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1. Test Set-Up
2.1 Moment-Curvature
10.5"
As equiv. * 1.5" As equiv. * 10.5" 1.5"
'
Ag *
xuncr . 2
Ag As' equiv. As equiv.
2 2 2
(52.5in )* (5.25") (2.48in ) *(1.5") (5.456in ) *(9.0")
2 2 2
52.5in 2.48in 5.456in
5.43"
The moment of inertia (second moment of area about the centroid) for the
uncracked section is computed as follows (neglecting I0 for the reinforcement,
since the value is very small):
I uncr . [ I 0 A( xi x ) 2 ]
2 2
(1/ 12)(5")(10.5")3 (52.5in )(5.0" 5.43") 2 (2.48in ) *(1.5" 5.43") 2
2
(5.456 in )(9.0" 5.43") 2
4
600.0in
Note that the bottom concrete stress just prior to cracking is equal to the rupture
stress. Based on the stress distribution, the resultant forces may be computed as
follows:
1 1
Cc f c top ctop b f c xb
2 2
Cs ( f s f c @ A' ) As
' ' '
s
1 1
Tc f c bot cbot b f r (h x )b
2 2
Ts ( f s f c @ As ) As
An iterative process may be used to determine the neutral axis depth, x, to achieve
section equilibrium. Once a guess of x has been made, the strain distribution is
known, from which the stresses and forces may be computed.
For the sample RC section considered, the neutral axis depth was determined to be
5.43”, leading to the stress, strain, and force distribution shown in Figure 3.
1 1 1
Cc f c top ctop b f c xb (0.5680ksi )(5.43")(5.0") 7.71k
2 2 2
2
Cs' ( f s' f c @ A' ) As' [2.958ksi ( Ec 4030.5ksi ) *( 's 0.000102)]*(2 *0.20in ) 1.02 k
s
1 1 1
Tc f c bot cbot b f c (h x )b (0.5303ksi )(10.5" 5.43")(5.0") 6.72 k
2 2 2
2
Ts ( f s f c @ As ) As [2.687 ksi ( Ec 4030.5ksi )* ( s 0.000093)]*(2*0.44in ) 2.04 k
Note that the concrete stress at the location of the top bars has been subtracted
from the steel stress in the preceding computation to account for the absence of
concrete at the location of top bars.
The resultant forces satisfy equilibrium and the cracking moment is computed as
follows:
10.5" x
M cr . Tc * 10.5" Ts * (9.0") Cc * (5.43"/ 3) Cs * (1.5")
'
3
(6.72 )(8.81") (2.04 k )(9.0") (7.71k )(1.81") (1.02k )(1.5")
k
62.1k in
c 0.000141 1
uncr . 0.0000260in
x 5.43"
Note that the results for the elastic section approach match the results for the
material stress-strain approach.
Immediately after cracking, the tensile strength of concrete is neglected entirely for
this analysis. This is a simplifying assumption (conservative for design) which
introduces marginal error for the test predications, since the tensile strength of
concrete is small compared to compressive strength (typically on the order of
1/10).
For the example RC cross-section, the cracked neutral axis depth is computed as
follows:
Ag (5")( xcr . )
2 2
As' equiv. (n 1) * As' 6.2 *(0.40in ) 2.48in
2 2
As equiv. n * As 7.2*(0.88in ) 6.336in
solve quadratic:
2 3
(2.5")( xcr . ) 2 (8.816in )( xcr . ) 60.744in 0 xcr . 3.47"
The moment of inertia (second moment of area about the centroid) for the cracked
section is computed as follows (neglecting I0 for the reinforcement, since the value
is very small):
I uncr . [ I 0 A( xi x ) 2 ]
2
(1/ 12)(5")(3.47")3 (5")(3.47")(3.47"/ 2) 2 (2.48in )* (1.5" 3.47") 2
2
(6.336 in )(9.0" 3.47") 2
4
273.0in
Using the elastic section approach, the curvature immediately after cracking is
computed as follows:
M cr . 62.8k in 1
cr . in 4
0.0000571in
EI cr . (4030.5 )(273.0 )
ksi
The moment and curvature for tension steel yield may be estimated by assuming
linear-elastic behavior for concrete in compression. This is an assumption that can
be checked based on the value of the outer fiber concrete compressive strain.
The depth of the neutral axis for the cracked RC section (neglecting tensile
strength of cracked concrete) was previously determined to be 3.47”. The yield
strain for fy = 68 ksi reinforcement is computed as follows:
fy 68ksi
y 0.00234in / in
Es 29000ksi
Since plane sections are assumed to remain plane, the outer fiber concrete
compressive strain can be computed as follows:
x 3.47"
c y * 0.00234in / in * 0.00147
in / in
The moment and curvature computed using an elastic section approach for the
cracked RC section (neglecting the tensile strength of cracked concrete) are
computed as follows:
4
f c top I cr . EI (0.00147 in / in )(4030.5ksi )(273.0in )
My c c cr . 466.6k in
ctop xcr . (3.47")
My 466.6 k in 1
y in 4
0.000424in
EI cr . ksi
(4030.5 )(273.0 )
The stress, strain, and force distribution for tension steel yielding is shown in
Figure 4.
Figure 4 – Strains, Stresses, and Forces at Yielding of Tension Reinforcement
Note that the results for the elastic section approach match the results for the
material stress-strain approach.
At nominal capacity (εc = 0.003), tension steel has yielded and the concrete
compressive stress distribution is nonlinear and is approximated by a Whitney
stress block. Per ACI 318-14 Chapter 9 Beams, the Whitney stress block assumes
a uniformly distributed concrete compressive stress of 0.85f’c distributed uniformly
from the outer compression fiber to a depth of a=β1x. For 5-ksi concrete, β1 is
taken as 0.80 per ACI 318-14, Chapter 22 (22.2.2).
Calculations for the nominal capacity of the example RC section are performed
both including and excluding compression steel.
2.1.1.4.1 Singly-Reinforced Section
As f y 59.84k
T C a 2.816"
0.85 f c'b 21.25k / in
a 2.816"
x 3.52"
1 0.80
Including the contribution of tensile steel causes a slight increase in the nominal
moment capacity. The depth of the Whitney stress block, a, and the depth of the
neutral axis, x, are computed as follows:
2
T As f y (2* 0.44in ) *(68ksi ) 59.84 k
Cc 0.85 f c'ba 0.85 f c'b1 x 0.85*(5ksi )*(5.0") *(0.80) * x (17.0k / in )* x
(x d ')
Cs' As' ( f s' 0.85 f c' ) As' ( Es 's 0.85 fc' ) As' Es c 0.85 f c'
x
2 ( x 1.5")
(2* 0.20in ) * (29000 ksi )* (0.003in / in ) * 4.25ksi 34.8k (1 1.5"/ x) 1.7 k
x
T Cc Cs' Cc Cs' T 0
solve quadratic:
(17.0k / in ) x 2 (26.74k ) x 52.2 k in 0
x 2.707"
a 1 x (0.80)(2.707") 2.166"
M n Ts d Cc a / 2 Cs' d ' (59.84k )(9.0") (46.02k )(2.166"/ 2) (13.82 k )(1.5") 468.0 k in
c 0.003 1
n 0.00111in
x 2.707"
500
400
300
Moment (k-in)
200
100
Curvature (1/in)
Material stress-strain relationships for steel and concrete may be used to compute
moment and curvature for any outer fiber concrete compressive strain, εc.
Region A: 0 s y f s Es s
Region B: y s sh fs f y
Region C: sh s fu f s f y ( s sh ) Esh
Region D: fu s f s fu
For expected material properties for grade 60 reinforcing steel, fy = 68 ksi, fu = 100
ksi, Esh = 1280 ksi, εsh = 0.005, and εfu = 0.03.
Figure 9 shows the stress-strain relationship for concrete using the Hognestad
(1955) model. Region A is nonlinear with a parabolic stress-strain relationship
modeled by the following equation:
2 2
fc f c c
c
'
for 0 c 0
0 0
c 0
f c f c' 1 0.15 0 for 0 c
0
The value ε0 = 0.002 is typically assumed for the Hognestaad stress-strain model,
which leads to ε(fc=0) = 0.012 (Figure 9).
For this example, consider again the 5” by 10.5” RC beam with 2#4 top bars and
2#6 bottom bars and an assumed concrete cover of 1.5” to the center of the bars.
Take f’c = 5ksi and use expected material properties for steel. The moment and
curvature for an outer fiber concrete compressive strain εx = 0.005 are desired.
Figure 10 shows the internal strains, stresses, and forces for an initial guess of the
neutral axis depth, x = 2.5”. The concrete compressive zone is divided into slices
to allow piecewise-linear analysis. For this example, five slices are used. Using
more slices provides greater computational refinement.
The strain distribution is linear based on the assumption that plane sections remain
plane. Thus, the parameters εx and x are sufficient to describe the strain
distribution completely. For concrete, the stresses at the boundary of each slice are
computed as:
2 2 2* 0.001 0.001 2
for c 0.001, fc f
c
' c
(5 ) *
c ksi
3.75
ksi
0 0 0.002 0.002
2 2 2*0.002 0.002 2
for c 0.002, fc f
c
' c
(5 ) *
c ksi
5.00
ksi
0 0 0.002 0.002
c 0 0.003 0.002
for c 0.003, f c f c' 1 0.15 (5 ) * 1 0.15
ksi
4.50 ksi
0 0.002
c 0 0.004 0.002
for c 0.004, f c f c' 1 0.15 (5 ) * 1 0.15
ksi
4.00 ksi
0 0.002
c 0 0.005 0.002
for c 0.005, f c f c' 1 0.15 (5 )* 1 0.15
ksi
3.50 ksi
0 0.002
Approximating the stress variation within each slice as linear leads to the following
computation for concrete compressive forces:
3.75ksi x
C1 0.5" b 5.0" 4.6875
ksi
2 5
3.75ksi 5.00 ksi x
C2 0.5" b 5.0" 10.9375
ksi
2 5
5.00ksi 4.50 ksi x
C3 0.5" b 5.0" 11.875
ksi
2 5
4.50 ksi 4.00ksi x
C4 0.5" b 5.0" 10.625
ksi
2 5
4.00ksi 3.50 ksi x
C5 0.5" b 5.0" 9.375
ksi
2 5
The stresses in the top and bottom steel are computed as follows:
Note that the concrete stress at the location of the top bars has been subtracted
from the steel stress in the preceding computation to account for the absence of
concrete at the location of top bars.
Therefore, since T = C within a reasonable tolerance, the initial guess x = 2.5” was
correct for εx = 0.005 and further iteration is not needed to determine the depth of
the neutral axis. In general, if T > C then increase the neutral axis depth for the
next iteration and vice versa.
Once the depth of the neutral axis has been determined via iteration, the moment
and curvature may be computed. For the example problem, the moment and
curvature at an outer fiber concrete compressive strain of εx = 0.005 may be
computed as follows:
Using this procedure the moment and curvature may be computed for any outer
fiber concrete compressive strain, εx, for a given RC cross-section.
This procedure may be used to compute moment and curvature at tensile steel
yield. In this way, the yield moment was computed to be 458.4 k-in (curvature is
0.00114 in-1), which is slightly less than the yield moment computed when
assuming linear-elastic behavior in the concrete compression zone; the nominal
moment was computed to be 488.7 k-in (curvature is 0.000432 in -1), which is
larger than the nominal moment computed previously due to the inclusion of
strain-hardening in the tensile reinforcement. Figure 11 shows a complete
moment-curvature plot generated using this refined method. Note that the cracking
moment cannot be determined using this method (and is not included in this plot),
since this method does not include any tensile strength of concrete prior to
cracking.
Moment-Curvature Plot for Example Beam
600
500
400
Moment (k-in)
300
200
100
Curvature (1/in)
2.2 Load-Displacement
2.2.1 Cracking
The cracking moment for the section was previously computed to be M cr = 62.8 k-
in. The load that causes cracking, Pcr, is thus computed as follows:
4 M cr 4* 62.8k in
Pcr 2.62k
L 96"
The maximum moment is at the center of the beam; the beam is reaching cracking
only at the midpoint and therefore remains uncracked throughout the span. The
displacement at midspan at cracking, δcr., is computed as follows, using the
equation for a simply-supported beam with concentrated load at mid-span and
uniform EI:
2.2.2 Yielding
The yielding moment for the section was previously computed to be My = 458.4 k-
in. The load that causes yielding, Py, is thus computed as follows:
4M y 4* 458.4k in
Py 19.1k
L 96"
Figure 12 shows the moment diagram for the simply supported beam at yielding of
tension steel. The deflection computed via the moment-area method is as follows:
1 M 2 M 1
y * 6.576"* cr . * *6.576" 41.424"* cr . * 6.576" * 41.424"
2 EI uncr . 3 EI cr . 2
1 M y M cr . 2
* 41.424"* * 6.576" * 41.424"
2 EI cr . 3
1 62.8k in 62.8k in
* 6.576"* 4
* 4.384"
41.424"* 4 * 27.288"
2 4030.5ksi *600.0in 4030.5ksi * 273.0in
1 458.4k in 62.8k in
* 41.424"* 4 * 34.192"
2 4030.5ksi * 273.0in
0.0004" 0.0645" 0.2546"
0.32"
Neglecting the uncracked portion of the beam and computing the deflection as
though the beam were entirely cracked, leads to the following deflection:
2.2.3 Post-Yielding
plastic ( y ) * L p
where Lp is the length of the plastic hinge, is the curvature at the moment of
interest, and y is the yield curvature. The plastic rotation is assumed to occur
about the midpoint of the plastic hinge. Based on the beam geometry, the
corresponding deflection for the given rotation may be computed as follows
(Figure 13):
plastic Lbeam
plastic *
2 2
Figure 13 – Plastic Hinge Model for Simply-Supported Beam
The total displacement is the sum of the linear and nonlinear displacement:
total y plastic
For the example problem, the load when the simply supported beam reaches the
nominal moment at midspan is computed as follows:
4 M n 4* 488.7 k in
Pn 20.3625k
L 96"
Similarly, for an outer fiber concrete compressive strain of єc=0.005, the moment
and curvature were previously computed to be M(єc=0.005) = 533 k-in and φ(єc=0.005) =
0.002 in-1, leading to P(єc=0.005) = 21.2083 k and δ(єc=0.005) = 0.72”.
2.2.4 Load-Displacement Plot
The resulting P-δ plot for the example problem is estimated in Figure 14 using the
four previously mentioned data points (cracking, yield, nominal, єc=0.005).
Load-Displacement Plot for Example Beam
25
20
15
Load, P (kips)
10
Displacement, d (inches)
Vn Vc Vs
where Vc is the nominal shear strength provided by concrete and Vs is the nominal
shear strength provided by shear reinforcement.
Vc 2 f c' bw d
where λ is equal to 1.0 for normal weight concrete, f’c is the compressive strength
of concrete in psi, bw is the beam width, and d is the depth from the outer
compression fiber to the beam tension steel.
Av f yt d
Vs
s
where Av is the area of shear reinforcement within the spacing s, and fyt is the yield
stress of transverse reinforcement.
For the example beam without stirrups, the shear capacity is computed as follows:
5000 psi
Vn Vc 2 f c' bw d 2*(1.0)* * (5.0") *(9.0") 6.4k
1000 psi / ksi
If #3 grade 40 stirrups spaced at 4.0” were used in the example beam, the shear
capacity is computed as follows:
2
Av f yt d 2* (0.11in ) * (40ksi ) *(9.0")
Vs 19.8k
s (4.0")
Vn Vc Vs 6.4k 19.8k 26.2k
3. Experimental Results
3.1 Moment-Curvature
The hydraulic jack is used to apply load monotonically at the midspan of the
simply-supported RC beam. A load cell is used to measure the experimental load
exerted on the beam by the hydraulic jack. The measured load is used to determine
the experimental moment as follows:
PL
M
4
The horizontal LVDTs are used to determine curvature. The LVDTs measure
voltage, which is converted to displacement via a calibration factor. The measured
strain equals the displacement divided by the gauge length (pin-to-pin length) of
the LVDT.
Since the montonic, midspan loading is upward, the top LVDT measures tensile
strain while the bottom LVDT measures compressive strain (provided the neutral
axis for the cross-section is not below the lower LVDT). The experimental
curvature is computed as follows:
top bot .
exp
d LVDT
where dLVDT is the vertical distance between the top and bottom LVDTs. Note that
this equation was set up to yield positive curvature when tensile strain is taken
positive and compressive strain is taken negative. Figure 15 illustrates
geometrically the relationship between LVDT strains and section curvature.
A link apparatus, Figure 16, is used to magnify the strains. Magnifying the strains
serves to minimize the influence of noise. Referring to Figure 16, the lowermost
horizontal link is rigid (no axial deformation), meaning that the lowermost pins do
not move. The two pins just above the lowermost pins embed into the beam and
displace due to the strain at this location in the beam. This displacement causes a
rigid rotation about the lowermost pins as seen in Figure 16. This rigid rotation
causes the uppermost pins to translate, creating a measured displacement in the
LVDT. By similar triangles, the measured strain is determined from the beam
strain as follows:
b
meas. beam
a
3.2 Load-Displacement
The applied load is measured via a load cell, and the the midspan displacement is
measured using a vertical LVDT. Both the load cell and the LVDT measure
voltage, which is converted to force and displacement, respectively, via a
calibration factor.
3.3 Shear Force
The experimental shear in the beam may be determined from the measured applied
load using statics. Since the vertical load is applied at midspan, the maximum
shear demand in the beam is Vu=P/2 as seen by the shear diagram in Figure 17.