cf. also Spec. 1 . 3 2 5 - 4 5 ) . In
contrast t o p e o p l e w h o h o l d t h e s e false beliefs, t h e Jews are d i s t i n g u i s h e d
by t h e i r faith in t h e o n e true G o d . In fact, they play a role in c o r r e c t i n g
this false w o r s h i p o f o t h e r n a t i o n s (Spec. 2 . 1 6 2 - 6 7 ) .
A basis for t h e i d e a that Israel is a n a t i o n o f priests c a n certainly b e
f o u n d in t h e Bible, for e x a m p l e , in G e n . 1 2 : 2 - 3 , E x o d . 19:6, o r Lev. 20:26.
W h i l e t h e s e v a r i o u s B i b l i c a l p a s s a g e s , h o w e v e r , m a y — i n o n e way o r
a n o t h e r — r e p r e s e n t t h e e n t i r e n a t i o n as priestly, n o n e o f t h e m c l a i m s
directly a n d u n a m b i g u o u s l y that t h e p e o p l e serve as priests o n b e h a l f o f
t h e w h o l e w o r l d . I n d e e d all t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s e m p h a s i z e t h e e x c l u s i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel, w i t h o u t clearly s p e c i f y i n g its r o l e
1 8
vis-a-vis o t h e r p e o p l e s .
A s t r o n g possibility for t h e Scriptural s u p p o r t b e h i n d P h i l o ' s c l a i m that
t h e n a t i o n serves as t h e p r i e s t h o o d for all h u m a n i t y c a n b e f o u n d a m o n g
t h e divine p r o m i s e s to the patriarchs. In G e n . 1 2 : 1 - 3 , for e x a m p l e , G o d tells
A b r a h a m to leave his h o m e l a n d , a n d H e blesses h i m as follows: "And I
will m a k e o f y o u a g r e a t n a t i o n , a n d I will b l e s s y o u , a n d m a k e y o u r
19
n a m e great, s o that y o u will b e b l e s s e d . I will bless t h o s e w h o bless y o u ,
a n d h i m w h o c u r s e s y o u I will curse; a n d in y o u all t h e f a m i l i e s o f t h e
earth shall b e blessed" ( G e n . 1 2 : 2 - 3 ) .
T h e latter part o f this verse—"in y o u all t h e families o f t h e e a r t h shall
b e b l e s s e d ( κ α ι έ ν ε ύ λ ο γ η θ ή σ ο ν τ α ι έν σ ο ι π α σ α ι αί φ υ λ α ι της γ η ς ) " — i s
2 0
a m b i g u o u s . B e c a u s e t h e verb έ ν ε υ λ ο γ η θ ή σ ο ν τ α ι is in t h e passive v o i c e ,
a n d b e c a u s e t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l phrase έν σ ο ι ( i n y o u ) is n o t
p r e c i s e , it is u n c l e a r w h a t r o l e A b r a h a m o r h i s d e s c e n d a n t s will play i n
transmitting blessings t o t h e families o f t h e earth. A l s o , it s h o u l d b e n o t e d
that t h e p r o n o u n σ ύ , y o u , is singular.
O n e way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e clause q u o t e d above is that t h e blessings
b e s t o w e d u p o n A b r a h a m m a y s p r e a d t h r o u g h a k i n d o f "trickle-down
effect" t o h i s d e s c e n d a n t s a n d all o t h e r n a t i o n s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , A b r a h a m
will serve as a s o u r c e o f b l e s s i n g s , b u t j u s t h o w t h e s e b l e s s i n g s will b e
2 1
s p r e a d r e m a i n s v a g u e . T h e c l a u s e m a y also, h o w e v e r , b e u n d e r s t o o d t o
s u g g e s t that all t h e families o f t h e earth will b e b l e s s e d by A b r a h a m a n d
p e r h a p s by h i s d e s c e n d a n t s . T h i s s e n s e m a y i m p l y that A b r a h a m ' s h e i r s
2 2
will play a direct role in c o n f e r r i n g blessings u p o n o t h e r p e o p l e s .
P h i l o ' s c l a i m that t h e J e w s serve as priests f o r t h e w h o l e w o r l d is m o r e
in a c c o r d with this latter construal. W h i l e t h e verse d o e s n o t d e c l a r e that
t h e n a t i o n will actively bless o t h e r s , t h e ambiguity o f t h e w o r d s certainly
p e r m i t s this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . O f t h e two possibilities j u s t m e n t i o n e d — n a m e
ly, that A b r a h a m will b e a s o u r c e o f blessings b u t j u s t h o w is u n c l e a r o r
that h e o r h i s d e s c e n d a n t s will actively spread t h e b l e s s i n g s t h e m s e l v e s —
t h e s e c o n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g m i g h t b e m o r e palatable t o o u t s i d e r s . T h i s is
b e c a u s e u n l i k e t h e first construal, t h e s e c o n d portrays A b r a h a m a n d h i s
d e s c e n d a n t s as actively "sharing t h e wealth."
2 3
B e s i d e s t h i s d i v i n e p r o m i s e t o Israel's a n c e s t o r s , other passages
a d d r e s s e d t o t h e n a t i o n itself c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d t o portray t h e m as priests.
For e x a m p l e , i n E x o d . 19:6, G o d p r o c l a i m s t o Israel, "You shall b e t o M e a
for these verses, the verb "pa is s o m e t i m e s in the bus: (Όηηϊ), G e n . 12:3, 18:18, 28:14)
a n d s o m e t i m e s in t h e busnn (on^nni, G e n . 22:18, 26:4). While the can be
translated in either a passive or reflexive sense, the ^uann is translated only as reflex
ive or reciprocal: ' T h e y shall bless themselves." (Ephraim A. Speiser, e d . , Genesis, vol.
1 o f The Anchor Bible, e d . William Foxwell Albright a n d David N o e l F r e e d m a n
[ G a r d e n City, N e w York: D o u b l e d a y , 1964], 86.) T h i s further a m b i g u i t y i n t h e
Hebrew contributes to the different ways these verses have b e e n understood. S e e below,
n. 22.
2 1
Philo interprets G e n . 12:3 a l o n g these lines in Migr. 118-26. Cf., e.g., Migr. 121:
"For in truth t h e righteous m a n is the f o u n d a t i o n o n which m a n k i n d rests. All that
h e h i m s e l f has h e brings i n t o t h e c o m m o n stock a n d gives in a b u n d a n c e for the
benefit o f all w h o shall use them." H e r e , the righteous m a n is a source o f blessings
but d o e s n o t s e e m to confer t h e m direcdy u p o n the people.
2 2
For various interpretations o f this verse, see B e n Sira 44:21, Acts 3:25, Gal. 3:8. T h e
first two interpretations u n d e r s t a n d God's blessing to apply t o Abraham's d e s c e n d
ants, even t h o u g h the p r o n o u n in the phrase έν σοι is singular. Rabbinic a n d o t h e r
Jewish interpretations are c o l l e c t e d by M e n a h e m M. Kasher, Encyclopedia of Biblical
Interpretation: A Millennial Anthology, trans. Harry F r e e d m a n ( N e w York: A m e r i c a n
Biblical E n c y c l o p e d i a Society, 1955), 2:118-19. S e e also Martin-Achard, A Light to the
Nations, 33-37, and Jaubert, La notion d Alliance, 56-57.
2 3
T h e promise is repeated to Isaac (Gen. 26:4) and Jacob (Gen. 28:14). See above, n. 20.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 169
2 4
royal p r i e s t h o o d a n d a h o l y n a t i o n " (my translation). H e r e G o d actively
a n d explicitly c h o o s e s Israel t o serve H i m . I n d e e d , this characterization o f
t h e n a t i o n as a "royal p r i e s t h o o d " c o m e s at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e pivotal
e v e n t at Sinai w h e n t h e e x c l u s i v e b o n d is f o r g e d b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e
w h o l e p e o p l e ( E x o d u s 1 9 - 2 4 ) . E x o d . 19:6, h o w e v e r , d e f i n e s Israel's r o l e
o n l y i n r e l a t i o n t o G o d a n d d o e s n o t m e n t i o n o t h e r n a t i o n s . G o d says,
"You shall b e to Me a royal p r i e s t h o o d a n d a h o l y n a t i o n " ( m y e m p h a s i s ) .
W h e n P h i l o c l a i m s that t h e Jews serve as t h e p r i e s t h o o d for all h u m a n i t y ,
2 5
t h e n , h e g o e s b e y o n d a n d e x t e n d s the divine directive q u o t e d h e r e .
Lev. 2 0 : 2 6 is a n o t h e r verse that d e p i c t s Israel as a c o n s e c r a t e d p e o p l e .
H e r e , G o d says, "You shall b e h o l y t o Me, b e c a u s e I t h e L o r d y o u r G o d a m
h o l y , w h o h a s s e p a r a t e d y o u f r o m all t h e n a t i o n s to b e M i n e " ( m y trans
l a t i o n , cf. Lev. 1 9 : 2 ) . T h i s verse e m p h a s i z e s G o d ' s s i n g l i n g o u t o f t h e
n a t i o n Israel to b e h o l y t o H i m . As in t h e p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e , h o w e v e r ,
e v e n t h o u g h t h e Bible characterizes Israel as c o n s e c r a t e d a n d holy, it stops
s h o r t o f d e c l a r i n g , as P h i l o d o e s , that Israel serves a r o l e for t h e w h o l e
2 6
world.
W h e n P h i l o p r o c l a i m s t h e n that t h e Jews act as priests f o r all h u m a n
ity, h e is significantly r e c a s t i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f d i v i n e p r o m i s e s t o t h e
n a t i o n ' s a n c e s t o r s a n d t h e c o v e n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel.
I n s t e a d o f r e p e a t i n g Biblical claims that G o d bestows H i s blessings u p o n
o n e n a t i o n , a p p o i n t i n g it as H i s exclusive servant, P h i l o stresses that that
n a t i o n serves a role for o t h e r p e o p l e s , i n d e e d for t h e w h o l e world. W h e n
h e c l a i m s that t h e Jews correct t h e error o f t h e o t h e r n a t i o n s that w o r s h i p
falsely, h e i m p l i e s that o t h e r n a t i o n s t o o can serve G o d o n c e they r e c o g
n i z e t h e folly o f t h e i r ways. By p r e s e n t i n g t h e Jews as t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
p r i e s t h o o d for all p e o p l e , t h e n , P h i l o transforms w h a t in t h e Bible is part o f
a n e x c l u s i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p with G o d i n t o a role that b e n e f i t s all h u m a n i t y
a n d that c o n c e i v a b l y is available to a n y o n e w h o turns to b e l i e f in H i m .
2 4
β α σ ί λ ε ι ο ν ίεράτευμα. Cf. the Hebrew, wm ro'TDD, a kingdom of priests.
2 5
O n this verse, see also Martin-Achard, A Light to the Nations, 3 7 - 4 0 .
2 6
B e s i d e s t h e s e e x a m p l e s , Philo derives from E x o d . 12:6 that the w h o l e n a t i o n
serves as priests for o n e day, i.e., d u r i n g the Pascha feast. In this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
however, h e d o e s n o t m e n t i o n the nation's role o n behalf of all humanity. S e e QE
1.10, Mos. 2.224, Decal. 159, Spec. 2 . 1 4 5 - 4 6 .
2 7
Spec. 4.180 a n d Legat. 3 are analyzed in the last section o f this chapter a n d are
therefore n o t q u o t e d in the notes. Philo d o e s n o t speak about the nation in the same
way in these four passages. In Spec. 4.159, for e x a m p l e , h e d o e s n o t m e n t i o n the
170 CHAPTER FIVE
E a c h r e f e r e n c e a p p e a r s as a passing remark, u p o n w h i c h h e n e v e r e l a b o
rates. In all t h e s e passages, t h e remark falls in a c o n t e x t in w h i c h P h i l o is
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e Biblical n a t i o n o r t h e Jews f r o m f o r e i g n e r s o r f r o m all
o t h e r p e o p l e . In Spec. 4 . 1 5 9 , for e x a m p l e , h e says that all m e m b e r s o f t h e
n a t i o n are a s s i g n e d t o G o d , in t h e c o n t e x t o f e x p l a i n i n g why a f o r e i g n e r
28
c a n n o t b e their r u l e r . T h e r e f e r e n c e in Spec. 4 . 1 8 0 appears in a passage in
w h i c h h e c o m p a r e s t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h n a t i o n t o a n o r p h a n , in
c o n t r a s t t o o t h e r n a t i o n s w h i c h always h a v e allies. In Virt. 3 4 , P h i l o
d e s c r i b e s t h e p e o p l e as a l l o t t e d to G o d in r e c o u n t i n g t h e r e a s o n for t h e
M i d i a n i t e s ' hostility toward t h e Biblical n a t i o n , narrated in N u m . 2 5 : 1 - 1 8
2 9
a n d 3 L 1 - 1 8 . Finally, in Legat. 3, h e n o t e s that the Jews are allotted to G o d
in t h e c o n t e x t o f a r g u i n g that G o d e x t e n d s His p r o v i d e n c e to all p e o p l e ,
3 0
especially the J e w s .
It is particularly striking that in all t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s , P h i l o always u s e s
t h e verb π ρ ο σ κ λ η ρ ό ω , allot, in a f o r m that can express e i t h e r t h e m i d d l e o r
passive v o i c e , l e a v i n g s o m e a m b i g u i t y as to w h e t h e r t h e p e o p l e h a v e
31
a l l o t t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o G o d or G o d h a s allotted t h e m to H i m s e l f . Had
P h i l o w i s h e d t o b e e x p l i c i t o n this matter, h e certainly c o u l d h a v e b e e n .
I n d e e d a l t h o u g h t h e v e r b π ρ ο σ κ λ η ρ ό ω is fairly rare a m o n g G r e e k writers
in antiquity, P h i l o u s e s it t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y a n d in t h e m o s t v a r i e d
3 2
f o r m s . Occasionally, for e x a m p l e , h e uses π ρ ο σ κ λ η ρ ό ω in t h e active v o i c e
33
to describe a subject that d e v o t e s itself to s o m e t h i n g . At the s a m e t i m e , h e
a l s o s p e a k s a b o u t G o d i n t h e active v o i c e as a s s i g n i n g s o m e t h i n g t o
3 4
Himself. S i n c e P h i l o u s e s t h e v e r b in t h e active v o i c e e l s e w h e r e , a n d
s i n c e h e c h o o s e s t h e m i d d l e o r passive v o i c e e a c h t i m e h e s p e a k s a b o u t
t h e J e w s b e i n g allotted to G o d , h e may wish to r e m a i n p u r p o s e l y a m b i g u
35
o u s a b o u t w h o allots t h e m to H i m — G o d or t h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s .
Several Scriptural p a s s a g e s s u p p o r t , at least indirectly, t h e i d e a e i t h e r
t h a t Israel is e s p e c i a l l y a s s i g n e d t o G o d o r that G o d assigns Israel t o
Himself. E x a m p l e s o f t h e s e verses i n c l u d e E x o d . 4:22, 19:5; Lev. 20:26; a n d
D e u t . 3 2 : 8 - 9 . T h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , for e x a m p l e , cites Lev. 20:26, in w h i c h
G o d says H e h a s s e p a r a t e d Israel f r o m all o t h e r p e o p l e s t o b e H i s o w n .
Similarly, in E x o d . 19:5, G o d p r o c l a i m s Israel to b e H i s o w n special p e o p l e
( λ α ό ς π ε ρ ι ο ύ σ ι ο ς ) . In E x o d . 4:22, G o d calls Israel H i s firstborn s o n ( υ ι ό ς
πρωτότοκος μ ο υ Ι σ ρ α ή λ ) . A l t h o u g h this specific verse d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e
G o d as c h o o s i n g Israel, o n e finds t h r o u g h o u t the Bible t h e n o t i o n that t h e
firstborn o r first fruits b e l o n g t o G o d or that H e h a s t a k e n t h e m f o r
3 6
Himself.
O t h e r p a s s a g e s as w e l l c o u l d b e c i t e d as e x a m p l e s in w h i c h G o d
expressly "chooses" Israel or in w h i c h H e describes Israel as b e l o n g i n g to
H i m (e.g., D e u t . 7:6, 14:2). Perhaps t h e m o s t relevant in this case, h o w e v e r ,
is D e u t . 3 2 : 8 - 9 . H e r e it says,
3 3
E.g., Mut. 127, Abr. 198, Decal. 108.
3 4
E.g., Cher. 85, Sacr. 119, Somn. 2.227.
3 5
Cf. Spec. 1.114, in which the same ambiguity pertains to the high priest, described
as π ρ ο σ κ ε κ λ η ρ ω μ έ ν ο ς , allotted, to God. For rabbinic discussions about the mutuality o f
c h o i c e between G o d and Israel, see Urbach, The Sages, 5 3 0 - 3 1 .
3 6
Firstborn: Exod. 13:11-13, 34:19; Numbers 3:13, 8:17; et al. First fruits: Exod. 23:19,
34:26; et al. T h e injunctions about the firstborn and first fruits are probably based u p o n
the same principle, i.e., that the first p r o d u c e (of the w o m b or the earth) b e l o n g s to
God. See Baruch A. Levine, "Firstborn" and "First Fruits," Encyclopedia Judaica 6 : 1 3 0 6 -
08, 1312-14.
3 7
T h e Greek for Deut. 32:8 differs somewhat from the Hebrew. See Chapter Four, n.
13.
172 CHAPTER FIVE
P h i l o talks a b o u t t h e J e w s — e i t h e r t h e Biblical n a t i o n o r t h e i r d e s c e n d
a n t s — a s b e l o v e d by G o d o r G o d - l o v i n g ( θ ε ο φ ι λ ή ς ) in Abr. 98; Mos. 1.147,
40
255; a n d Hypoth. 6 . 7 . In Abr. 9 8 , h e proclaims that t h e n a t i o n o f A b r a h a m
a n d Sarah's d e s c e n d a n t s is t h e o n e m o s t b e l o v e d by G o d o r m o s t G o d -
l o v i n g ( θ ε ο φ ι λ έ σ τ α τ ο ν ) a n d that it has r e c e i v e d t h e offices o f p r i e s t h o o d
a n d p r o p h e c y for all h u m a n i t y . In Mos. 1.147, h e m e n t i o n s that s o m e
p e o p l e j o i n t h e H e b r e w s in leaving Egypt, attracted by t h e divine favor o r
G o d - l o v i n g quality (τό θ ε ο φ ι λ έ ς ) o f t h e n a t i o n . Mos. 1.255 d e s c r i b e s t h e
Biblical n a t i o n as θ ε ο φ ι λ ε ί ς , t h o s e b e l o v e d by G o d o r God-loving, in telling
h o w they s i n g a s o n g o f thanks to H i m u p o n f i n d i n g a well o n t h e b o r d e r
o f t h e l a n d they are a b o u t to possess. Finally, in Hypoth. 6.7, P h i l o suggests
that t h e Biblical n a t i o n may c o n q u e r t h e l a n d ( C a n a a n ) n o t by f o r c e b u t
by w i n n i n g t h e r e s p e c t o f its i n h a b i t a n t s , a feat w h i c h w o u l d s h o w that
3 8
In the Allegory, Philo interprets these verses in Post. 9 1 - 9 2 and Plant. 5 8 - 6 0 . For a
discussion o f Post. 9 1 - 9 2 , m e n t i o n e d immediately below, see Chapter Four. Cf. also
Ben Sira 17:17.
3 9
Decal 58; Spec. 1.16-20, 51; Virt. 102, 177-79; et al.
4 0
Abr. 98 is discussed in the last section of this chapter. As e x p l a i n e d below, θεοφιλής
can m e a n either beloved by G o d or God-loving. Both understandings are possible in
the first three passages. In Hypoth. 6.7, however, the passive m e a n i n g , i.e., beloved by
G o d , m a k e s m o r e s e n s e than the active m e a n i n g , since the passage describes the
respect o f the nation's e n e m i e s for the nation, and it would s e e m that these e n e m i e s
would be m o r e impressed by God's love of the nation than by its love o f H i m .
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 173
e v e n t h e p e o p l e ' s e n e m i e s a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m as m o s t b e l o v e d o f G o d
(θεοφιλέστατοι).
W e c a n find Biblical s u p p o r t for t h e n o t i o n that t h e Jews are b e l o v e d by
G o d i n several passages, w h i c h e i t h e r declare or s u g g e s t that G o d loves o r
favors Israel especially ( D e u t . 4:37, 7 : 7 - 8 , 10:15; E x o d . 4:22; e t al.). Many o f
t h e s e p a s s a g e s a p p e a r i n c o n t e x t s w h i c h cite t h e c o v e n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e p e o p l e . P h i l o , h o w e v e r , recasts t h e c l a i m that G o d
loves Israel, i n a way that w o u l d n o t o f f e n d his readers. For o n e t h i n g , h e
n e v e r refers explicitly t o t h e c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e n a t i o n , t h e r e
by e l i m i n a t i n g any s e n s e o f a p r e s e t relationship. Instead, to e x p r e s s G o d ' s
love for t h e p e o p l e , h e uses t h e w o r d θ ε ο φ ι λ ή ς , w h i c h is quite c o m m o n in
41
G r e e k a n d c a n b e u s e d t o describe p e o p l e , places, a n d t h i n g s .
Also, since Philo's contemporary Greek-speaking world had various
c o n c e p t i o n s o f divinity, t h e w o r d θ ε ο φ ι λ ή ς , i.e., "God-beloved" o r "god-
b e l o v e d , " c o u l d c o n n o t e different m e a n i n g s to different p e o p l e . Finally,
θ ε ο φ ι λ ή ς c a n also b e u n d e r s t o o d in a n active s e n s e , i.e., as G o d - l o v i n g .
T h u s t h e w o r d i n t r o d u c e s a n a m b i g u i t y as t o w h e t h e r t h e p e o p l e are
b e l o v e d by G o d o r are G o d - l o v i n g t h e m s e l v e s . W h e n P h i l o calls t h e
n a t i o n θεοφιλής, b e l o v e d o f G o d o r God-loving, or e v e n θεοφιλέστατος, m o s t
b e l o v e d o f G o d o r m o s t G o d - l o v i n g , t h e n this d e s c r i p t i o n is qualitatively
different f r o m a declaration that t h e G o d o f all creation favors o n e particu
lar p e o p l e , n a m e l y , t h e Jews.
In a d d i t i o n , apart f r o m t h e flexibility or i n d e e d ambiguity o f t h e w o r d ' s
a p p l i c a t i o n s a n d c o n n o t a t i o n s , in two o f the four passages cited a b o v e , t h e
d i v i n e favor o f t h e J e w s is a c k n o w l e d g e d by outsiders—i.e., the "mixed
m u l t i t u d e , " w h o j o i n t h e p e o p l e w h e n they leave Egypt (Mos. 1 . 1 4 7 ) , a n d
t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f C a n a a n — t h e p e o p l e ' s very e n e m i e s ! — w h o P h i l o
s u g g e s t s m a y willingly yield t h e i r l a n d to t h e H e b r e w s (Hypoth. 6 . 7 ) . By
a s c r i b i n g t o o u t s i d e r s this o b s e r v a t i o n a b o u t t h e Biblical n a t i o n , P h i l o
portrays t h e n a t i o n as w o r t h y o f a d m i r a t i o n by o t h e r p e o p l e . In a third
case (Abr. 9 8 ) , P h i l o simply asserts that t h e p e o p l e are t h e m o s t b e l o v e d o f
G o d ( o r m o s t G o d - l o v i n g ) , w i t h o u t further discussion. Finally, t h e f o u r t h
p a s s a g e (Mos. 1.255) d e s c r i b e s t h e p e o p l e as θ ε ο φ ι λ ε ί ς w h e n they s i n g a
s o n g — p r e s u m a b l y o f t h a n k s — t o G o d . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e y are s h o w n as
a p p r e c i a t i n g G o d ' s favor or celebrating their d e v o t i o n to H i m . If in fact t h e
w o r d d e n o t e s that they are favored by G o d , t h e n they d o n o t take H i s favor
for g r a n t e d .
4 1
P h i l o , for e x a m p l e , also uses this word to describe Moses, J a c o b , N o a h , the soul,
God-beloved p e o p l e in general, and God-beloved beliefs and practices. See also Yeho-
shua Amir, "Die U m f o r m u n g des ε υ δ α ί μ ω ν in d e n θ ε ο φ ι λ ή ς bei Philon," Die hellenis-
tische Gestalt, 2 0 7 - 1 9 .
174 CHAPTER FIVE
4 2
Herbert Box, ed., Philonis Alexandnni: In Flaccum (London: Oxford University Press,
1939), xxxviii; Colson, Philo, LCL, 10:xiv-ix and 186, note a; G o o d e n o u g h , The Politics of
Philo Judaeus, 1 0 - 1 3 , 19; Massebieau, "Le classement d e s oeuvres d e Philon," 6 5 - 7 8 ;
Morris, "The Jewish P h i l o s o p h e r Philo," 8 5 9 - 6 4 ; Smallwood, Philonis Alexandrini, 40
and 324, n. 373.
4 3
Spec. 4 . 1 7 9 - 8 2 and Legat. 3 are analyzed in detail in the last section of this chapter.
Besides the explicit declarations cited h e r e , Mos. 1.147 a n d 255, m e n t i o n e d in the
previous section, may imply that the Biblical nation benefits from God's providence.
In Mos. 1.147, if τό θεοφιλές is to be understood as "divine favor" rather than "the God-
loving quality" o f the p e o p l e , t h e n the "divine favor" may refer to God's role in the
circumstances o f the nation's departure, His p u n i s h m e n t of Israel's e n e m i e s in Egypt,
and thus His c o n c e r n for a n d involvement in the fate of the nation. Mos. 1.255 n o t e s
that G o d gives the p e o p l e the land a n d leads t h e m in their migration.
4 4
For the p h i l o s o p h i c a l background of Philo's position o n p r o v i d e n c e a n d related
issues, s e e D i l l o n , The Middle Platonists, 4 4 - 4 5 , 8 0 - 8 1 , 1 6 6 - 6 8 ; A. A. Long, Hellenistic
Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics, 2 n d ed. (London: Duckworth, 1986), 112, 1 6 9 - 7 0 ;
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 175
O n e p r o b l e m w i t h this p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f a n i m p e r s o n a l , all-
e m b r a c i n g p r o v i d e n c e is that it c a n n o t offer a c o n v i n c i n g r a t i o n a l e for
e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r . It is n o t clear, for e x a m p l e , that p r o v i d e n c e is c o n c e r n e d
with t h e individual. In a d d i t i o n , if everything is in G o d ' s h a n d s , o n e m a y
w o n d e r w h e t h e r o r n o t i n d i v i d u a l s i n fact h a v e f r e e will t o c h o o s e
b e t w e e n g o o d a n d evil.
In g r a p p l i n g w i t h t h e s e d i l e m m a s , P h i l o was n o t a l o n e a m o n g the
t h i n k e r s o f his t i m e . As J o h n D i l l o n writes,
P h i l o ' s c o m m e n t s a b o u t d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e , t h e n — w h e t h e r f o r all
p e o p l e in g e n e r a l o r for t h e Jews in particular—are m a r k e d by a c e r t a i n
v a g u e n e s s a b o u t t h e r o l e o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r in i n f l u e n c i n g p r o v i d e n c e .
A l t h o u g h h e a c k n o w l e d g e s that the Jews benefit from God's special
a t t e n t i o n , h e is s o m e w h a t u n c l e a r a b o u t w h a t entitles t h e m to this special
a t t e n t i o n . D e s p i t e h i s s o m e w h a t contradictory remarks, h o w e v e r , h e d o e s
s e e m to l e a n toward t h e i d e a that if o n e believes in G o d , t h e n o n e b e n e f i t s
f r o m H i s p r o v i d e n c e . A brief c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f P h i l o ' s g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s
a b o u t divine providence may h e l p to put in perspective his specific
c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e Jews.
P h i l o f r e q u e n t l y e m p h a s i z e s that G o d cares for a n d w a t c h e s o v e r all
4 6
c r e a t i o n . I n d e e d h e u n d e r s t a n d s G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e as a necessary c o r o l
lary to H i s r o l e as Creator, calling it" a law o f n a t u r e that t h e m a k e r cares
4 7
for w h a t h a s b e e n m a d e .
D i v i n e care c a n b e b o t h directive a n d protective. G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e is
d i r e c t i v e , f o r e x a m p l e , in t h a t it c a n i n f l u e n c e e v e n t s in t h e lives o f
4 8
i n d i v i d u a l s a n d n a t i o n s alike a n d c a n affect t h e c o u r s e o f n a t u r e . P h i l o
also speaks o f G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e as protective, h o w e v e r , e.g., w h e n h e says
4 9
Mos. 1.12, 17; Mos. 2.58; Spec. 1.308; Flacc. 191; cf. Opif. 9 - 1 0 .
5 0
Abr. 90, 235; Ios. 37; Mos. 1.148-49.
5 1
Spec. 2 . 2 5 7 - 6 2 . In part, this argument may be attributed to the fact that, e x c e p t for
the fifth c o m m a n d m e n t , the first four d o n o t explicitly m e n t i o n rewards. Virtue as its
own reward, however, is a c o m m o n Stoic n o t i o n , which Philo may a d o p t apart from
its suitability to this particular Scriptural context. See also Wolfson, Philo, 2:285.
5 2
R e g a r d i n g Philo's treatise On Providence, Dillon (The Middle Platonists, 167-68)
writes that Philo is "essentially appropriating a standard Stoic treatise o n providence
(the analogies with Cicero, De Natura Deorum II are very c l o s e ) , a n d fitting it into his
Platonic metaphysical s c h e m e . A reading o f this treatise by itself w o u l d lead o n e to
the c o n c l u s i o n that Philo was a determinist."
5 3
For o t h e r views o n p r o v i d e n c e from antiquity, see Attridge, The Interpretation of
Biblical History, 7 1 - 1 0 7 , 1 5 4 - 6 5 . Attridge shows, for e x a m p l e , that J o s e p h u s links
π ρ ό ν ο ι α with divine retribution. See also J o h a n n e s B e h m , "προνοέω, π ρ ό ν ο ι α , " TDNT,
4:1009-17; Urbach, The Sages, 2 5 5 - 8 5 .
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 177
T h e s a m e p e r s p e c t i v e that G o d is especially c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e J e w s is
e x p r e s s e d in Legat. 196, in w h i c h P h i l o prays to G o d for h e l p a n d m e n t i o n s
that G o d "often saved t h e n a t i o n w h e n in h e l p l e s s straits."
In t h e s e e x a m p l e s f r o m Philo's two e x t a n t historical works, h e d e c l a r e s
w i t h o u t further e x p l a n a t i o n that t h e Jews have G o d as their Protector. It is
g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d that his p u r p o s e in these historical o r political writings
is to p r e s e n t c u r r e n t e v e n t s as a d e m o n s t r a t i o n that G o d cares e s p e c i a l l y
5 4
for t h e J e w s . T h i s assertion t h e n is his starting p o i n t , w h i c h h e s e e k s t o
prove b u t n o t necessarily to e x p l a i n or rationalize.
In contrast, in Spec. 4 . 1 7 9 - 8 2 , P h i l o sets forth a variety o f r e a s o n s t o
a c c o u n t for G o d ' s special care for t h e n a t i o n . T h i s passage claims that t h e
J e w s r e c e i v e G o d ' s pity a n d c o m p a s s i o n b e c a u s e t h e y are set apart f r o m
o t h e r p e o p l e a n d d e d i c a t e d to G o d ; b e c a u s e their ancestors are e x c e p t i o n
ally v i r t u o u s ; a n d implicitly b e c a u s e , like t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , t h e y t o o live
a c c o r d i n g to a h i g h standard o f virtue. U n l i k e Legat. 3, q u o t e d earlier, h e r e
P h i l o d o e s link G o d ' s special care for the Jews with their d e v o t i o n to H i m .
M o r e o v e r , i n c o n t r a s t to t h e i d e a that G o d ' s a c t i o n s are b e y o n d h u m a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d therefore perhaps b e y o n d h u m a n i n f l u e n c e , this
5 4
See above, n. 42.
178 CHAPTER FIVE
p e r s p e c t i v e s u g g e s t s that p e o p l e can m a k e t h e m s e l v e s w o r t h y a n d e a r n
G o d ' s c o n c e r n , as t h e Jews have d o n e .
It was n o t e d earlier that P h i l o ' s a p p a r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c y a b o u t w h e t h e r
or n o t p e o p l e ' s b e h a v i o r c a n i n f l u e n c e G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e reflects a p h i l o
s o p h i c a l d i l e m m a o f his t i m e . B e s i d e s t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l issues, h o w e v e r ,
P h i l o is also h e i r t o a Biblical tradition w h i c h t e a c h e s that t h e n a t i o n Israel
a n d its J e w i s h d e s c e n d a n t s are t h e beneficiaries o f G o d ' s special c o n c e r n .
I n d e e d this n o t i o n is integral to t h e divine p r o m i s e s a n d t h e c o v e n a n t
t h e o l o g y d i s c u s s e d earlier. F r o m t h e Biblical p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e n , G o d ' s
b e n e v o l e n t p r o t e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s b o t h t h e fulfillment o f H i s earlier p r o m
ises as well as H i s side o f a n o n g o i n g a g r e e m e n t with Israel. A c c o r d i n g t o
this a g r e e m e n t — p a r t i c u l a r l y as it is d e v e l o p e d in t h e B o o k o f D e u t e r o n
o m y a n d r e l a t e d B i b l i c a l b o o k s — i f t h e p e o p l e o f Israel f o l l o w G o d ' s
c o m m a n d m e n t s , H e will cause t h e n a t i o n to prosper. If t h e y fail to live u p
55
to t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s , t h e n a t i o n will s u f f e r .
I n f l u e n c e d by p h i l o s o p h i c a l i s s u e s r e g a r d i n g f r e e will a n d d i v i n e
p r o v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r , P h i l o transforms t h e i d e a that G o d ' s protective care
for t h e Jews is part e i t h e r o f p r o m i s e s to their ancestors o r o f a prior agree
m e n t H e h a s w i t h t h e n a t i o n . I n s t e a d , his p o i n t s e e m s t o b e that G o d ' s
p r o v i d e n c e is available to e v e r y o n e , a n d particularly to t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e
in H i m as C r e a t o r a n d Provider. It w o u l d appear, t h e n , that a n y o n e w h o
b e l i e v e s in G o d m i g h t b e e l i g i b l e for H i s special p r o v i d e n c e , n o t o n l y
J e w s . G o d t h e r e f o r e d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e H i s p r o t e c t i o n t o t h e J e w s by
p r e v i o u s c o m m i t m e n t . Instead H e shows t h e m His care b o t h b e c a u s e this
follows f r o m H i s r o l e as Creator o f t h e universe a n d b e c a u s e they b e l i e v e
in a n d w o r s h i p H i m .
5 5
Exod. 2 3 : 2 0 - 3 3 ; Deut. 7:12-16, 28; et al. See also Chapter Four, n. 2, and Ernest
W i l s o n N i c h o l s o n , Deuteronomy and Tradition (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1 9 6 7 ) ;
M o s h e W e i n f e l d , Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (Oxford: C l a r e n d o n Press,
1972).
5 6
See above, n. 22.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 179
Abr. 98
5 7
A n o t h e r passage o f interest is Mos. 1 . 1 4 7 - 4 9 , w h i c h discusses several t h e m e s
related to this chapter. For e x a m p l e , the passage m e n t i o n s the θ ε ο φ ι λ έ ς (divine favor
or God-loving quality) o f the Biblical nation and describes it as "destined to be c o n
secrated above all others and to offer prayers for ever o n behalf o f the w h o l e h u m a n
race." T h e t h e m e o f divine providence is also pertinent because Philo n o t e s that God,
"who presides over a n d takes charge of all things," appoints Moses as leader o f the
p e o p l e as a reward for Moses's virtuous qualities.
5 8
T h e Greek adds that Lot was sent with them.
180 CHAPTER FIVE
T h u s the chastity o f the w o m a n was preserved, while the nobility a n d piety o f the
m a n was e v i d e n c e d by God, W h o d e i g n e d to grant h i m this signal b o o n , that his
m a r r i a g e , w h i c h w o u l d have b e e n in a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e d a n g e r o f v i o l a t i o n ,
s h o u l d r e m a i n free from harm a n d outrage, that marriage from w h i c h was to
issue n o t a family o f a few sons a n d daughters, but a w h o l e nation, a n d that the
nation dearest of all to G o d [or m o s t God-loving], which, as I h o l d , has received
the gift o f priesthood and prophecy o n behalf of all mankind. (Abr. 98)
A t first g l a n c e , it is s o m e w h a t s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d P h i l o ' s c o m m e n t s
a b o u t t h e n a t i o n i n this c o n t e x t , s i n c e G e n . 1 2 : 1 0 - 2 0 d o e s n o t m e n t i o n
A b r a h a m a n d Sarah's d e s c e n d a n t s at all. Earlier in t h e G e n e s i s c h a p t e r ,
h o w e v e r , w h e n G o d tells A b r a h a m t o leave his h o m e l a n d , H e b l e s s e s
h i m as follows:
Go from your country and your kindred and your father's h o u s e to the land that I
will show y o u . A n d I will make o f you a great n a d o n , a n d I will bless y o u , a n d
make your n a m e great so that you will be blessed. I will bless those w h o bless you,
a n d [those w h o curse] y o u I will curse; and [in] you all the families of the earth
shall be blessed. (Gen. 12:1-3)
5 9
E.g., Gen. 15:5, 17:4-6, 18:18, 22:17.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 181
6 0
A l t h o u g h this explanation for Philo's c o m m e n t is probably t h e m o s t likely, others
are also possible. For e x a m p l e , in Her. 78, Philo links "Israel," the o n e that sees G o d ,
with p r o p h e t s , w h o , h e points out, were o n c e known as seers. This association o f t h e
n a t i o n with p r o p h e c y t h r o u g h t h e etymology for Israel, however, is quite indirect,
especially since Philo d o e s n o t use the n a m e "Israel" for the real nation either before
or during his time, n o r d o e s h e speak of t h e m as "seers."
A n o t h e r possibility is that h e associates the office o f p r o p h e c y with t h e n a t i o n
because from this nation came the historical Biblical prophets. Philo, however, rarely
m e n t i o n s these prophets. Moreover, it is n o t clear that h e believes p r o p h e c y is limited
only to Jews (see, e.g., Her. 2 5 9 - 6 0 ) .
Yet a n o t h e r possible explanation for the assertion that the nation serves as p r o p h e t
for t h e world may be f o u n d in Philo's c o m m e n t in Spec. 4.192 that "the true priest is
necessarily a prophet" (ό προς άλήθειαν Ιερεύς ευθύς έστι προφήτης). Since h e understands
the n a t i o n to b e t h e priest for all humanity, h e may think that it is necessarily also
the p r o p h e t . As is t h e case with many Philonic statements, however, t h e observation
in Spec. 4.192 can probably be explained by the specific context in which it appears a n d
therefore may n o t be representative o f his thinking in general. (See, e.g., LCL, 8:436,
n o t e o n Spec. 4.190.)
Finally, y e t a n o t h e r c o m m e n t w h i c h may shed light o n Philo's d e p i c t i o n o f t h e
nation as p r o p h e t for all humanity can be found in Mos. 2.189, in which h e describes
different kinds o f divine oracles. T h e r e h e writes o f the divine utterances that
s o m e are s p o k e n by G o d in His own Person with His p r o p h e t for interpreter, in
s o m e t h e revelation c o m e s through question and answer, a n d others are s p o k e n
by M o s e s in his o w n p e r s o n , w h e n possessed by G o d a n d carried away o u t o f
himself. T h e first kind are absolutely a n d entirely signs o f t h e divine e x c e l
l e n c e s , graciousness a n d b e n e f i c e n c e , by w h i c h H e incites all m e n to n o b l e
c o n d u c t , a n d particularly the [race/class] o f His worshippers (τό θεραπευτικόν
αυτού γ έ ν ο ς ) , for w h o m H e o p e n s u p the road which leads to happiness. (Mos.
2.188-89)
In this passage, Philo says that m a n y o f God's directives delivered t h r o u g h t h e
182 CHAPTER FIVE
T o c o n f i r m this c o v e n a n t , G o d e s t a b l i s h e s t h e c o m m a n d m e n t o f
c i r c u m c i s i o n as a sign t h r o u g h o u t t h e g e n e r a t i o n s ( G e n . 1 7 : 9 - 1 4 ) . O t h e r
Biblical p a s s a g e s in w h i c h G o d m e n t i o n s H i s i n t e n t i o n s f o r A b r a h a m ' s
d e s c e n d a n t s i n c l u d e G e n . 1 8 : 1 7 - 1 9 , w h e n H e is a b o u t to destroy S o d o m
6 1
and Gomorrah, and Gen. 22:15-18, following the binding of Isaac.
A l t h o u g h P h i l o i n c l u d e s all t h e s e e p i s o d e s in t h e treatise o n A b r a h a m , in
n o n e o f his r e t e l l i n g s d o e s h e refer to t h e divine b l e s s i n g s , n o r d o e s h e
m e n t i o n c i r c u m c i s i o n as a sign o f t h e c o v e n a n t .
As s u g g e s t e d earlier, P h i l o m a y o m i t t h e s e details in o r d e r to a v o i d
p r e s e n t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e J e w s as t h e result o f a
p r e s e t a g r e e m e n t m e a n t o n l y for A b r a h a m ' s d e s c e n d a n t s . S u c h a p r e s e n
t a t i o n m i g h t o f f e n d his non-Jewish r e a d e r s a n d e n c o u r a g e c o m p l a c e n c y
6 2
T h e s e two episodes are Abraham's departure from Haran (Gen. 12:1-3, cf. Abr. 6 0 -
80) a n d the c h a n g e o f Abram's n a m e to Abraham ( G e n . 17:5; cf. Abr. 8 1 - 8 3 ) . In
p r e s e n t i n g A b r a h a m ' s c h a n g e o f n a m e before his a n d Sarah's sojourn in Egypt,
Philo departs from the Biblical arrangement of these incidents.
184 CHAPTER FIVE
Spec. 2.162-67
T h e reason o f this is that the Jewish nation is to the w h o l e inhabited world what
the priest is to the State. For the holy office in very truth b e l o n g s to the nation
because it carries o u t all the rites of purification and both in body a n d soul obeys
the injunctions o f the divine laws, which restrict the pleasures of the belly and the
parts below it and the horde... {Spec. 2.163)
6 3
S e e , e.g., Spec. 2.150 o n the "Crossing-Feast" and Spec. 2.188 o n the "Trumpet
Feast."
6 4
T h i s passage contrasts with Somn. 2.75, in which Philo interprets Lev. 23:10 as
m e a n i n g that the sheaf should c o m e only from the land which G o d gives the p e o p l e ,
i.e., Canaan. Cf. Belkin {Philo and the Oral Law, 2 1 8 ) , w h o i g n o r e s the contradiction
between the two interpretations o n this point. See also H e i n e m a n n , Philons griechische
undjudische Bildung, 125.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 185
P h i l o c o m p l e t e l y reworks t h e i d e a that t h e J e w s h a v e a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n
s h i p w i t h G o d b a s e d u p o n a prior p a c t w h i c h stipulates t h e n a t i o n ' s o b e
d i e n c e t o t h e laws as a c o n d i t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , a c c o r d i n g to his portrayal,
it w o u l d s e e m that a n y o n e w h o follows t h e laws automatically b e c o m e s a
m e m b e r o f t h e c o m m u n i t y o f priests: " [ T ] h e l e g i s l a t i o n is in a way a
l e s s o n o n t h e priestly office a n d o n e w h o lives a c c o r d i n g t o t h e laws is
naturally ( ε υ θ ύ ς ) c o n s i d e r e d a priest or rather a h i g h priest in the
j u d g m e n t o f truth..." (Spec. 2.164, m y translation).
P h i l o a d d s a n o t h e r p o i n t . T h e w o r l d is filled with false deities, c r e a t e d
by h u m a n s , a n d different n a t i o n s w o r s h i p different g o d s (Spec. 2 . 1 6 4 ) . By
h o n o r i n g t h e true G o d , however, t h e Jews correct t h e error m a d e by t h o s e
w h o w o r s h i p false d e i t i e s . P h i l o writes,
6 5
S e e LCL, 7:408, n o t e a. In the French translation, Suzanne D a n i e l suggests that
Philo is talking about the G o d o f the philosophers a n d the s u p r e m e G o d o f popular
religions, De Specialibus Legibus I-II, ΟΡΑ, 24:332, η. 3.
186 CHAPTER FIVE
6 6
their practices as c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h u m a n i t y a n d g o o d w i l l — p e r h a p s im
plicitly a n s w e r i n g c h a r g e s t o t h e c o n t r a r y — h e rarely refers d i r e c d y as h e
d o e s h e r e t o a c c u s a t i o n s o f i n h u m a n i t y against t h e n a t i o n (cf. Virt. 1 4 1 ) .
T h i s t h e n is o n e o f t h e few explicidy a p o l o g e t i c passages in t h e E x p o s i t i o n .
Finally, it is w o r t h a s k i n g w h y P h i l o c h o o s e s t h e S h e a f F e a s t as a
c o n t e x t in w h i c h to e m p h a s i z e t h e priesdy role o f t h e Jews, s i n c e t h e Bible
m e n t i o n s t h e s h e a f o f f e r i n g very briefly a n d d o e s n o t c o m m e n t t h e r e
6 7
u p o n a universal role for t h e p e o p l e . It may b e h e l p f u l to recall that P h i l o
p r e s e n t s this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a b o u t t h e Jews as t h e universal (in contrast t o
t h e n a t i o n a l ) significance o f t h e holiday. T h e m a i n f o c u s o f t h e o c c a s i o n
is t h e o f f e r i n g o f t h e s h e a f f r o m t h e first fruits, a n act i n v o l v i n g priestly
ritual. T h e Jews carry o u t this offering with first fruits b o t h f r o m their o w n
h o m e l a n d a n d f r o m t h e w h o l e earth. Finally, this is t h e first o f f e r i n g o f
first fruits in t h e h o l i d a y c y c l e . A l t h o u g h t h e h o l i d a y m a y e l s e w h e r e
a p p e a r t o b e fairly m i n o r , t h e n , it p r o v i d e s P h i l o with a suitable c o n t e x t in
w h i c h t o h i g h l i g h t t h e r o l e o f t h e J e w s as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ^priests f o r all
people.
Spec. 4.179-82
6 6
Spec. 1.324; Spec. 2.79, 104, 107, 110, 138, 141, 183; Spec. 4.24, 71; Virt. 5 1 - 1 7 4 .
6 7
O n this question, see also LCL, 7:406, n o t e a; and H e i n e m a n n , Philons griechische
und judische Bildung, 1 2 5 - 2 6 . In the Bible, the sheaf offering is n o t itself called a feast,
and in rabbinic tradition, this d o e s n o t constitute a full holiday. See also Daniel in De
Specialibus Legibus I-II, ΟΡΑ, 24:330, η. 3.
6 8
T h e term π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς appears in Deut. 10:18. Philo uses ε π η λ υ ς , έπηλύτης, a n d
έπήλυτος synonymously with προσήλυτος, understanding these terms to m e a n s o m e o n e
w h o has c o m e over to the Jewish polity. T h e issue o f the proselyte is addressed in the
n e x t chapter.
6 9
Cf. Spec. 1.308, in w h i c h Philo describes these individuals as "those m o s t h e l p
lessly in n e e d . "
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 187
After d e s c r i b i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n o f e a c h f i g u r e — t h e p r o s e l y t e , o r p h a n ,
a n d w i d o w — P h i l o c o m p a r e s t h e Jews t o a n o r p h a n b e c a u s e t h e y have n o
allies:
As was m e n t i o n e d earlier, b e c a u s e P h i l o u s e s t h e v e r b π ρ ο σ κ λ η ρ ό ω ,
allot, i n a f o r m that c a n b e e i t h e r m i d d l e o r passive, it is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r
G o d allots t h e J e w s t o H i m s e l f or t h e Jews d e d i c a t e t h e m s e l v e s to H i m . I n
this p a s s a g e , h o w e v e r , s i n c e h e u s e s t h e passive t o say that t h e J e w s are set
apart ( α π ε ν ε μ ή θ η ) , it is quite possible that προσκεκλήρωται also has a passive
sense here.
T h i s i m a g e o f t h e J e w i s h n a t i o n assigned to G o d as a k i n d o f first fruits
calls t o m i n d t h e t h e m e o f t h e p e o p l e as priests, t h r o u g h a s e r i e s o f
associations that w o u l d b e familiar to m o s t readers o f t h e Bible, t h o u g h n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y t o P h i l o ' s r e a d e r s o f this work. T h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s p e r t a i n t o
t h e Biblical i n j u n c t i o n s that t h e firstborn a n d first fruits are set aside a n d
d e d i c a t e d to G o d a n d that t h e priestly tribe Levi is set aside to serve G o d in
p l a c e o f all t h e firstborn o f Israel. N u m . 3 : 1 1 - 1 3 describes this a p p o i n t m e n t
o f Levi as follows:
7 0
Cf. Deut. 18:1-5 and refs. given in n. 36.
7 1
E.g., Deut. 7:7-8, 8:18, 9:5, 29:13; cf. Deut. 4:37.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 189
e l s e w h e r e — t h a t t h e essential e l e m e n t s o f k i n s h i p are n o t b l o o d b u t p i o u s
beliefs a n d n o b l e behavior. Therefore p e o p l e without n o b l e lineage w h o
turn to a life o f piety a n d virtue, i.e., proselytes, deserve to b e e m b r a c e d by
7 2
t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . Finally, by e m p h a s i z i n g that t h e n a t i o n is set
apart for G o d o n a c c o u n t o f t h e virtue o f its ancestors, P h i l o m a y also b e
a d d r e s s i n g c o n c e r n s o f e i t h e r Jews o r non-Jews r e g a r d i n g G o d ' s a p p a r e n t
ly arbitrary c h o i c e o f Israel as d e p i c t e d in S c r i p t u r e . If i n d e e d t h e s e
a n c e s t o r s are virtuous, t h e n H i s c h o i c e o f t h e m is m e r i t e d .
Legat. 1-7
T h i s p a s s a g e , a n a l y z e d in part in C h a p t e r T h r e e , is u n i q u e i n P h i l o ' s
writings b e c a u s e it is t h e o n l y p l a c e w h e r e h e links "Israel," t h e o n e that
s e e s G o d , w i t h t h e J e w s . In a d d i t i o n , P h i l o c o m b i n e s p h i l o s o p h i c a l
t h e m e s , s u c h as t h e vision o f G o d a n d t h e n a t u r e o f G o d ' s p o w e r s , w i t h
c l a i m s b a s e d u p o n J e w i s h tradition a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d
a n d t h e n a t i o n . Specifically, h e n o t e s that t h e p e o p l e are p a r t i c u l a r
b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f divine p r o v i d e n c e , that they are a l l o t t e d o r have a l l o t t e d
t h e m s e l v e s t o G o d , a n d that they are t h e suppliants' r a c e / c l a s s (τό ικετικόν
γ έ ν ο ς ) , a c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n w h i c h calls to m i n d t h e i r i n t e r c e s s o r y r o l e as
priests for all p e o p l e .
W e have already s e e n that P h i l o d o e s n o t c o n n e c t t h e ability o f "Israel"
t o s e e G o d — w h i c h is i m p l i e d by t h e m e a n i n g o f its n a m e , ορών θ ε ό ν —
w i t h any o f t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d c l a i m s a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
G o d a n d t h e Jews. In o t h e r words, it is n o t because they s e e G o d that t h e
J e w s are t h e s u p p l i a n t γ έ ν ο ς , that they have b e e n a l l o t t e d o r allot t h e m
73
selves t o G o d , o r that they b e n e f i t f r o m H i s p r o v i d e n c e . N o r d o e s P h i l o
a l l e g e that t h e J e w s c a n s e e G o d because o f t h e s e o t h e r characteristics o f
t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o H i m . W e shall n o w turn a g a i n to t h e p r o l o g u e in
Legat. t o e x a m i n e t h e effect c r e a t e d w h e n P h i l o b r i n g s t o g e t h e r t h e s e
various e l e m e n t s f r o m p h i l o s o p h y a n d Jewish tradition.
It was m e n t i o n e d that o n e o f t h e m a i n p u r p o s e s o f this i n t r o d u c t o r y
passage is t o argue that G o d e x t e n d s p r o v i d e n c e to all p e o p l e a n d especially
toward t h e Jews. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s i n c e t h e work is i n c o m p l e t e , w e c a n n o t
s e e h o w P h i l o a p p l i e s t h e s e a r g u m e n t s to t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n h e is
d e s c r i b i n g . N o n e t h e l e s s , h e m o s t likely i n t e n d e d t o s h o w h o w t h e
7 2
For Philo's c o m m e n t s o n kinship, see Abr. 31, Mos. 2.171, Spec. 1.317, Spec. 2.73.
O n proselytes: Spec. 1.51-52; Virt. 1 0 2 - 4 , 179; cf. Virt. 189 and 198. T h e s e topics will be
discussed in the n e x t chapter.
7 3
G o o d e n o u g h , in contrast, d o e s attribute the intercessory role o f the Jews to their
"mysdc powers o f vision" (The Politics of Philo Judaeus, 13).
190 CHAPTER FIVE
u n f o l d i n g o f e v e n t s — p e r h a p s t h e downfall o f t h e oppressors—substantiates
74
his c o n t e n t i o n that t h e Jews enjoy G o d ' s special p r o t e c t i o n .
T o review briefly t h e e n t i r e p a s s a g e , P h i l o b e g i n s by o b s e r v i n g t h a t
p e o p l e have m o r e c o n f i d e n c e in fate t h a n in nature, a n d h e attributes this
misplaced c o n f i d e n c e to reliance u p o n sense p e r c e p t i o n instead of
i n t e l l e c t (Legat. 1 - 2 ) . W h e r e a s t h e sight o f t h e s e n s e s p e r c e i v e s o n l y w h a t
is n e a r , t h e k e e n e r sight o f r e a s o n s e e s i n t o t h e f u t u r e . P e o p l e c o n f u s e
r e a s o n ' s v i s i o n , h o w e v e r , t h r o u g h drink a n d o t h e r i n d u l g e n c e or, e v e n
w o r s e , t h r o u g h i g n o r a n c e (Legat. 2 ) . N o n e t h e l e s s P h i l o a r g u e s that t h e
situation at h a n d s h o u l d c o n v i n c e e v e n t h o s e w h o have g i v e n u p o n G o d ' s
providence:
T h i s passage p r e s e n t s w i t h o u t e l a b o r a t i o n s o m e o f t h e features d i s c u s s e d
a b o v e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e Jews. P h i l o asserts, f o r
e x a m p l e , that G o d , w h o cares for all p e o p l e , takes special t h o u g h t for t h e
Jews, w h o m h e d o e s n o t n a m e b u t calls "the suppliants' γ έ ν ο ς w h i c h h a s
b e e n a l l o t t e d o r h a s a l l o t t e d i t s e l f t o H i m . By d e s c r i b i n g t h e m i n this
way, h e i m p l i e s t h a t t h e n a t i o n m a y r e c e i v e G o d ' s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n
because it serves H i m a n d is a l l o t t e d to H i m . M o r e o v e r , t h e d e s i g n a t i o n
"suppliants' γ έ ν ο ς " suggests that this γ έ ν ο ς serves a n intercessory r o l e for
all p e o p l e , t h o u g h P h i l o d o e s n o t explicidy m e n t i o n this role.
In Legat. 4, P h i l o d e c l a r e s that t h e n a m e o f t h e s u p p l i a n t s ' γ έ ν ο ς is
"Israel," w h i c h m e a n s "one that s e e s G o d . " H e t h e n a r g u e s that s e e i n g
H i m n e c e s s a r i l y e v o k e s a h i g h s t a n d a r d o f virtue a n d e x c e l l e n c e i n t h e
b e h o l d e r s a n d t h a t H e w h o is s e e n is b e t t e r t h a n any p h i l o s o p h i c a l
c o n c e p t , like t h e G o o d or the Beautiful (Legat. 5 ) .
In Legat. 6 - 7 , P h i l o turns to different issues. First h e m e n t i o n s that it is
i m p o s s i b l e for r e a s o n to a p p r o a c h G o d as H e is a n d that it is difficult t o find
w o r d s e v e n for G o d ' s powers, w h i c h h e t h e n describes as "the creative, t h e
kingly, t h e providential, a n d ... t h e o t h e r s all that are b o t h b e n e f i c i a l a n d
punitive..." (Legat. 7 ) .
H e r e , P h i l o reflects u p o n t h e role o f G o d ' s punitive powers, c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e m to b e part o f His beneficial powers. H e explains that
7 4
See n. 42.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOD AND THE JEWS 191
7 5
π λ η σ ι ά ζ ο ν τ ε ς . This c o u l d also be translated, "those w h o are close to sinning," as
S m a l l w o o d n o t e s (Philonis Alexandrine 157, n. 7 ) , citing H a n s Leisegang in JBL 5 7
( 1 9 3 8 ) : 3 8 3 ; but see Spec. 4.223 for a t h o u g h t similar to the o n e e x p r e s s e d by the
translation given h e r e .
7 6
Cf. Virt. 65, in which Philo s e e m s to equate Judaism with philosophy. ( T h e s e two
192 CHAPTER FIVE
In d i f f e r e n t ways, t h e n , t h e v a r i o u s p a s s a g e s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e e x p r e s s
P h i l o ' s i d e a s a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e Jews, past a n d
p r e s e n t . P h i l o ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s are c o n n e c t e d with t h e Biblical d e p i c t i o n o f
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel. As h e d o e s in his e x p l i c i t inter
pretations o f that d e p i c t i o n , h e r e t o o in his c o m m e n t s a b o u t G o d ' s relation
s h i p to t h e Jews a n d their a n c e s t o r s — w h i c h are implicit i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f
t h e Biblical d e p i c t i o n — P h i l o m o d i f i e s Biblical n o t i o n s t o suit h i s a i m s
a n d a u d i e n c e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e implicit interpretations, it w o u l d s e e m
that a n y o n e w h o c h o o s e s m a y a c h i e v e t h e s a m e s t a n d i n g with G o d as t h e
Jews have.
C o n s p i c u o u s l y a b s e n t f r o m P h i l o ' s d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t t h e J e w s is any
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r ability t o s e e G o d . Accordingly, o n e m i g h t a s s u m e that
G o d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e m is s o m e w h a t different f r o m t h e o n e H e h a s
with "Israel." In t h e n e x t chapter, w e shall have an o p p o r t u n i t y to c o m p a r e
t h e t w o r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h e n w e c o n s i d e r w h a t P h i l o says a b o u t n e w
c o m e r s t o G o d , or proselytes.
passages, Legat. 1-7 and Virt. 65, are discussed in Chapter T h r e e . ) For a n o t h e r per
spective o n Legat. 1-7, see Wayne A. Meeks, "The Divine A g e n t a n d His Counterfeit
in Philo a n d the Fourth Gospel," Aspects of Religious Propaganda in Judaism and Early
Christianity, e d . Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, University o f N o t r e D a m e , Center for
the Study of Judaism and Christianity in Antiquity, n o . 2 (Notre D a m e , 1976), 4 9 - 5 4 .
CHAPTER SIX
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO
GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL"
1
Shaye J. D . C o h e n , "Crossing the Boundary a n d B e c o m i n g a Jew," HTR 8 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) :
14. For other discussions o f proselytes during this period a n d related topics, s e e i d e m ,
"Conversion to Judaism in Historical Perspective: From Biblical Israel to Postbiblical
Judaism," Conservative Judaism 36 (1983): 3 1 - 4 5 ; Bernard J. Bamberger, Proselytism in
the Talmudic Period (Cincinnati: H e b r e w U n i o n College Press, 1939); J o h a n n e s B e h m
a n d Ernst Wurthwein, "μετανοέω, μετάνοια," TDNT, 4:975-1008; C. H. Cave, "Gentiles
a n d J u d a i s m : 'God-Fearers' a n d Proselytes," in Emil Schurer, History of the Jewish
People, rev. a n d e d . Geza Vermes et al. (Edinburgh: Τ. & T. Clark, 1 9 8 6 ) , 3:1:150-76;
Louis H . F e l d m a n , Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World: Attitudes and Interactions From
Alexander to Justinian (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Karl G e o r g K u h n ,
" π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς , " TDNT, 6 : 7 2 7 - 4 4 ; Scot McKnight, A Light Among the Gentiles: Jewish
Missionary Activity in the Second Temple Period ( M i n n e a p o l i s : Fortress Press, 1 9 9 1 ) ;
Arthur Darby Nock, Conversion: The Old and the New in Religion from Alexander the Great to
Augustine of Hippo (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1 9 3 3 ) , e s p . 1 - 1 6 ; G e o r g e F o o t e
M o o r e , Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The Age of the Tannaim ( N e w
York: S c h o c k e n Books, 1 9 5 8 ) , 1:323-53; Alan F. Segal, "The Costs o f Proselytism a n d
Conversion," SBL 1988 Seminar Papers, SBL Seminar Paper Series, e d . David J. Lull, n o .
194 CHAPTER SIX
Diversity is a p p a r e n t n o t o n l y c o n c e r n i n g t h e b r o a d e r issues o f w h o
was c o n s i d e r e d a J e w a n d h o w o n e b e c a m e a J e w , b u t also a m o n g t h e
t e r m s u s e d by d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n i t i e s b o t h f o r i n d i v i d u a l s a n d f o r t h e
p r o c e s s o f t u r n i n g t o J u d a i s m . In s o m e c o m m u n i t i e s , f o r e x a m p l e , w e find
t e r m s i n G r e e k a n d H e b r e w f o r "God-reverers" o r "God-fearers" ( e . g . ,
θεοσεβεΐς; σ ε β ό μ ε ν ο ι o r φοβούμενοι τον θεόν; " nrp; UOD *trp), w h o s e p r e c i s e
s t a n d i n g w i t h t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y is u n c l e a r . R a b b i n i c literature h a s
r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e nenn Ί3, o r r e s i d e n t a l i e n , a n o t h e r figure w h o , w h i l e
a p p a r e n t l y s y m p a t h e t i c t o J u d a i s m , was n o t c o n s i d e r e d a Jew. T h e Rabbis
also s p e a k o f different k i n d s o f proselytes. B e s i d e s t h e ρτ* Ί3 ( t h e true o r
r i g h t e o u s p r o s e l y t e ) , t h e y m e n t i o n proselytes w h o c a m e o v e r t o J u d a i s m
2
o u t o f different motives, s o m e c o n s i d e r e d h o n o r a b l e , s o m e n o t .
Finally, variety also exists a m o n g w o r d s d e s c r i b i n g t h e activity o f t h e s e
d i f f e r e n t figures i n r e l a t i o n t o J e w s a n d J u d a i s m . T h u s t e r m s like μ ε τ ά
ν ο ι α , r e p e n t a n c e o r c o n v e r s i o n ; Ί ο υ δ α ι ζ ε ι ν , t o act like a J e w (Esther 8:17;
cf. t h e H e b r e w , nrrnn); a n d i^ynn , t o b e c o m e a proselyte, m a y e x p r e s s a
3
r a n g e o f b e h a v i o r f r o m acting like a J e w to b e c o m i n g o n e .
S o m e t i m e s variations o c c u r e v e n i n t h e way j u s t o n e w o r d is u s e d . A
t e r m like μ ε τ ά ν ο ι α , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s m o r e t h a n o n e m e a n i n g — e v e n i n
P h i l o ' s works a l o n e . W h e r e a s P h i l o m a y u s e μ ε τ ά ν ο ι α t o d e n o t e r e p e n t
ance or conversion—in the sense of turning from polytheistic belief to
b e l i e f i n t h e o n e G o d — i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , μ ε τ ά ν ο ι α signifies "conver
4
sion" as a c o m p l e t e a n d irreversible religious t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
T h e u n m i s t a k a b l e diversity o f t e r m s a n d p o s i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g w h o was
c o n s i d e r e d a J e w a n d h o w o n e b e c a m e a Jew w o u l d s e e m to reflect a
r a t h e r fluid s i t u a t i o n a m o n g t h e various c o m m u n i t i e s i n antiquity. N o n -
Jews, it a p p e a r s , m i g h t e x p r e s s a n i n t e r e s t i n J u d a i s m i n a n y n u m b e r o f
ways w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g a J e w .
In s i x t e e n passages, P h i l o u s e s t h e words, π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς , ε π η λ υ ς , έ π η λ ύ τ η ς ,
5
a n d έ π ή λ υ τ ο ς t o describe proselytes o r i n c o m e r s . (For c o n v e n i e n c e , I shall
refer to t h e last t h r e e terms as "επηλυς a n d its variations.") In Spec. 1.51, h e
p r o v i d e s a n e t y m o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n for π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ι , n o t i n g that t h e y are
s o - c a l l e d "because t h e y h a v e come to ( π ρ ο σ ε λ η λ υ θ έ ν α ι ) a n e w a n d G o d -
l o v i n g polity" ( m y e m p h a s i s ) .
In QE 2.2, in w h i c h P h i l o u s e s b o t h π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς a n d ε π η λ υ ς , h e e x p l a i n s
different n u a n c e s o f t h e w o r d ε π η λ υ ς as follows:
5
S o m e passages use m o r e than o n e o f these words. T h e passages are as follows: Cher.
108, 1 1 9 - 2 1 ; Somn. 1.160; Somn. 2.273; Mos. 1.7, 147; Spec. 1.51-53, 3 0 8 - 9 ; Spec. 2 . 1 1 8 - 1 9 ;
Spec. 4 . 1 7 6 - 7 8 ; Virt. 1 0 2 - 4 , 182, 219; Praem. 152; QE 2.2; Flacc. 54.
6
This is my translation based u p o n the Greek fragment. T h e Armenian adds a n e g
ative so that the s e n t e n c e reads, "[S]trangers are also those w h o have c o m e o f their
own a c c o r d to the truth not in the same way as those w h o sojourned in Egypt" (my
e m p h a s i s ) . B o t h ways o f reading the passage can make sense. Without the negative,
the passage e m p h a s i z e s the c o m m o n a l i t y that all i n c o m e r s share; with the negative,
the passage emphasizes the difference between what each i n c o m e r c o m e s to.
196 CHAPTER SIX
In t e n p a s s a g e s i n w h i c h P h i l o u s e s π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς o r ε π η λ υ ς a n d its
variations, h e e l a b o r a t e s u p o n t h e s e t e r m s a n d it is usually clear that h e
m e a n s by t h e m a p e r s o n w h o leaves b e h i n d o l d b e l i e f s a n d p r a c t i c e s as
w e l l as a c o m m u n i t y o f family a n d f r i e n d s t o a d o p t n e w b e l i e f s a n d
7
practices a n d t o j o i n a n e w c o m m u n i t y . In o n e passage (Somn. 2 . 2 7 2 - 7 3 ) ,
P h i l o d e s c r i b e s proselytes simply as μ ε τ α ν ά σ τ α ι καΐ π ρ ό σ φ υ γ ε ς , e m i g r a n t s
a n d r e f u g e e s . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m a k e s s e n s e , h o w e v e r , o n l y if o n e
u n d e r s t a n d s p r o s e l y t e s as e m i g r a n t s a n d r e f u g e e s w h o c o m e to G o d , n o t
merely emigrants a n d refugees w h o leave o n e physical h o m e for
8
another.
O f t h e t e n p a s s a g e s in w h i c h P h i l o d o e s d e f i n e t h e p r o s e l y t e in s o m e
9
way, e i g h t assert that h e o r s h e leaves b e h i n d s o m e t h i n g o l d and c o m e s
o v e r t o s o m e t h i n g n e w , w h i l e two m e n t i o n o n l y t h e c o m i n g o v e r t o
s o m e t h i n g new, a l t h o u g h the a b a n d o n m e n t of the old may also b e
i m p l i e d . T h e d u a l activity o f l e a v i n g b e h i n d t h e o l d a n d t a k i n g o n t h e
n e w a p p e a r s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t , s i n c e t h e o l d ways a n d t h e n e w are
10
p r e s e n t e d as f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n c o m p a t i b l e .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y P h i l o n e v e r p r o v i d e s t h e s a m e list twice o f w h a t is left
a n d w h a t is a d o p t e d , n o r d o e s e v e n o n e specification a p p e a r c o n s i s t e n t l y
in every list. N o n e t h e l e s s w e m a y o b s e r v e g e n e r a l l y that t h e p r o s e l y t e
a b a n d o n s b e l i e f i n a n d w o r s h i p o f m a n y g o d s t o a d o p t b e l i e f in a n d
w o r s h i p o f t h e o n e G o d . M o r e specifically, P h i l o m e n t i o n s that proselytes
leave b e h i n d m y t h i c a l i n v e n t i o n s , polytheistic beliefs, ancestral c u s t o m s ,
family, f r i e n d s , a n d c o u n t r y a n d c o m e over to t h e o n e true G o d , truth,
piety, virtue, t h e laws, a n d a n e w polity. A l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t d o so in
every case, P h i l o m o s t f r e q u e n t l y cites t h e t u r n i n g to G o d — w h e t h e r it b e
1 1
to h o n o r of, w o r s h i p of, or b e l i e f in H i m .
7
T h e s e ten passages are as follows: Somn. 1.160-62; Spec. 1.51-53, 3 0 8 - 9 ; Spec. 2 . 1 1 6 - 1 9 ;
Spec. 4 . 1 7 6 - 7 8 ; Virt. 1 0 2 - 4 , 1 8 0 - 8 2 , 219; Praem. 152; and QE 2.2. Spec. 2 . 1 1 6 - 1 9 , w h i c h
explains a Biblical law about buying h o u s e s within a city (Lev. 2 5 : 2 9 - 3 1 ) , understands
the proselyte in two senses, as o n e w h o c o m e s over to the laws and as a n e w c o m e r to
the land.
8
P h i l o ' s use o f m i g r a t i o n or pilgrimage vocabulary to describe the proselyte is
discussed further below. See also n n . 28 and 29.
9
I use b o t h g e n d e r s advisedly. As I argue later in the chapter, Tamar m i g h t serve as
an e x a m p l e o f a female proselyte. A l t h o u g h Philo d o e s n o t call her o n e explicidy, h e
employs the same language for her as h e d o e s for the proselyte.
1 0
O n the importance of the dual activity o f leaving old ways a n d adopting n e w o n e s ,
see Nock, Conversion, 7, 1 3 - 1 4 . T h e two passages which m e n t i o n only the c o m i n g over
to s o m e t h i n g new are Spec. 2 . 1 1 6 - 1 9 and Praem. 152. In Spec. 2.118, Philo describes the
έ π η λ ύ τ α ι as suppliants and refugees to the laws, while in Praem. 152, h e says that the
επηλυς c o m e s of his own accord to God. O n Spec. 2.116-19, see also above, n. 7.
1 1
O f the ten passages listed in n. 7, only Spec. 2 . 1 1 6 - 1 9 d o e s n o t m e n t i o n G o d . I
shall discuss the turning to God in m o r e detail further below.
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 197
It is w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t P h i l o m e n t i o n s t h e a d o p t i o n o f n e w laws o r
1 2
customs only twice. B e c a u s e h e s p e a k s o f t h e s e laws o r c u s t o m s i n o n l y
a g e n e r a l way, w e d o n o t h a v e sufficient e v i d e n c e t o b e a b l e t o identify t h e
legal requirements for either b e c o m i n g a proselyte or maintaining o n e ' s
s t a t u s as a m e m b e r o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , o n t h e b a s i s o f w h a t
P h i l o tells u s , w e are u n a b l e t o d i s c e r n w h e t h e r o r n o t o r t o w h a t d e g r e e
t h e p r o s e l y t e is a c c e p t e d by t h e n e w c o m m u n i t y w h i c h h e o r s h e j o i n s .
P e r h a p s t h e m o s t w e c a n say t h e n a b o u t P h i l o ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
p r o s e l y t e is t h a t h e o r s h e a b a n d o n s o l d p o l y t h e i s t i c b e l i e f s a n d p r a c t i c e s ,
leaving b e h i n d a c o m m u n i t y o f family a n d friends, a n d c o m e s over to
b e l i e f i n a n d w o r s h i p ( l o o s e l y d e f i n e d ) o f t h e o n e true G o d , b e c o m i n g part
o f a n e w c o m m u n i t y . F o r t h e rest o f this d i s c u s s i o n , I shall u s e t h e t e r m
"proselyte" t o d e n o t e this m e a n i n g . It is significant that, a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s
description, b e c o m i n g a proselyte has b o t h religious a n d social dimen
sions.
A s t o t h e i n t e r c h a n g e a b i l i t y o f π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς a n d ε π η λ υ ς o r its variations,
P h i l o always u s e s t h e w o r d π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς o n l y w h e n it o c c u r s i n B i b l i c a l
1 3
passages he is d i s c u s s i n g . More frequently, he uses ε π η λ υ ς a n d its
1 2
Spec. 2.118 a n d QE 2.2 (the latter passage is quoted earlier); cf. Somn. 1.162. O n t h e
debate over whether or n o t circumcision is required o f proselytes, see below, n. 2 1 .
1 3
Cher. 108 (Lev. 25:23), 119-21 (Lev. 25:23); Somn. 2.273 (Deut. 26:13); Spec. 1.51-53
(Lev. 1 9 : 3 3 - 3 4 ) , 3 0 8 - 9 (Deut. 1 0 : 1 7 - 1 9 ) ; QE 2.2 (Exod. 22:20). In t h e Septuagint,
π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς is a translation for Ί3 from t h e H e b r e w Bible. B o t h Biblical terms are
a m b i g u o u s . In t h e H e b r e w Bible, t h e word Ί3 seems to carry at least two different
senses: It can refer to a foreigner or sojourner, as in the case o f Abraham a m o n g t h e
Hittites ( G e n . 23:4); Moses in Midian (Exod. 2:22, 18:3); Israel in Egypt (Exod. 22:20,
23:9; Lev. 19:34; Deut. 10:19); or Israel in relation to G o d (Lev. 25:23, 1 Chron. 29:15).
At t h e s a m e time, Ί2 also d e s i g n a t e s foreigners w h o live a m o n g t h e Israelites, n o t
merely as sojourners but as a class o f p e o p l e with certain rights—i.e., resident aliens
(Exod. 12:49, 22:20; Lev. 22:18; N u m . 35:15; Deut. 24:14). Although the Pentateuch d o e s
n o t give conclusive evidence to support understanding the Ί3 as a religious convert, in
s o m e o t h e r parts o f t h e Bible, t h e Ί3 a n d o t h e r d e s i g n a t i o n s m a y i n d e e d i n d i c a t e
p e o p l e w h o adopt Israelite beliefs a n d practices (Isa. 14:1, 56:3 a n d 6; Zech. 2:15; Esther
9:27; Ezra 6:21; N e h . 10:29). D e v e l o p m e n t s in the m e a n i n g o f t h e term n o d o u b t
reflect c h a n g i n g realities a m o n g t h e p e o p l e o f Israel after t h e e x i l e . S e e C o h e n ,
"Conversion to Judaism"; Yehezkel Kaufmann, History of the Religion of Israel, vol. 4:
From the Babylonian Captivity to the End of Prophecy, trans. C. W. Efroymson ( N e w York:
Ktav, 1 9 7 7 ) , 4 2 - 4 6 , 1 3 6 - 3 9 , 2 3 3 , 3 4 1 - 4 3 ; Τ. M. Mauch, "Sojourner," Interpreter's Diction
ary of the Bible, 4 : 3 9 7 - 9 9 ; T h e o p h i l e J a m e s Meek, "The Translation o f Ger in the
H e x a t e u c h a n d Its Bearing o n the Documentary Hypothesis," JBL 4 9 (1930): 1 7 2 - 8 0 .
T h e Septuagint translators, r e s p o n d i n g perhaps to the different n u a n c e s associated
with na, generally use either o f two different words for it: πάροικος or π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς . T h e
two terms, however, d o n o t correspond exacdy to the two different senses o f Ί3 m e n
t i o n e d above—i.e., sojourner a n d resident alien. For e x a m p l e , a l t h o u g h π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς
usually designates resident aliens a m o n g the Israelites, it also describes the p e o p l e o f
Israel as sojourners in Egypt (Exod. 22:20, 23:9; Lev. 19:34; Deut. 10:19) or in relation
198 CHAPTER SIX
p a s s a g e s at l e a s t a l l o w for a b r o a d e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e έ π η λ ύ τ η ς as a
proselyte, I shall i n c l u d e t h e m i n t h i s study. O f t h e s i x t e e n passages
w h i c h have the words π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς or ε π η λ υ ς a n d its v a r i a t i o n s , then,
18
t h i r t e e n are a b o u t o r m a y b e a b o u t p r o s e l y t e s .
real p e o p l e — n e v e r as s y m b o l i c f i g u r e s — e i t h e r i n t h e p a s t o r i n P h i l o ' s
2 0
present. T h e E x p o s i t i o n is a l s o w h e r e w e f i n d m o s t o f t h e passages,
discussed further below, which d o n o t m e n t i o n proselytes explicitly but
p e r t a i n t o t h e m o r t o positive G e n t i l e attitudes towards t h e Jews.
Finally, i n t h e o n e p a s s a g e a b o u t proselytes i n Q G E (QE 2 . 2 ) , P h i l o u s e s
t h e t e r m π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς i n a s y m b o l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f E x o d . 2 2 : 2 0 , in w h i c h
h e m e n t i o n s circumcision. His c o m m e n t s , however, d o n o t address the
p r a c t i c a l i s s u e o f w h e t h e r o r n o t c i r c u m c i s i o n is r e q u i r e d o f p r o s e l y t e s ,
2 1
a n d it is difficult t o k n o w h o w t o a p p l y h i s r e m a r k s t o real p r o s e l y t e s .
T h e s a m e p a s s a g e a l s o sets f o r t h two ways o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g έ π ή λ υ δ ε ς , as
incomers t o t h e l a n d o r t o laws a n d c u s t o m s . P h i l o ' s r e m a r k s about
p r o s e l y t e s i n t h i s p a s s a g e , h o w e v e r , are e i t h e r t o o a m b i g u o u s o r s p a r e t o
p e r m i t u s t o draw any firm c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t real p r o s e l y t e s .
In seven o f the thirteen passages u n d e r consideration, Philo discusses
2 0
T h e Exposition passages are as follows: Mos. 1.7, 147 (but see n. 17 c o n c e r n i n g t h e
ambiguity in these two passages); Spec. 1.51-53, 3 0 8 - 9 ; Spec. 2 . 1 1 6 - 1 9 ; Spec. 4 . 1 7 6 - 7 8 ;
Virt. 1 0 2 - 4 , 1 8 0 - 8 2 , 2 1 2 - 1 9 ; Praem. 152. By "real" proselytes, I m e a n potentially real,
since w e d o n o t have e v i d e n c e to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r or n o t Philo's A l e x a n d r i a n
Jewish c o m m u n i t y i n c l u d e d such individuals.
2 1
T h e s e p r o b l e m s have n o t p r e v e n t e d many scholars from trying, however! T h e
passage itself reads as follows:
[Exod. 22:20] Why d o e s (Scripture) in a d m o n i s h i n g , ' T h o u shalt n o t oppress a
sojourner,' a d d , 'For ye were sojourners in the land o f the Egyptians'?
(Scripture) first makes it clearly apparent a n d demonstrable that in reality t h e
s o j o u r n e r is o n e w h o circumcises n o t his u n c i r c u m c i s i o n b u t his desires a n d
sensual pleasures a n d t h e o t h e r passions o f the soul. For in Egypt t h e H e b r e w
nation was n o t circumcised but b e i n g mistreated with all (kinds of) mistreatment
by t h e inhabitants in their hatred o f strangers, it lived with t h e m in self-restraint
and e n d u r a n c e , n o t by necessity but rather of its own free c h o i c e , because it took
refuge in G o d t h e Saviour, W h o sent His b e n e f i c e n t power a n d delivered from
their difficult a n d h o p e l e s s situation t h o s e w h o m a d e s u p p l i c a t i o n (to H i m ) .
Therefore (Scripture) adds, 'Ye yourselves know the soul of the sojourner.' But what
is t h e m i n d o f t h e sojourner if n o t alienation from b e l i e f in m a n y g o d s a n d
familiarity with h o n o u r i n g the o n e G o d a n d Father o f all?
( T h e r e m a i n i n g part o f this passage, in which Philo offers two definitions for the
επηλυς, is q u o t e d at the b e g i n n i n g o f the chapter.) This passage seems to have a purely
exegetical purpose. W h e n Philo describes the Hebrews as uncircumcised but living in
self-restraint, for e x a m p l e , h e may b e answering t h e e x e g e t i c a l q u e s t i o n , "In what
way were t h e Hebrews 'proselytes' in Egypt?" N o n e t h e l e s s , h e sidesteps t h e issue o f
w h e t h e r or n o t proselytes are required to be circumcised. Similarly, his remark that
the real proselyte circumcises his desires, etc., also does n o t address the issue of physi
cal circumcision. For a variety o f approaches to this controversial passage, see Belkin,
Philo and the Oral Law, 44—48; Borgen, Paul Preaches Circumcision, 1 6 - 1 8 , 8 6 - 9 0 ; Collins,
"A Symbol o f Otherness," 1 7 3 - 7 5 , 184; N . J. McEleney, "Conversion, Circumcision,
a n d t h e Law," New Testament Studies 20 (1974): 3 1 9 - 4 1 ; Moore, Judaism, 1:327-28; J.
N o l l a n d , "Uncircumcised Proselytes?" Journal for the Study of Judaism 12 (1981): 1 7 3 - 9 4 ;
Wolfson, Philo, 1:369-71.
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 201
B e s i d e s t h e t h i r t e e n passages in w h i c h P h i l o explicitly u s e s π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς o r
ε π η λ υ ς a n d its variations t o signify o n e w h o leaves b e h i n d a social a n d
religious b a c k g r o u n d to a d o p t a new c o m m u n i t y and belief in a n d
w o r s h i p o f t h e o n e G o d , h e also discusses matters r e l a t e d to proselytes in
several o t h e r p l a c e s w i t h o u t u s i n g an e x p l i c i t w o r d for t h e m . O c c a s i o n
ally, f o r e x a m p l e , h e d e s c r i b e s p e o p l e in ways that s u g g e s t t h e y m a y b e
p r o s e l y t e s , w i t h o u t c a l l i n g t h e m "proselytes"; h e discusses t h e m e s r e l a t e d
t o t h e proselyte's e x p e r i e n c e , like m i g r a t i o n , r e p e n t a n c e , nobility o f birth,
o r k i n s h i p ; a n d h e s p e a k s o f non-Jews w h o w i s h t o j o i n t h e J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y o r w h o a d m i r e t h e Jews. T h e s e t o p i c s are c o n s i d e r e d briefly
below.
2 2
Somn. 2 . 2 7 2 - 7 3 (Deut. 26:13); Spec. 1.51-53 (Lev. 19:33-34), 3 0 8 - 9 (Deut. 10:17-19);
Spec. 4 . 1 7 6 - 7 8 (Deut. 10:17-19); Virt. 1 0 2 - 4 (Lev. 19:33-34); Praem. 152 (Deut. 28:43); QE
2.2 (Exod. 22:20).
2 3
Praem. 152 c o m m e n t s o n Deut. 28:43, which reads, "The stranger ( π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς )
a m o n g y o u will m o u n t h i g h e r and h i g h e r and you will d e s c e n d lower a n d lower."
2 4
See n. 17.
2 5
See n. 7.
2 6
S e e M a d e l e i n e Petit, "Exploitations non-bibliques des t h e m e s d e Tamar et d e
G e n e s e 38: P h i l o n d'Alexandrie, textes et traditions juives j u s q u ' a u x T a l m u d i m , "
Alexandrina: Hellenisme, judatsme et christianisme a Alexandne, Melanges offerts au P. Claude
Mondesert, SJ. (Paris: Editions d u Cerf, 1987), 7 7 - 1 1 5 .
202 CHAPTER SIX
B e s i d e s a l l u d i n g t o p e o p l e w h o s o u n d like p r o s e l y t e s , P h i l o d i s c u s s e s
several t h e m e s r e l a t e d t o t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f o n e ' s o l d r e l i g i o u s a n d
social b a c k g r o u n d a n d t h e a d o p t i o n o f n e w religious beliefs a n d practices
a n d a n e w social c o m m u n i t y . E x a m p l e s i n c l u d e p i l g r i m a g e o r m i g r a t i o n
motifs; μ ε τ ά ν ο ι α , r e p e n t a n c e or conversion; ε υ γ έ ν ε ι α , nobility o f birth; a n d
σ υ γ γ έ ν ε ι α , kinship.
2 7
See n. 17. T h e LCL translates μ ε τ ε β ά λ ο ν τ ο as "converted," w h e r e I have u s e d
"changed" or "turned around." While all these m e a n i n g s may b e equivalent, I have
n o t used "converted," so as to avoid the issue of whether or n o t formal procedures are
i n v o l v e d — a n issue w h i c h "converted," b e c a u s e o f its c o n t e m p o r a r y u s a g e , may
implicitly raise.
2 8
C o m p a r e Spec. 1.52, a passage about proselytes, with God's charge to Abraham in
G e n . 12:1. In Virt. 2 1 2 - 1 9 , Philo presents Abraham's migration from Chaldea as his
search for G o d and calls Abraham "a standard of nobility for all proselytes" ( ο ύ τ ο ς
α π α σ ι ν έπηλύταις ευγενείας έστι κανών, Virt. 2 1 9 ) . In general, Abraham's migration
from C h a l d e a is an i m p o r t a n t motif in Philo's writings, serving as the focus of his
Allegory treatise Migr. For o t h e r symbolic interpretations o f Abraham's migration,
see Ebr. 94, Her. 2 8 7 - 8 9 , Somn. 1.160-62, Abr. 6 0 - 8 0 . See also Wilfred Lawrence Knox,
"Abraham and the Quest for God," HTR 28 (1935): 5 5 - 6 1 .
2 9
C o m p a r e Spec. 1.52 and Spec. 1.68, both of which e c h o God's charge to Abraham in
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 203
Interested Non-Jews
3 3
D e u t . 2 3 : 8 - 9 reads as follows: "You shall n o t abhor an E d o m i t e , for h e is your
brother; y o u shall n o t abhor an Egyptian, because you were a sojourner (πάροικος) in
his land. T h e children o f the third g e n e r a t i o n that are born to t h e m may enter the
assembly o f the Lord." It is interesting that Philo uses μέτοικος instead o f π ά ρ ο ι κ ο ς ,
which appears in the LXX. T h e word μέτοικος seems to d e n o t e a resident alien rather
than a temporary sojourner, as π ά ρ ο ι κ ο ς implies. Perhaps Philo is speaking a b o u t a
figure similar to o n e d e n o t e d by the rabbinic term 3tDin la.
3 4
In these passages about proselytes, Philo often speaks of God in different ways: e.g.,
Somn. 1.161: the Cause of all things (ό πάντων αίτιος); Spec. 1.52: the o n e God (ό εις θεός);
Spec. 1.53, 309: the truly Existing (ό δντως ών or τό δντως ov); Spec. 1.309, Praem. 152: G o d
(θεός); Spec. 4.178: the O n e worthy of h o n o r (6 εις τίμιος or τό εν τίμιον); Virt. 102: the
o n e a n d truly existing G o d (ό εις και δντως ών θεός); Virt. 181: the existing G o d (ό ών
θ ε ό ς ) ; Virt. 214: t h e O n e w h o a l o n e is eternal a n d father o f all intellectual a n d
sensible things (6 εις, ος έστιν άίδιος μόνος καΐ δλων πατήρ νοητών τε αυ και αισθητών); QE
2.2: G o d the savior (ό σωτήρ θεός); the O n e and father of all (ό εις και πατήρ τών δλων).
Cf. Virt. 221: the o n e Cause (ό εις αίτιος). (Translations are m i n e . ) See also A n t h o n y J.
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 205
1) A p r o s e l y t e r e q u i r e s G o d ' s p o w e r s o f g o v e r n a n c e a n d kindness
(Somn. 1.160-62).
2) P r o s e l y t e s are a m o n g t h o s e c h o s e n for h i g h m e r i t t o t h e t e m p l e
ministry (Somn. 2 . 2 7 2 - 7 3 ) .
3) A b r a h a m , a s t a n d a r d o f n o b i l i t y ( ε υ γ έ ν ε ι α ) f o r all p r o s e l y t e s ,
r e c e i v e s s o v e r e i g n t y a m o n g h i s n e i g h b o r s by t h e e l e c t i o n o f t h e
v i r t u e - l o v i n g G o d , w h o rewards all lovers o f p i e t y w i t h p o w e r s t o
b e n e f i t t h o s e a r o u n d t h e m (Virt. 2 1 8 - 1 9 ) .
Guerra, ' T h e O n e G o d T o p o s in Spec. Leg, 1.52," SBL 1990 Seminar Papers, SBL Seminar
Paper Series, ed. David J. Lull, n o . 29 (Adanta: Scholars Press, 1990), 1 4 8 - 5 7 . For a list
o f the different ways in w h i c h Philo speaks about G o d in general, i.e., in passages
that are n o t only about proselytes, see D r u m m o n d , Philo Judaeus, 2:63.
3 5
G e n . 15:6 provides a textual basis for speaking o f Abraham as believing in G o d .
T h e verse begins, "And h e believed God..."
3 6
Philo d o e s e l s e w h e r e speak of Abraham as s e e i n g G o d but n o t in passages that
d e p i c t h i m as a proselyte. Philo uses m e t a p h o r s about light in Virt. 179 a n d 2 2 1 ,
passages w h i c h are related to proselytes but d o n o t m e n t i o n t h e m specifically. In Virt.
179, h e writes a b o u t t h o s e w h o c o m e to "embrace the rulership o f O n e instead o f
many" (my translation) that "we must rejoice with t h e m , as if, t h o u g h b l i n d at the
first they h a d r e c o v e r e d their sight a n d h a d c o m e from t h e d e e p e s t darkness to
b e h o l d the m o s t radiant light" (LCL translation). In Virt. 2 2 1 , h e writes that Tamar,
"emerging as if from d e e p darkness, was able to see a litde ray of truth." Spec. 1 . 5 1 -
5 3 , a passage about proselytes, immediately follows a long passage (Spec. 1.32-50) about
the search for G o d a n d Moses's request to see H i m (based u p o n Exod. 3 3 : 1 3 - 2 3 ) , but
Philo d o e s n o t m a k e any c o n n e c t i o n between proselytes and s e e i n g God.
206 CHAPTER SIX
l 7 F o r the Lord your G o d is G o d of g o d s and Lord of lords, the great, the mighty,
and the terrible G o d w h o is n o t partial and takes n o bribe. 1 8 H e executes justice for
the [ π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς ] , the orphan, and the widow, and loves the [ π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς ] , giving
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 207
H e cares for the proselytes (έπήλυτοι) for this reason: after a b a n d o n i n g t h e ances
tral customs in w h i c h they were raised, customs l o a d e d with false i n v e n t i o n s a n d
vanity, after b e c o m i n g g e n u i n e lovers o f modesty a n d truth, they migrated to piety.
Suppliants a n d worshippers o f t h e truly Existing as H e deserves, they partake i n
His π ρ ό ν ο ι α suited to them, as it is fitting, finding the fruit o f taking refuge in G o d
to be the h e l p that c o m e s from H i m . (Spec. 1.309, my translation)
P h i l o t h e n e x p l a i n s t h a t o r p h a n s a n d w i d o w s h a v e n o o n e e l s e t o take
care of t h e m since they have lost parents a n d h u s b a n d s respectively. He
writes,
[ I ] n this desolation n o refuge remains that m e n can give; a n d therefore they are
n o t d e n i e d t h e h o p e that is greatest o f all, t h e h o p e in G o d , w h o i n t h e
graciousness o f His nature d o e s n o t refuse the task o f caring for a n d watching over
t h e m in their desolate condition. (Spec. 1.310)
3 7
This translation from t h e RSV uses t h e word "sojourner" where I have substituted
π ρ ο σ ή λ υ τ ο ς . Like t h e Septuagint, t h e RSV adds "sojourner" before t h e o r p h a n a n d
widow in verse 18, although the Hebrew omits the la from this group.
3 8
T h e critical edition o f Philo ( C o h n a n d Wendland, Philonis Alexandrini, 5:74) lists
the following two manuscript variants to προνοίας: προνομίας (privilege) a n d π ρ ο ν ο μ ί α ς
προνοίας (the privilege of [God's] protection).
208 CHAPTER SIX
3 9
T h e different c o n t e x t s o f the two passages probably a c c o u n t for their different
explanations a b o u t God's πρόνοια toward proselytes. Spec. 4 . 1 7 6 - 7 8 c o m m e n t s o n Deut.
10:17-19 to support the p o i n t that G o d has compassion for those in n e e d . Philo there
fore u n d e r s c o r e s proselytes' n e e d i n e s s , w h i c h stems from their isolation. H i s re
marks in Spec. 1.308-9, however, b e l o n g to a r u n n i n g c o m m e n t a r y o n D e u t . 10:12—
14:1 a n d are n o t ostensibly i n t e n d e d to support a particular a r g u m e n t . P h i l o can
t h e r e f o r e h i g h l i g h t a different p o i n t h e r e , namely, that proselytes are r e w a r d e d
w h e n they turn to God.
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 209
A l t h o u g h P h i l o d o e s speak o f proselytes a n d J e w s in t h e s a m e s e c t i o n ,
h e still d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t h e m , g i v i n g d i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r
t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e situations: proselytes are a l o n e b e c a u s e t h e y leave t h e i r
c u s t o m a r y p r o t e c t o r s , w h i l e J e w s are a l o n e b e c a u s e t h e i r laws are c o n
s i d e r e d t o o severe. S i n c e , a c c o r d i n g t o Philo, t h e hallmark o f t h e proselyte
is t h a t h e o r s h e leaves o l d ways for n e w o n e s , it m a k e s s e n s e t h a t h e
w o u l d m e n t i o n t h e a b a n d o n i n g o f t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s as t h e p r i m a r y
r e a s o n for proselytes' isolation, a n d this, to b e sure, is r e a s o n e n o u g h . E v e n
t h o u g h P h i l o a c c o u n t s for t h e isolation o f proselytes a n d Jews differently,
h o w e v e r , it w o u l d b e a mistake t o c o n c l u d e that h e s e e s t h e m as c o m
p l e t e l y separate g r o u p s . I n d e e d by b e c o m i n g Jews, proselytes w o u l d s e e m
t o i n c u r isolation for two reasons: n o t only d o they a b a n d o n their families,
b u t they also a d o p t laws t o o severe for m o s t p e o p l e !
4 0
For m o r e information about Philo's different audiences, see the Introduction.
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 211
T o d e s c r i b e "Israel" a n d t h e J e w s as collectivities, P h i l o u s e s d i f f e r e n t
w o r d s w i t h d i f f e r e n t c o n n o t a t i o n s . H e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y calls "Israel" a
γ έ ν ο ς , b u t t h e Jews a n d their forbears, the Hebrews, usually e i t h e r a n έ θ ν ο ς
o r a λ α ό ς a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y a π ο λ ι τ ε ί α or a γ έ ν ο ς . In contrast, P h i l o n e v e r
calls "Israel" a λ α ό ς or π ο λ ι τ ε ί α . In t h e few passages in w h i c h h e d o e s u s e
έ θ ν ο ς with "Israel," w h e t h e r or n o t "Israel" is a n a t i o n is n o t p e r t i n e n t t o
41
the interpretation.
A l t h o u g h γ έ ν ο ς c a n refer to a race d e f i n e d by birth, t h e t e r m is a m b i g
u o u s a n d c a n also d e s c r i b e a class d e f i n e d by a c q u i r e d qualities, a g e n u s
as o p p o s e d to individual species, an abstract n a t u r e o r kind, o r a n ideal as
o p p o s e d t o a real entity. I n d e e d , P h i l o s e e m s t o take a d v a n t a g e o f this
a m b i g u i t y in s o m e p a s s a g e s w h e r e t h e γ έ ν ο ς "Israel" m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d
in d i f f e r e n t ways at t h e s a m e t i m e . W h e n h e calls "Israel" a γ έ ν ο ς , t h e n ,
t h e q u e s t i o n is m o o t w h e t h e r "Israel" is a race i n t o w h i c h o n e is b o r n , a
class d e f i n e d by a c q u i r e d characteristics, o r an i d e a i n t h e i n t e l l i g i b l e
world.
In c o n t r a s t to t h e ambiguity o f γ έ ν ο ς , t h e words έ θ ν ο ς a n d λ α ό ς d e n o t e
o n l y a n a t i o n or p e o p l e . W h e n P h i l o calls the H e b r e w s o r Jews a n έ θ ν ο ς o r
λ α ό ς , it is clear that h e is s p e a k i n g a b o u t a real social g r o u p . E v e n w h e n
h e calls t h e m a γ έ ν ο ς (Virt. 206, Legat. 1 7 8 ) , it is e v i d e n t f r o m t h e c o n t e x t
that h e m e a n s a race d e f i n e d by birth a n d p e r h a p s t o o a social o r political
entity. (Later in this chapter, I shall address the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f Philo's u s e
o f π ο λ ι τ ε ί α , polity, to describe t h e Jews.)
3) Relationship Between God and "Israel" and Between God and the Jews
P h i l o c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i f f e r e n t ways t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p G o d h a s w i t h
"Israel," o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e Jews, o n t h e o t h e r . B a s e d u p o n its
e t y m o l o g y , όρων θ ε ό ν ( o n e that s e e s G o d ) , h e a s s o c i a t e s "Israel" w i t h
s e e i n g G o d a n d t h e ability t o s e e H i m . A l t h o u g h P h i l o o c c a s i o n a l l y
d e s c r i b e s "Israel" as w o r s h i p p i n g G o d , t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s are rare a n d h e
n e v e r specifies h o w "Israel" w o r s h i p s H i m . I n d e e d , t h o u g h h e s o m e t i m e s
m e n t i o n s o t h e r qualities o f "Israel" in relation t o G o d , t h e ability to s e e
42
H i m is by far t h e m o s t p r e d o m i n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Moreover, this
characteristic p e r t a i n s to b o t h sides o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p : "Israel" s e e s G o d
a n d G o d grants "Israel" t h e ability to s e e H i m .
4 1
See Chapter O n e , n. 67.
4 2
Philo m e n t i o n s "Israel" as worshipping God in Sacr. 120, Plant. 60, Praem. 44, a n d
Legat. 3. For additional descriptions of "Israel," see Chapter O n e u n d e r the discussion
of γένος and Chapter Two under "Category B."
212 CHAPTER SIX
4 3
In contrast, P h i l o n e v e r speaks directly a b o u t t h e J e w s as s e e i n g G o d .
Instead, h e p r e s e n t s t h e m as t h e o n l y o n e s w h o b e l i e v e in G o d a n d n o t e s
that t h e y w o r s h i p H i m by f o l l o w i n g specific laws a n d c u s t o m s . In addi
t i o n , h e writes that t h e Jews act as priests for t h e w h o l e w o r l d , are a l l o t t e d
to G o d , are G o d - b e l o v e d o r God-loving, a n d b e n e f i t f r o m H i s π ρ ό ν ο ι α , o r
watchful c o n c e r n .
4 3
See Chapter Five, n. 11.
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 213
4 4
As I have discussed, a l t h o u g h Philo d o e s n o t call Tamar a proselyte explicidy, h e
s e e m s to consider her o n e implicitly.
4 5
See n. 32.
4 6
By indicating "he says" ( φ η σ ί ) , Philo ascribes his own portrayal o f proselytes to
Moses himself! See also Virt. 179, which expresses a sense of kinship toward p e o p l e
w h o turn to the worship of God, ostensibly proselytes.
4 7
For Philo's various o t h e r uses of π ο λ ι τ ε ί α , see Chapter O n e , a n d Kasher, "The
T e r m Politeia in P h i l o a n d J o s e p h u s . " Passages in w h i c h P h i l o uses π ο λ ι τ ε ί α in
relation to the Jews include Mos. 2.211; Decal. 98; Spec. 1.60, 63, 314, 319; Spec. 2.123;
Spec. 3.24, 51; Spec. 4.55, 100, 105; Virt. 87, 127, 175; Flacc. 53.
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 215
In s u m , t h e n , t h e J e w s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d n o t o n l y by t h e i r c o m m o n
ancestry b u t also by their s h a r e d π ο λ ι τ ε ί α o f laws p r o m u l g a t e d by M o s e s .
As a c o m m u n i t y living u n d e r t h e s e laws, t h e y t h e m s e l v e s c o n s t i t u t e a
π ο λ ι τ ε ί α . Finally, w h i l e P h i l o s p e a k s o f t h e J e w s as b e i n g o r h a v i n g a
π ο λ ι τ ε ί α , h e n e v e r d e s c r i b e s "Israel" in this way.
1) w h e r e P h i l o speaks a b o u t e a c h g r o u p ;
2) h o w h e c h a r a c t e r i z e s e a c h collectivity;
3) h o w h e describes t h e relationship o f e a c h to G o d ; a n d
4) w h a t m i g h t constitute m e m b e r s h i p r e q u i r e m e n t s for e a c h g r o u p .
W e are n o w r e a d y to e x a m i n e w h a t P h i l o says in e a c h o f t h e s e f o u r
a r e a s a b o u t p r o s e l y t e s , s o t h a t w e m a y a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r t h e y are
n e w c o m e r s to "Israel," to the Jews, or to b o t h .
216 CHAPTER SIX
4 8
As m e n t i o n e d earlier, Philo's discussion of the proselyte in QE 2.2 provides too
litde information for o n e to evaluate how h e regards this figure.
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 217
p e o p l e w h o live a c c o r d i n g to t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f M o s e s . M o r e o v e r , in Spec.
1.51, h e n o t e s that proselytes are so-called b e c a u s e they have c o m e t o "a
n e w a n d G o d - l o v i n g polity" ( φ ι λ ό θ ε ο ς π ο λ ι τ ε ί α ) . Later, in Spec. 1.314, h e
describes his own community—implicitly the Jews—with the same
49
w o r d s , "God-loving p o l i t y . "
A l t h o u g h Philo usually m e n t i o n s the π ο λ ι τ ε ί α of Moses w i t h o u t
explicitly n a m i n g Jews o r any o t h e r g r o u p , as n o t e d earlier, h e d o e s call
t h e J e w s a π ο λ ι τ ε ί α in Virt. 108. T h e r e h e takes u p t h e case o f settlers
( μ έ τ ο ι κ ο ι ) f r o m n a t i o n s originally hostile to t h e J e w s — o r m o r e precisely,
t o t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , t h e H e b r e w s — w h o may wish t o b e c o m e part o f "the
polity o f t h e Jews." T h i s e x a m p l e is especially significant, since it p e r t a i n s
specifically to t h e case o f o u t s i d e r s w h o w a n t t o j o i n t h e J e w i s h c o m m u
nity. O n t h e basis, t h e n , o f this a n d t h e o t h e r e v i d e n c e c o n c e r n i n g h o w
P h i l o d e s c r i b e s t h e collectivity w h i c h proselytes j o i n , w e c a n r e a s o n a b l y
a s s u m e that h e identifies this collectivity as t h e Jews b u t n o t necessarily as
"Israel."
W h e n w e recall w h a t P h i l o says a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p r o s e l y t e s
a n d G o d , w e s e e that h e r e t o o h i s c o m m e n t s are m o r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h
w h a t h e says a b o u t J e w s t h a n a b o u t "Israel." A g a i n , t h e h a l l m a r k o f t h e
p r o s e l y t e is that h e o r s h e a b a n d o n s polytheistic b e l i e f s a n d w o r s h i p t o
a d o p t b e l i e f in a n d w o r s h i p o f t h e o n e G o d . In r e t u r n , p r o s e l y t e s e n j o y
G o d ' s πρόνοια, or protective care.
A m o n g t h e n e w t h i n g s that p r o s e l y t e s a d o p t are laws a n d — e s p e c i a l l y
— h o n o r , w o r s h i p , o r b e l i e f in t h e o n e G o d . T h e Jews, o f c o u r s e , are t h e
o n e s w h o h o n o r a n d w o r s h i p G o d t h r o u g h o b s e r v a n c e o f specific laws.
4 9
In Virt. 175, Philo introduces his section o n μ ε τ ά ν ο ι α — i . e . , r e p e n t a n c e or conver
s i o n — a s follows:
Our m o s t holy Moses, w h o so dearly loved virtue and g o o d n e s s and especially his
fellow m e n , exhorts everyone everywhere to pursue piety and justice, and offers to
[ μ ε τ α ν ο ΰ ν τ ε ς ] in h o n o r o f their victory the high rewards of m e m b e r s h i p in [the
best polity (πολιτεία ή αρίστη)] and of the felicities both great a n d small which that
m e m b e r s h i p confers.
H e r e μ ε τ α ν ο ΰ ν τ ε ς can refer either to p e n i t e n t s or to proselytes, an observation
which b e c o m e s clear as Philo develops the t h e m e of μ ε τ ά ν ο ι α in the treatise. T h o u g h
h e d o e s n o t specify that "the best polity" refers to the Jews, this identification is
implicit since h e is talking a b o u t the π ο λ ι τ ε ί α of Moses, and the Jews are the very
c o m m u n i t y w h i c h lives according to his π ο λ ι τ ε ί α . Philo also uses the phrase ή αρίστη
π ο λ ι τ ε ί α in Spec. 3.167, w h e r e it signifies the best form of g o v e r n m e n t , a n d in the
f o l l o w i n g passages, w h e r e it signifies democracy: Agr. 45, Deus 176, Abr. 2 4 2 , Spec.
4.237 (see also the n o t e to this passage in LCL, 8:437); cf. Conf. 108 and Virt. 180.
218 CHAPTER SIX
P h i l o n e v e r d i s c u s s e s "Israel" as o b s e r v i n g laws. A l t h o u g h h e o c c a s i o n a l
5 0
ly m e n t i o n s that "Israel" w o r s h i p s G o d , h e m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t l y char
acterizes t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n "Israel" a n d G o d in t e r m s o f its s e e i n g
H i m . P h i l o n e v e r c l a i m s , h o w e v e r , that p r o s e l y t e s c a n s e e G o d o r that
they c o m e o v e r to a vision o f H i m . I n d e e d , o n t h e basis o f h o w proselytes
a n d "Israel" e a c h relate t o G o d a c c o r d i n g to P h i l o , w e c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e
w h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p , if any, proselytes have to "Israel."
As to Philo's o t h e r observations a b o u t the relationship b e t w e e n G o d a n d
p r o s e l y t e s , h i s c l e a r e s t s t a t e m e n t is that p r o s e l y t e s b e n e f i t f r o m G o d ' s
π ρ ό ν ο ι α . H e p r e s e n t s π ρ ό ν ο ι α b o t h as a reward to p r o s e l y t e s a n d as a
d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f G o d ' s j u s t i c e a n d k i n d n e s s toward t h o s e w h o n e e d h e l p
t h e m o s t . In o n e passage (Spec. 4 . 1 7 6 - 8 2 ) , h e also i n c l u d e s J e w s a m o n g
this g r o u p that n e e d s G o d ' s h e l p . B e s i d e s this i n s t a n c e , P h i l o p r o c l a i m s
e l s e w h e r e that t h e J e w s are b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f G o d ' s π ρ ό ν ο ι α , as w e saw in
C h a p t e r Five. A l t h o u g h h e d o e s m e n t i o n o n c e in Legat. t h a t "Israel"
enjoys G o d ' s π ρ ό ν ο ι α , in that c o n t e x t , h e implicitly identifies "Israel" with
t h e J e w s . T h i s is, m o r e o v e r , t h e o n l y p a s s a g e in w h i c h P h i l o m e n t i o n s
G o d ' s π ρ ό ν ο ι α in r e l a t i o n to "Israel." I n d e e d , if it is true that P h i l o s e e s
"Israel" as a r a t h e r l o o s e l y d e n n e d g r o u p — " n o t a s o c i a l e n t i t y in a n
51
everyday s e n s e , " as J a c o b N e u s n e r has p u t i t — i t s m e m b e r s w o u l d n o t
n e e d this k i n d o f d i v i n e p r o t e c t i o n , r e m o v e d as t h e y w o u l d b e f r o m
w o r l d l y affairs.
P h i l o ' s d e p i c t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d proselytes, t h e n ,
l i n k s t h e m by a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e J e w s b u t n o t w i t h "Israel." J u s t as
p r o s e l y t e s c o m e o v e r to laws a n d w o r s h i p o f t h e o n e G o d , e n j o y i n g H i s
π ρ ό ν ο ι α in r e t u r n , so t o o are t h e J e w s t h e very p e o p l e w h o w o r s h i p G o d
t h r o u g h o b s e r v a n c e o f laws a n d w h o b e n e f i t f r o m H i s special p r o t e c t i o n .
P h i l o p r e s e n t s b o t h "Israel" a n d t h e J e w s as t h e o r e t i c a l l y o p e n g r o u p s ,
d i s p l a y i n g i n d i f f e r e n t ways a s e n s e o f u n i v e r s a l i s m . S i n c e "Israel"
represents those w h o can see God, an achievement which d e p e n d s u p o n
spiritual c a p a c i t y , it w o u l d s e e m t h a t a n y o n e — J e w o r n o n - J e w — m a y
strive to j o i n "Israel" by d e v e l o p i n g this capacity. T h e J e w s , in contrast,
are a n a t i o n d e f i n e d by birth, a s h a r e d c o n s t i t u t i o n o f laws, a n d b e l i e f in
t h e o n e G o d . As a social c o m m u n i t y , Jews w o r s h i p G o d t h r o u g h specific
p r a c t i c e s a n d , in a d d i t i o n , they serve as t h e p r i e s t h o o d for all h u m a n i t y ,
are allotted to G o d , are G o d - b e l o v e d o r God-loving, a n d enjoy H i s π ρ ό ν ο ι α .
5 0
See above, n. 42.
5 1
N e u s n e r , Judaism and Its Social Metaphors, 221.
PROSELYTES IN RELATION TO GOD, JEWS, AND "ISRAEL" 219
Summary of Findings
W e h a v e s e e n that P h i l o d i s t i n g u i s h e s i m p l i c i t l y b e t w e e n "Israel" a n d
t h e J e w s , u s i n g t h e t e r m s Ι σ ρ α ή λ a n d Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ς in different ways a n d i n
separate c o n t e x t s . As t h e όρων θεόν, t h e o n e that sees G o d , or t h e ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν
γ έ ν ο ς , t h e r a c e / c l a s s that c a n s e e , "Israel" s e e m s to r e p r e s e n t a l o o s e l y
d e f i n e d e n t i t y — n o t a readily identifiable social g r o u p b u t rather a class o f
i n d i v i d u a l s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r spiritual capability. T h e J e w s , in c o n
trast, constitute t h e real n a t i o n that believes in a n d worships t h e o n e G o d o f
all c r e a t i o n t h r o u g h o b s e r v a n c e o f specific laws a n d c u s t o m s .
T h e g r o u n d s f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n "Israel" a n d t h e J e w s i n
P h i l o ' s works c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d as follows:
L e t us e x a m i n e t h e s e f o u r observations m o r e closely.
1) Philo generally speaks of "Israel" and the Jews in different senes of works,
which are probably intended for different audiences. O f P h i l o ' s t h r e e e x e g e t i c a l
c o m m e n t a r i e s , o n l y t h e E x p o s i t i o n discusses t h e J e w s explicitly, w h i l e it
c i t e s "Israel" b u t twice. T h e A l l e g o r y , in contrast, f r e q u e n t l y refers t o
"Israel." Q G E u s e s t h e w o r d occasionally, preferring i n s t e a d a p e r i p h r a s i s
like τό όρατικόν γένος, t h e r a c e / c l a s s that can s e e . T h e two words, "Israel"
a n d 'Jew" a p p e a r t o g e t h e r o n l y o n c e in t h e s a m e work, in t h e p o l i t i c a l
treatise Legat.
I h a v e s u g g e s t e d that in his e x e g e t i c a l writings, P h i l o speaks o f t h e Jews
o n l y in t h e E x p o s i t i o n to e d u c a t e readers w h o m a y n o t b e familiar w i t h
J e w i s h history, beliefs, a n d practices a n d to a p p e a l t o t h o s e w h o m a y b e
1
Cf. G o o d e n o u g h , Introduction to Philo Judaeus, 2 0 - 2 1 .
222 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
2) To describe "Israel" and the Jews as collectivities, Philo uses different words
with different connotations. H e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y c h a r a c t e r i z e s "Israel" as a
γ έ ν ο ς b u t calls t h e J e w s — a n d t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , t h e H e b r e w s — g e n e r a l l y a n
έθνος or a λ α ό ς , a n d occasionally a π ο λ ι τ ε ί α or a γένος.
P h i l o u s e s t h e w o r d γ έ ν ο ς in a variety o f ways so that it m a y m e a n a
race d e f i n e d by c o m m o n birth, a class d e f i n e d by s h a r e d characteristics,
a n abstract n a t u r e o r k i n d , a c o l l e c t i v e g e n u s as o p p o s e d t o i n d i v i d u a l
s p e c i e s , o r a n i d e a in t h e i n t e l l i g i b l e w o r l d . T h u s , w h e n h e d e s c r i b e s
"Israel" as a γ έ ν ο ς , it is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r h e m e a n s a race o f p e o p l e w i t h
c o m m o n d e s c e n t , a class o f p e o p l e with a s h a r e d quality, o r a n e b u l o u s
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 223
3) Philo portrays the relationship between God and "Israel" and between God
and the Jews in different ways. P h i l o m o s t frequently associates "Israel" w i t h
s e e i n g G o d . For h i m , s e e i n g G o d r e p r e s e n t s t h e h e i g h t o f h u m a n h a p p i
n e s s , a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l g o a l , attainable o n l y t h r o u g h t h e
sight o f t h e m i n d with t h e h e l p o f G o d . Philo's n o t i o n s a b o u t s e e i n g G o d
are s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e P l a t o n i c tradition, w h i c h e m p h a s i z e s t h e
s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e s e n s e o f sight a n d p r o c l a i m s b e l i e f in a t r a n s c e n d e n t
One.
T h e s o u r c e o f P h i l o ' s association b e t w e e n s e e i n g G o d a n d "Israel" is its
e t y m o l o g y ο ρ ώ ν θ ε ό ν , o r o n e that s e e s G o d . T h i s e t y m o l o g y a n d t h e
r e l a t e d p h r a s e τό ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν γ έ ν ο ς , t h e r a c e / c l a s s that c a n s e e , m a y h a v e
b e l o n g e d t o a b o d y o f traditional J e w i s h e x e g e s i s w h i c h P h i l o i n h e r i t e d .
O r i g i n a l l y t h e e t y m o l o g y m a y have b e e n b a s e d u p o n J a c o b ' s e n c o u n t e r
w i t h his adversary, n a r r a t e d in G e n e s i s 32; a n d t h e p h r a s e τό ό ρ α τ ι κ ό ν
γ έ ν ο ς m a y have b e e n an adaptation to the etymology, i n t e n d e d to d e s c r i b e
t h e n a t i o n Israel as a collectivity. In t i m e , h o w e v e r , b o t h e x p r e s s i o n s m a y
h a v e e v o l v e d in m e a n i n g to e n c o m p a s s t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l k i n d o f s e e i n g
a n d to separate from their original identification with the historical
patriarch a n d n a t i o n . As P h i l o u s e s t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s , t h e p r e c i s e identity
o f t h e s e e r s they d e n o t e a l m o s t always r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n .
In contrast to "Israel," w h o s e e s G o d , t h e Jews constitute t h e c o m m u n i t y
o f p e o p l e — p a s t a n d p r e s e n t — w h o b e l i e v e in a n d w o r s h i p G o d by observ
i n g specific laws a n d c u s t o m s . In a d d i t i o n , they serve as t h e p r i e s t h o o d for
all h u m a n i t y , h a v e b e e n a l l o t t e d o r have allotted t h e m s e l v e s t o G o d , are
God-beloved or God-loving, and benefit from His π ρ ό ν ο ι α , or protective
concern.
By d e p i c t i n g t h e J e w s in this way, P h i l o implicitly transforms several
224 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
t h e m e s f r o m t h e Bible w h i c h pertain to t h e c o v e n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
G o d a n d Biblical Israel. M o r e o v e r , in t h e case o f divine π ρ ό ν ο ι α , h e also
adapts p h i l o s o p h i c a l beliefs—in addition to the Biblical n o t i o n s — t o
s u g g e s t that t h e J e w s e n j o y G o d ' s s p e c i a l care b e c a u s e t h e y b e l i e v e i n
H i m . A s e x p l a i n e d i n C h a p t e r Five, P h i l o p r e s e n t s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e Jews as o n e that is available o r accessible to a n y o n e
w h o c h o o s e s t o b e l i e v e in a n d w o r s h i p t h e C r e a t o r a n d F a t h e r o f all.
Similarly, P h i l o t r a n s f o r m s t h e s e n s e o f Biblical v e r s e s a n d t e r m s like
"covenant" o r " c h o s e n p e o p l e " s o that t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p d e p i c t e d in t h e
Bible b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel also a p p e a r s potentially o p e n t o e v e r y o n e .
A c c o r d i n g to his p r e s e n t a t i o n , t h e n , t h e relationship b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e
Jews is n o t necessarily l i m i t e d to t h o s e b o r n i n t o the historical n a t i o n .
Particidarist or Universalist?
I n d e e d , M e n d e l s o n a r g u e s that "even as P h i l o p r o c l a i m s t h e o p e n n e s s o f
t h e Jews t o o t h e r p e o p l e s , w e c a n d e t e c t a c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t o f e x c l u s i v e n e s s
2
w h i c h u n d e r m i n e s t h e very c o n c e p t h e e s p o u s e s . " H o w c a n w e r e c o n
cile M e n d e l s o n ' s view o f P h i l o ' s e x c l u s i v e n e s s with o u r o w n c o n c l u s i o n
that P h i l o is n o t a particularist?
As w e a p p r o a c h this q u e s t i o n , two p o i n t s are especially g e r m a n e . First,
M e n d e l s o n e v a l u a t e s P h i l o n o t f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f his t h o u g h t b u t
rather in t h e c o n t e x t o f his social e n v i r o n m e n t , e x a m i n i n g h o w Egyptians
a n d G r e e k s r e g a r d J e w s a n d h o w P h i l o in turn r e g a r d s E g y p t i a n s a n d
Greeks. M e n d e l s o n observes that "Philo's attitude toward p a g a n r e l i g i o n is
c o n d e s c e n d i n g a n d dismissive" a n d that h e has an "underlying c o n
3
t e m p t for t h e c u s t o m s o f o t h e r p e o p l e s . " F r o m t h e e v i d e n c e M e n d e l s o n
a d d u c e s a n d i n d e e d f r o m w h a t w e o u r s e l v e s have f o u n d , w e c a n h a r d l y
d i s a g r e e w i t h this a s s e s s m e n t .
S e c o n d , a l t h o u g h w e have r e j e c t e d t h e n o t i o n that P h i l o is a particu
larist, w e h a v e n o t y e t e s t a b l i s h e d h i m as a universalist. F o r u s to d o so
w o u l d r e q u i r e t h a t P h i l o allow any a n d all p e o p l e t o b e l o n g e i t h e r t o
"Israel" o r to t h e Jews. In fact, however, this is n o t t h e case.
I n d e e d a p r e r e q u i s i t e for a n y o n e w h o b e l o n g s to e i t h e r entity is b e l i e f
in t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e o n e true G o d . Obviously, to b e able to s e e G o d a n d
t h u s to b e a m e m b e r o f "Israel," o n e m u s t also b e l i e v e that G o d exists. In
fact, as w e h a v e n o t e d , P h i l o o c c a s i o n a l l y d e s c r i b e s s e e i n g G o d as s e e i n g
that H e is, n o t what H e is. Similarly, to w o r s h i p G o d — a s t h e J e w s d o — o n e
a g a i n m u s t b e l i e v e that H e exists. In virtually all his d e s c r i p t i o n s o f pros
elytes w h o j o i n t h e J e w i s h π ο λ ι τ ε ί α ( p o l i t y ) , P h i l o e m p h a s i z e s t h a t t h e y
m u s t leave b e h i n d a b a c k g r o u n d o f false b e l i e f a n d w o r s h i p to a d o p t b e l i e f
in a n d w o r s h i p o f t h e o n e true G o d .
A l t h o u g h P h i l o m a y e n v i s i o n "Israel" a n d t h e J e w s , t h e n , as p o t e n
tially o p e n to all p e o p l e , in his view, n e i t h e r entity c a n e n c o m p a s s all
p e o p l e as they are. T o b e sure, h e speaks quite disparagingly o f polytheists,
idolaters, a n d a t h e i s t s — t h a t is, p e o p l e w h o believe in m a n y g o d s , c r e a t e d
g o d s , or n o g o d . For P h i l o to e m b r a c e s u c h individuals as part o f "Israel"
o r t h e Jews, t h e s e individuals w o u l d first have to r e l i n q u i s h t h e i r w r o n g
beliefs a n d a d o p t t h e m o n o t h e i s t i c p r e m i s e .
B e c a u s e P h i l o w o u l d e x c l u d e f r o m "Israel" a n d t h e J e w s t h o s e w h o
d o n o t b e l i e v e in t h e o n e G o d , w e c a n n o t c o n s i d e r h i m a universalist,
a c c o r d i n g to o u r w o r k i n g d e f i n i t i o n . At t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , n e i t h e r
is h e a particularist, s i n c e h e d e p i c t s b o t h entities as p o t e n t i a l l y o p e n to
non-Jews.
2
M e n d e l s o n , Philo's Jewish Identity, 113.
3
Ibid., 130 and 138.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 227
4
J o n D. L e v e n s o n , The Universal Horizon of Biblical Particularism, Jewish Perspectives
( N e w York: A m e r i c a n Jewish C o m m i t t e e , 1 9 8 5 ) , 2.
5
Ibid., 5.
6
Cf. t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n universalism a n d m i s s i o n p o i n t e d o u t by Martin-
A c h a r d , A Light to the Nations, 3. Also p e r t i n e n t is the f o l l o w i n g observation by
J o s e p h R. R o s e n b l o o m in Conversion to Judaism: From the Biblical Period to the Present
(Cincinnati: H e b r e w U n i o n C o l l e g e Press, 1 9 7 8 ) , 31: " [ T ] h e exilic literature was
filled with s t a t e m e n t s i n d i c a t i n g the universality o f Judaism. This universality h a d
its particularistic side in that non-Jews were e x p e c t e d to formally align t h e m s e l v e s
with J u d a i s m t h r o u g h an act w h i c h l o n g after the biblical p e r i o d was to b e called
' c o n v e r s i o n . ' " O t h e r r e l e v a n t d i s c u s s i o n s can b e f o u n d in Sandra B. Lubarsky,
Tolerance and Transformation: Jewish Approaches to Religious Pluralism (Cincinnati: H e b r e w
U n i o n C o l l e g e Press, 1 9 9 0 ) , e s p . 1-27; Orlinsky, "Nationalism-Universalism a n d
Internationalism in A n c i e n t Israel," 2 0 6 - 3 6 ; Alan F. Segal, Rebecca's Children: Judaism
and Christianity in the Roman World (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1 9 8 6 ) , 1 6 3 -
81; E p h r a i m E. U r b a c h , "Self-Isolation or Self-Affirmation in Judaism in the First
T h r e e Centuries: T h e o r y and Practice," Jewish and Christian Self-Definition, vol. 2: Aspects
of Judaism in the Greco-Roman Period, e d . E. P. Sanders et al. (Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 1981), 2 6 9 - 9 8 .
228 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In p r e s e n t i n g "Israel" a n d t h e Jews, P h i l o d e p i c t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h G o d
in w h i c h p o t e n t i a l l y all p e o p l e m i g h t participate. If, h o w e v e r , a non-Jew
m a y h a v e a l e g i t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d by "seeing" H i m o r b e l o n g
i n g t o "Israel," t h e n why, a c c o r d i n g to P h i l o , s h o u l d that i n d i v i d u a l also
b e c o m e a Jew? M o r e o v e r , w h y s h o u l d a J e w w h o is a b l e t o s e e G o d
r e m a i n a Jew?
As we a p p r o a c h t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , let us n o t f o r g e t that w h i l e s e e i n g G o d
m a y b e a m a t t e r o n l y o f spiritual capacity, r e l a t i n g t o G o d as a J e w h a s
b o t h r e l i g i o u s a n d social d i m e n s i o n s . By b e c o m i n g a J e w , t h e p r o s e l y t e
leaves b o t h a n o l d r e l i g i o n a n d a social c o m m u n i t y to a d o p t b o t h a n e w
r e l i g i o n a n d a n e w c o m m u n i t y — t h e o n l y c o m m u n i t y , i n fact, t h a t
b e l i e v e s in a n d w o r s h i p s t h e o n e G o d . W h a t f u r t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e s this
c o m m u n i t y is that its m e m b e r s serve as t h e p r i e s t h o o d for all h u m a n i t y ,
have b e e n allotted o r have allotted t h e m s e l v e s to G o d , are G o d - b e l o v e d o r
G o d - l o v i n g , a n d b e n e f i t particularly f r o m H i s π ρ ό ν ο ι α , o r p r o t e c t i v e
concern.
T o d a y , p e r h a p s , t h e s e characteristics m a y n o t strike u s as e s p e c i a l l y
c o m p e l l i n g r e a s o n s for b e c o m i n g or r e m a i n i n g a J e w . T h i s is p r e d o m i
n a n t l y b e c a u s e in o u r t i m e s p e o p l e m a y b e l i e v e in a n d w o r s h i p t h e o n e
G o d w i t h i n a variety o f r e l i g i o u s a n d social c o m m u n i t i e s .
T o arrive at a truly fair a s s e s s m e n t , t h e n , w e m u s t r e m e m b e r first a n d
f o r e m o s t t o view P h i l o ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J u d a i s m within its p r o p e r histori
cal c o n t e x t . In P h i l o ' s t i m e , after all, J u d a i s m was t h e o n l y m o n o t h e i s t i c
r e l i g i o n . H e s h o w s n o familiarity w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f Christianity.
I n s t e a d , h e d e p i c t s his e n v i r o n m e n t as filled w i t h all k i n d s o f i d o l a t e r s ,
polytheists, a n d atheists. H i s c l a i m that t h e J e w s w e r e t h e o n l y n a t i o n t o
b e l i e v e in t h e o n e true G o d was a m e a n i n g f u l o n e i n d e e d , a c l a i m that
surely d i d distinguish t h e m as a p e o p l e apart.
D e s p i t e this o b s e r v a t i o n , h o w e v e r , if P h i l o d o e s allow for a l e g i t i m a t e
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d o u t s i d e J u d a i s m , t h e n h o w shall w e assess t h e p l a c e
o f J u d a i s m in his t h o u g h t ? Let us recall that t h o u g h P h i l o h i m s e l f d o e s n o t
u s e t h e w o r d "Judaism" ( Ι ο υ δ α ϊ σ μ ό ς ) , it was in u s e d u r i n g his t i m e .
Y e h o s h u a A m i r h a s o b s e r v e d that for Jews o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , this
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 229
t e r m e n c o m p a s s e d b o t h a legal a s p e c t a n d a p h i l o s o p h i c a l o n e . T h e legal
a s p e c t was e x p r e s s e d in t h e G r e e k t e r m s ν ό μ ο ς (law) a n d π ο λ ι τ ε ί α . A m i r
n o t e s that "Judaism d i d n o t consist in any o n e particular law b u t rather in
a s y s t e m o f laws w h i c h m a d e u p a s i n g l e entity. T h a t is w h a t t h e J e w s
t e r m e d with t h e lofty a p p e l l a t i o n π ο λ ι τ ε ί α (politeia), m e a n i n g ' c o n s t i t u t i o n '
7
in g e n e r a l , o r e v e n 'state.'"
T o illustrate t h e s e c o n d a s p e c t o f J u d a i s m , t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l o n e , A m i r
focuses u p o n Philo. H e comments,
T o b e sure, P h i l o ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J u d a i s m as a k i n d o f p h i l o s o p h y m a y
well deserve to be called the "crowning achievement" of Hellenistic
J e w i s h efforts. It is clear f r o m his works, h o w e v e r , that for h i m , b e i n g a
J e w is n o t o n l y a m a t t e r o f b e l i e v i n g in a c e r t a i n p h i l o s o p h y , it a l s o
involves a way o f life e m b o d i e d by a very particular c o m m u n i t y . T o h i m ,
t h e J e w i s h π ο λ ι τ ε ί α refers b o t h t o t h e laws o f this c o m m u n i t y a n d t o t h e
c o m m u n i t y itself.
In a s s e s s i n g t h e p l a c e o f J u d a i s m in P h i l o ' s t h o u g h t , t h e n , w e c a n
c o n c l u d e t h a t as a p h i l o s o p h y , "Judaism" r e p r e s e n t s o n e a p p r o a c h —
i n d e e d p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t a p p r o a c h — t o b e l i e f in t h e o n e G o d . W i t h o u t a
d o u b t , b e l i e f in G o d is s u p r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t in all P h i l o ' s w r i t i n g s .
J u d a i s m , h o w e v e r , is n o t t h e o n l y p a t h to this b e l i e f for, as h e n o t e s , "the
d i s c i p l e s o f t h e m o s t e x c e l l e n t p h i l o s o p h y " also g a i n k n o w l e d g e o f "the
h i g h e s t , t h e m o s t a n c i e n t Cause o f all things" (Virt. 6 5 ) .
P h i l o ' s o w n c o m m i t m e n t to b e i n g a J e w — s o a p p a r e n t f r o m his w o r k s
a n d t h e little w e k n o w o f his l i f e — t h u s c a n n o t b e fully e x p l a i n e d by h i s
t h o u g h t . I n s t e a d , his c o m m i t m e n t s e e m s r o o t e d in his e x i s t e n c e , i n h i s
i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y a n d its way o f life. B e c a u s e h e
b e l i e v e s that o n e n e e d n o t b e a J e w to embark u p o n t h e p a t h to G o d , P h i l o
is p o t e n t i a l l y universalist in h i s t h o u g h t , as w e h a v e s e e n . In h i s life,
h o w e v e r , h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a n d c o n c e r n for t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l
c o m m u n i t y o f t h e J e w s are unmistakably particular.
In his Introduction to Philo Judaeus, Erwin R. G o o d e n o u g h r e c o m m e n d s
that t h e n e w c o m e r t o P h i l o b e g i n by r e a d i n g his two p o l i t i c a l treatises,
Flacc. a n d Legat. As G o o d e n o u g h suggests,
7
Amir, "The T e r m Ι ο υ δ α ϊ σ μ ό ς , " 4 1 .
8
Ibid.
230 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
9
G o o d e n o u g h , Introduction to Philo Judaeus, 3 0 - 3 1 .
1 0
G o o d e n o u g h , By Light, Light, 254.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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indices of Philo's works are listed separately. Primary sources other than Philo's
works are listed only when a specific edition has been mentioned.
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G o o d e n o u g h , Erwin R. By Light, Light: The Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic Judaism. New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1935.
——. An Introduction to Philo Judaeus. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1962. Reprinted by
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Goulet, Richard. La philosophie de Moi'se: essai de reconstitution d'un commentaire
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Tomson, Peter J. "The Names Israel and Jew in Ancient Judaism and in the
New Testament."Bijdragen 47 (1986): 120-40,266-289.
Urbach, Ephraim E. The Sages: Their Concepts and Beliefs, trans. Israel Abrahams.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987.
. "Self-Isolation or Self-Affirmation in Judaism in the First Three Centuries:
Theory and Practice." In Jewish and Christian Self-Definition. Vol. 2: Aspects of
Judaism in the Greco-Roman Period, ed. E. P. Sanders with A. I. Baumgarten a n d
Alan Mendelson, 269-98. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981.
V a n d e r l i n d e n , E. "Les divers m o d e s de connaissance de Dieu selon Philon
d'Alexandrie." Melanges de Science Religieuse4 (1947): 285-304.
Volker, Walther. Fortschritt und Vollendung bei Philo von Alexandrien: Fine Studie zur
Geschichte der Frommigkeit. Texte u n d Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der
altchrisdichen Literatur 49:1. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1938.
von Rad, Gerhard. Old Testament Theology, trans. D. M. G. Stalker. 2 vols. New
York: Harper & Row, 1962 and 1965.
Walter, Nikolaus. Der Thoraausleger Aristobuhs: Untersuchungen zu seinen Fragmenten
und zu pseudepigraphischen Resten der judische-hellenistischen Literatur. Texte u n d
Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur, vol. 86. Berlin:
Akademie Verlag, 1964.
Wan, Sze-kar. "Philo's (Quaestiones et solutiones in Genesim et in Exodum: A Synoptic
Approach." Th.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1992.
Weinfeld, Moshe. Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1972.
Winston, David. "Freedom and Determinism in Greek Philosophy." Studia
Philonica2 (1973): 40-50.
. 'Judaism and Hellenism: Hidden Tensions in Philo's Thought." The Studia
Philonica Annual 2 (1990): 1-19.
. Logos and Mystical Theology in Philo of Alexandria. Cincinnati: Hebrew U n i o n
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. "Response to Runia and Sterling." The Studia Philonica Annual 5 (1993): 141—
46.
. "Was Philo a Mystic?" Studies in Jewish Mysticism, ed. Joseph Dan and Frank
Talmage, 15-39. Cambridge: Association for Jewish Studies, 1982.
, ed. The Wisdom of Solomon. Vol. 43 of The Anchor Bible, ed. William Foxwell
Albright and David Noel Freedman. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979.
Wlosok, Antonie. Laktanzund die philosophische Gnosis: Untersuchungen zu Geschichte
und Terminologie der gnostischen Erlosungsvorstellung. Abhandlung der
Heidelberger A k a d e m i e d e r Wissenschaften, P h i l o s o p h i s c h - h i s t o r i s c h e
Klasse, n o . 2. Heidelberg: Carl Winter, Universitatsverlag, 1960.
Wolfson, Harry A. Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam. 2 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975; repr., 1982.
Wong, C. K. "Philo's Use of Chaldaioi." The Studia Philonica Annual4 (1992): 1-14.
Zeitlin, S o l o m o n . "The Names Hebrew, Jew and Israel: A Historical Study."
Jewish Quarterly Review 43 (1952-53): 365-79.
INDICES
Index of Passages
Biblical passages shown below are listed as they are discussed in this b o o k a n d may
b e cited from the H e b r e w Bible or the Greek, d e p e n d i n g u p o n the c o n t e x t o f the
d i s c u s s i o n . O c c a s i o n a l l y verse n u m b e r s differ slightly in the H e b r e w a n d Greek.
Biblical b o o k s in this i n d e x follow the order of the Jewish Bible.
BIBLE
Ezekiel 1 Chronicles
16:8 73n.34 29:15 197n.l3
APOCRYPHA/PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
B e n Sira 2 Maccabees
17:17 I72n.38 2:21 3n.2
44:21 168n.22 8:1 3n.2
14:38 3n.2
4 Maccabees
4:26 3n.2
NEW TESTAMENT
Matthew 1 Corinthians
Acts Galatians
3:25 168n.22 1:13-14 3n.2
17:4 I70n.32 3:8 168n.22
6:16 39
Romans
2:28-29 42n.44
4:16 42n.44
9:6-8 42n.44
11:17-24 42n.44
Index of Passages
Philonic Works
Philonic treatises are listed in alphabetical order of their abbreviations. For a list o f
abbreviations, w h i c h also shows the series or category to w h i c h treatises b e l o n g , s e e
p. xvii. References to discussion of whole treatises are included in the I n d e x o f Subjects
u n d e r the treatise abbreviation.
Prob. (Quod Omnis Probus Liber Sit) 94n.6, 102, 120n.41, 124,
125, 125n.46, 126, 133, 153,
57 160n.l
154, 155-56
63 93n.3
3.60 132n.7, 154
64 107n.22
4.2 80, 86-87, 88, 89
74 92n.2, 93n.3, 94, 118n.36,
4.4 86-87, 88, 89
119
4.138 98n.l5
75 160n.l
4.157 56n.90
81 32
4.196 98n.l5
140 94,119
4.233 6 1 n . l , 102, 120n.41, 124
Prov. (De Providentia) Sacr. (De Sacrificiis Abelis et Caini)
35-36 176 6-7 56-57
54 176 52 135,136
54 135
QE ((Quaestiones et Solutiones in Exodum 1-2) 57 132, 134-35, 143
1.10 169n.26 76-S7 136
1.12 55, 55n.89, 113n.30, 124, 125 87 134,136-37, 143, 144
1.21 55, 55n.89, 95n.6, 112-13, 118 62n.2
124,125 118-20 63n.4
2.2 47, 54, 195, 195n.5, 196n.7, 119-20 66
197n.l2, 197n.l3, 198n.l6, 120 211n.42
1 9 9 n . l 8 , 200, 200n.21,
201n.22, 204n.34, 205, Sobr. (De Sobrietate)
216n.48 8 125n.47
2.30 50n.67, 6 1 n . l , 65, 120, 19 64,65
120n.41, 124 66 144n.l7
2.34 132, 132n.7, 153
2.37 6 1 n . l , 120, 120n.41, 124 Somn. (De Somniis 1-2)
2.38 55n.89, 102, 113n.30, 124,
1.64-67 80, 9 8 n . l 5
125, 125n.46, 133, 154,
1.89 63n.5
154n.27
1.114 63n.3
2.42 55n.89, 95n.6, 113n.30, 124,
1.117 6 3 , 6 6 - 6 7 , 101, 1 0 1 n . l 9
125, 125n.46, 133, 153,
1.148 137n.l2
153n.24, 154, 155, 156-58
1.160 195n.5, 201, 203n.29
2.43 55n.89, 95n.6, 113-14,
1.160-62 196n.7, 1 9 8 n . l 7 , 1 9 9 n . l 8 ,
113n.30, 124, 125, 125n.46,
205
133, 154
1.161 204n.34,205
2.46 55n.89, 95n.6, 102, 112n.28,
1.162 197n.l2
113n.30, 124, 125, 125n.46,
1.171-72 62n.2
133, 154, 154n.27, 155
1.175 53
2.47 55n.89, 102, 113n.30, 124,
2.75 184n.64
124n.43, 125
2.123-24 44n.46, 161n.2
2.51 9 8 n . l 5 , 124n.44
2.172-73 101n.l8
2.76 55n.89, 95n.6, 113n.30, 124
2.173 95n.6
2.106 132, 132n.7, 153
2.223 132n.7
2.224 132n.7
QG (Quaestiones et Solutiones in Genesim 1-4)
2.225 125n.47
1.6 19n.36 2.226-27 98n.l5
2.58 125n.46, 133, 154 2.237 132n.7
2.65 125n.46, 133, 154, 154n.27 2.248 137n.l2
3.18 54 2.271 63, 66, 67, 101, 1 0 1 n . l 9
3.40 132n.7, 154 2.272-73 196, 1 9 9 n . l 8 , 201n.22, 205
3.42 132n.7, 154 2.273 107n.22, 195n.5, 1 9 7 n . l 3 ,
3.48 44, 45, 54, 161n.3 203n.29
3.49 49n.67, 54n.82, 6 1 n . l , 2.280 63n.3
PHILONIC WORKS 249
άνήρ όρων θεόν (aner horon theon), 72, 75, 76, 98, 220
άνθρωπος όρων θεόν (anthropos horon theon), 72,73,76,98
γένος (genos), 13, 26, 28, 3 6 n . l 9 , 44, 47, 47n.57, 49-50, 50, 52-54, 54, 56-58, 59, 60, 63n.3,
64, 66, 93n.3, 96, 100, 105, 106n.22, 108, 123, 125, 133, 1 3 3 n . l 0 , 138, 147, 148, 149,
154n.27, 155, 156, 156n.30, 156n.31, 157, 158, 161, 182n.60, 189, 190, 191, 211, 216,
220, 222-23
Ε β ρ α ί ο ς (Hebraios), 46-47,54,161
έθνος (ethnos), 26, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50-51, 54, 56, 56n.90, 58, 60, 65, 106n.22, 123, 137,
161, 179, 2 1 1 , 2 1 6 , 222, 223
έ'θνοςμέγα (ethnos mega), 139, 148, 149
επηλυς (epelys), 186n.68, 195-99, 200, 200n.21, 201
έπηλύτης (epelytes), 186n.68, 195, 1 9 6 n . l 0 , 198, 1 9 8 n . l 7 , 199, 201, 202n.28
έπήλυτος (epelytos), 186n.68, 195, 198, 201, 207, 208
ευγένεια (eugeneia), 202, 202n.28, 203, 205, 213, 214, 216
θεοφιλής (theophiles), 54, 63n.3, 64, 74n.37, 154n.27, 172-74, 174n.43, 179, I79n.57, 180,
199n.l7
όρατικόν γένος (horatikon genos), 6, 36, 3 6 n . l 9 , 38, 48, 5 3 , 55, 56, 63n.3, 6 6 n . l 5 , 67, 70,
91, 94, 95, 95n.6, 96-98, 99-100, 101-2, 105, 109-11,112-14, 113n.30, 1 1 6 , 1 2 1 ,
121n.42, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 153, 154-55, 154n.27, 156n.31, 157-58, 213, 220,
221, 222, 223
όρατικόν και έπιστημονικόν γένος (horatikon kai epistemonikon genos), 54n.84, 95n.6, 102,
103-5, 122, 123
INDEX OF GREEK TERMS 251
όρατικός (horatikos), 3 1 , 32, 55n.89, 63n.3, 66, 9 1 n . l , 9 2 , 93n.3, 93n.4, 96, 9 6 n . l l , 100,
101-2, 102n.20, 119, 121, 121n.42
όρων (horon), 30, 55, 63n.3, 66, 67, 70, 72, 74n.37, 75, 76, 9 1 , 9 3 , 93n.3, 93n.4, 95,
95n.7, 96, 101-2, 108, 112, 113n.30, 121, 154n.27
όρων θεόν (horon theon), 11, 24, 30, 60, 61, 63n.3, 65-66, 67, 70, 73, 74n.37, 90, 9 1 , 92, 94-
96, 94n.6, 96-98, 98, 101-2, 106, 107, 112, 112n.27, 121, 126, 127, 138, 189, 211, 2 1 3 ,
220, 221, 222, 223
Allen, W. C , 1 9 8 n . l 3 , 1 9 8 n . l 5 Dillon, J o h n , 2 2 n . 4 7 , 8 2 n . 6 1 , 8 2 n . 6 2 ,
Amir, Yehoshua, 3n.2, 4 n . 3 , 7, 8-9, 11, 83n.66, 85n.69, I 7 4 n . 4 4 , 175,
I7n.30, I 7 n . 3 3 , 6 8 n . l 6 , I 7 3 n . 4 1 , I76n.52
194n.3, 1 9 9 n . l 7 , 203n.29, 228-29 D o d d , Charles Harold, 8 0 n . 5 6
A r m s t r o n g , A. Hilary, 8 3 n . 6 4 Drummond, James, 23n.50, 81n.60,
Attridge, H a r o l d W., 5 1 n . 7 4 , 131n.6, 83n.65, 205n.34
133n.9, I 7 6 n . 5 3
Eichrodt, Walther, 1 2 9 n . 2
Bailey, J o n N e l s o n , 2 0 3 n . 3 1 E m p s o n , William, 2 7 n . 5 3 , 29
Baltzer, Klaus, 128n.2
B a m b e r g e r , Bernard J., 1 9 3 n . l , Feldman, Louis H., 1 9 3 n . l , 194n.2
194n.2 Fiensy, David Α., 7 4 n . 3 7
Behm, Johannes, I76n.53, 193n.l, Foerster, Werner, l 7 0 n . 3 1
194n.4, 203n.30 Fraser, P. M., 2 3 n . 5 0
Belkin, Samuel, 6 8 n . l 6 , 6 9 n . 2 2 , F r i e d m a n n , Meir, 7 2 n . 3 2 , 7 3 n . 3 4
184n.64, 200n.21
Bentwich, Norman, 31n.5 Georgi, Dieter, 3 7 n . 2 2
B e t h g e , Hans-Gebhard, 72n.31 Ginzberg, Louis, 7 3 n . 3 5
Bloch, Renee, 37n.22 G o o d e n o u g h , Erwin R., 4 n . 3 , 7 n . 6 ,
B o r g e n , Peder, 4 n . 3 , 14n.24, I 7 n . 3 0 , 9-10, 11, 14, 15n.25, 18n.34, 19n.39,
23n.50, 31-32, 43, 200n.21 20n.41, 23n.48, 31, 32-33, 43, 6 8 n . l 6 ,
Box, Herbert, l 7 4 n . 4 2 74n.37, 84n.67, 86n.72, 162n.9,
Boyarin, D a n i e l , 2 7 n . 5 3 I74n.42, 189n.73, 2 2 1 n . l , 229-30
Brehier, E m i l e , 7 n . 6 , 8 5 n . 7 0 Goulet, Richard, 23n.49, 6 8 n . l 7
Buffiere, Felix, 2 2 n . 4 6 Grabbe, Lester L., 6 8 n . l 7 , 6 8 n . l 9
Burkert, Walter, 2 3 n . 4 8 Guerra, A n t h o n y J., 204-5n.34
Gunkel, H e r m a n n , 6 9 n . 2 1
Casanowicz, I m m a n u e l M., 6 9 n . 2 1 Gutbrod, Walter, 3 1 , 37-38, 4 3 ,
Caspary, Gerard E., 83n.66, 85n.69 100n.l7
Cave, C. H., 1 9 3 n . l , 194n.2
Chadwick, H., 2 2 n . 4 5 , 23n.48 H a g n e r , D o n a l d Α., 7 9 n . 5 5
C o h e n , N a o m i G., 2 3 n . 4 9 Hamerton-Kelly, Robert G., 2 3 n . 4 9
C o h e n , Shaye J. D., 193, 194n.2, H a n s o n , A n t h o n y T., 6 8 n . l 7 , 6 8 n . l 8
194n.3, 1 9 7 n . l 3 Hay, David M., 19n.37, 2 4 n . 5 2
C o h n , L e o p o l d , 88n.77, 207n.38 H e c h t , Richard D., 4 n . 3
Collins, J o h n J., 126n.47, 200n.21 H e i n e m a n n , Isaak, 6 8 n . l 6 , 6 9 n . 2 2 ,
Colson, F. H., 15n.27, 19n.39, 3 1 , 184n.64, 186n.67
60n.97, 132n.8, 151n.23, I 7 0 n . 3 1 , Hilgert, Earle, 4 5 n . 4 7
I74n.42 Hillers, Delbert R., 129n.2
Holladay, Carl R., 2 3 n . 5 0
Dahl, Nils, 3 1 , 31n.5, 37, 39-42, 43
Dalbert, Peter, 2 3 n . 5 0 Jaubert, Annie, 7-8, 11, 3 1 , 33-34, 35,
Danell, G. Α., 7 l n . 2 6 , 1 0 0 n . l 7 36, 36n.21, 43, 126n.47, 129n.2,
Daniel, Suzanne, 6 8 n . l 6 , 185n.65, 132n.7, 153n.26, 168n.22, 182n.61
186n.67, 1 9 8 n . l 3 , 1 9 8 n . l 5 Jonas, Hans, 31n.5, 8 5 n . 7 0
Darnell, D . R., 7 4 n . 3 7
D a w s o n , David, 2 2 n . 4 6 Kahn, Jean-George, 6 8 n . l 6 , 6 8 n . l 7 ,
D e i s s m a n n , Adolf, 6 8 n . l 9 7 l n . 2 6 , 73n.34, 85n.70
Delling, Gerhard, 3 1 , 35-36, 4 3 , Kasher, Aryeh, 5 1 n . 7 4 , 2 1 4 n . 4 7
75n.41 Kasher, M e n a h e m M., 1 6 8 n . 2 2
Dexinger, Ferdinand, 4n.3 Kaufmann, Yehezkel, 1 9 7 n . l 3
INDEX OF MODERN SCHOLARS 253