SME Annual Meeting

Feb. 19 - 22, 2017, Denver, CO

Preprint 17-073

IMPROVING DIESEL QUALITY REDUCES COST AND EMISSIONS

R. L. Miller, Reliant Energy Solutions LLC, Denver, CO

Why should we care about diesel quality amidst the complexity of
mining for minerals? Mining companies use a large amount of diesel
fuel in their worldwide operations, both for moving ore from the mine to
the processing mills or transportation hubs, and to generate power for
onsite processing. This creates a large carbon footprint and poses both
environmental risk with the production of emissions, and public
perception of how those companies do their business as stewards of
the environment while incurring a huge fuel expenditure.
This is caused by 1) lower ore grades requiring more hauls to get
same amount of finished gold product, and 2) haul trucks moving ore
from deeper sources in open pit and underground mines.
For one large multi-national gold mining company, the 2005 waste
rock / production ratio was 52 metric tons/gold ounce; by 2013 that
ratio had grown to 113 metric tons/gold ounce per the same SRSrocco
4 August 2014 report.

To improve diesel quality and create incremental value and Using the metrics above, the top 5 gold miners used over 591
greater environmental stewardship, the opportunity is broken down into million gallons of diesel fuel in 2013.
several segments: The cost of diesel in dollars per ounce of gold has increased from
1. Mining industry diesel consumption $30.48 in 2005 to $101.14 in 2013, an annual appreciation of 16.2% as
2. Fuel quality issues shown in Figure 2 below.
3. Impacts on operations, economics, and emissions
4. Potential solutions
5. How improved fuel quality saves fuel expenditures
6. Economics of improved fuel quality
7. Recommended testing process
8. Fuel quality analysis checklist
MINING INDUSTRY DIESEL CONSUMPTION
The average grade of mined Australian ore bodies has halved,
while the waste removed to access the minerals has more than
doubled over the last 30 years, thus increasing energy consumption by
70%, (http://eex.gov.au/industry-sectors/mining/). Energy consumption
and intensity in mining and mineral processing is rising at around 6%
per annum.
The mining industry is a huge consumer of diesel fuel worldwide,
and the SRS Rocco Report of 4 August 2014 gives a better picture of
recent trends. To better understand the reasons to reduce both fuel
costs and consumption, we need to compare metrics on the amount of
diesel consumed per each ounce of gold produced over the last
decade. The rate of diesel consumption in gallons per each ounce of Figure 2. Top 5 Gold Miners Diesel Consumption & Cost Per Ounce.
gold produced for the top five worldwide gold producers has doubled in Source: SRS Rocco Report of 4 August 2014.
the last 8 years from 12.7 gallons per ounce in 2005 to 25.8 in 2013 as
shown in Figure 1 below. Despite the volatility in diesel prices during the 2005-2015 period,
the industry saw a 1.2% annual inflation in US diesel prices from $2.40
per gallon in 2005 to $2.71 per gallon in 2015, per the US Department
of Energy’s Energy Information Administration (EIA) data. Using this
diesel price and a static 591 million gallons of diesel projected use in
2015, the top 5 gold producers in the world spent over $1.60 billion in
diesel last year.
This huge expenditure for diesel does not include the cost of
energy brought to a mine site via the electrical grid.
FUEL QUALITY ISSUES
What are some of the problems that miners experience with their
fuel quality, and what are the implications on operations, economics,
and emissions? Fuel quality decomposition is caused by several
factors, and once we fully understand the issues facing diesel use, we
can then move to identify solutions and specifications to improve fuel
quality.
Moisture
Areas of high humidity such as South America and Sub-Sahara
Figure 1. Top 5 Gold Production & Diesel Consumption. Africa pose a problem as moisture finds its way into tanks from a
Source: SRS Rocco Report of 4 August 2014. myriad of causes contributing to deteriorating fuel quality. Water can
1 Copyright © 2017 by SME
 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 19 - 22, 2017, Denver, CO

be easily entrained into tanks during receipt of fuel or the delivery out
of the tank. Once moisture is in the tank, it condenses and eventually
separates out as a separate layer at the bottom of the tank, reducing
the homogeneity and uniform fuel composition throughout the tank
necessary for optimal combustion. Moisture also hastens the formation
of bacteria, gums, and microbial growth which further deteriorate fuel
quality. Finally, the presence of moisture leads to corrosion in the tank,
shortening maintenance intervals for tank cleaning and additional
operational costs.
Figure 3 shown below demonstrates the change in fuel quality
within a fuel storage tank from initial fill as water is entrained. Water
condenses to the bottom of the tank, bacteria and gums begin to form
with presence of moisture, and corrosion builds within the tank.
reduced maintenance intervals that remove equipment from revenue
producing operations.
Incomplete Combustion
Fuel quality deterioration also manifests itself in the incomplete
combustion of the fuel, resulting in greater opacity as evidenced by the
black smoke from the tailpipe of a truck at startup and moving up steep
grades as shown in the picture below. The opacity also represents
hydrocarbons that miners have paid for in the diesel fuel that don’t do
productive work since it escapes out the tailpipe as shown in Figure 4
below.

Figure 3. Fuel Tank Contaminants.

The introduction of moisture into storage tanks in extremely humid
environments causes stratification in the tanks, creating combustion
havoc as the fuel separates from the moisture in the storage tanks.
Sulfur rich fuels will create additional problems if operated with high
tank moisture content as it will accelerate the corrosion caused by
post-combustion sulfuric acid.
The solution to these fuel quality issues requires more than just a Figure 4. Incomplete Fuel Combustion Increasing Opacity.
filtration system; it requires a chemical change. First, the fuel must be
cleared of any accumulated water and free of bacterial growth; water A simple test can be completed comparing the emissions of diesel
dispersing additives prevent the accumulation of water. This is combusted more fully vs. a sub-optimal combustion that produces
especially important for backup power generators whose fuel storage more unburned fuel, more opacity, and more emissions as shown in
tanks may not be used as frequently, potentially creating moisture Figure 5 below.
and/or microbial buildup. Secondly, reducing the fuel’s surface tension
allows for a more even and finer mist pattern out of injectors. Any
improvement in the air/fuel homogeneity will provide a more complete
combustion. Finally, increasing lubricity will extend the life cycle of
pumps, lines, and injectors, reducing wearing and preventing deposits
from clinging.
Dust
Mining sites due to their remoteness and extraction operations
can impose some fairly difficult environments to receive, store, and use
diesel fuel. Despite best efforts, dust is always a contaminant to
contend with, and inevitably is entrained in the fuel.
Colder Temperatures / Higher Altitudes
In mining districts with significantly colder temperatures and/or
high altitude, the low temperatures exacerbate the above issues with Figure 5. Fuel Combustion Test Identifying Opacity Issue.
fuel quality, while also causing startup issues. To solve this problem,
miners switch out the lower-cost #2 diesel for the higher-cost #1 diesel Incomplete combustion also leads to the fouling of injectors and
fuel, adding both operational fuel handling issues, and more cost to the combustion chamber of the engine as shown in Figure 6 below.
their mine facilities. An alternative to #1 diesel for certain locations is This requires additional maintenance downtime reducing the truck’s
an additive to lower the fuel’s freeze temperature. Without a proper effectiveness and increasing capital expenditures for redundant trucks
solution to the cold temperatures, engine startup and/or efficient to fill the gap from a short maintenance interval.
engine operation are inhibited. Fuel for remote areas subjected to
extreme cold temperatures usually receive their annual fuel during the
warmer, summer months allowing the fuel to deteriorate over the next
12 months. Without a proper solution to the moisture issues, the cold
temperatures only exacerbate the fuel quality and startup issues.
IMPACTS ON OPERATIONS, ECONOMICS, AND EMISSIONS
Clogged Fuel Filters and Injectors
Stratified, moisture-entrained diesel fuel fed directly to haul truck
engines and power generation facilities leads to sub-optimal Figure 6. Incomplete Fuel Combustion Residue In Engines.
operational performance as the poor fuel quality clogs fuel filters and Reduced Engine Power Output
injectors. This problem manifests itself in poor starting reliability,
Since hydrocarbons in the diesel fuel escape without being fully
increased down time and cost to replace filters and injectors, and
combusted, the haul truck’s power output is diminished, requiring even
2 Copyright © 2017 by SME
 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 19 - 22, 2017, Denver, CO

more fuel to complete the work assigned, and does not fully utilize the (sulfuric acid), clean and protect injectors and other internal engine
truck’s capacity for ore hauling. parts from the excessive accumulation of varnishes, and acid
corrosion.
Higher Emissions – Unobtainable Emissions/Sustainability Goals
As mines get deeper, haul truck trip times to the mill get longer Following the detergency addition results in extended routine
and the rate of diesel consumption in gallons per each ounce of gold maintenance intervals and significant maintenance cost savings from
produced increases. Miners face a difficult challenge in reducing their the fuel tank to the exhaust pipe.
carbon footprint while attempting to meet key sustainability goals. More
fuel use per ounce of gold produced and increased emissions both Lubricity
make mining operations more difficult to reduce their carbon footprint High sulfur fuels produce sulfur oxides that, combined with water,
and demonstrate activities as a good environmental steward. form strong acids which influence the emission of fine particulate
matter and create a health hazard. Although lower sulfur content fuels
Reducing diesel fuel consumption, cost, and emissions in the face are now available, sulfur is a vital component of diesel that imparts a
of reality of the present day mining environment is a key issue for all natural lubricity essential for the lubrication of fuel pumps and injectors.
mines. With lower sulfur levels in fuel, it needs replacement with additives to
provide the lubrication necessary to avoid the possibility of damage to
Increased Engine Wear & Tear engine parts. Without proper lubricity, injectors can become eroded
As diesel is combusted, the temperature of combustion is one and/or damaged and lead to poor spray patterns, piston damage, loss
clear barometer of the amount of engine wear and tear that is of power, increased emissions, and increased fuel consumption and
absorbed. This manifests itself in reduced maintenance intervals, smoke.
higher maintenance labor and replacement parts cost, and reduced
operability of very expensive haul trucks. Figure 7 below demonstrates HOW IMPROVED FUEL QUALITY SAVES FUEL EXPENDITURES
the combustion from an untreated diesel fuel with its high combustion
temperature on the left, and the more focused combustion with its Additives can provide a key improvement in fuel quality and
lower combustion temperatures and reduced flame and soot formation performance when it combines to add oxygenation, detergency, and
on the right. lubricity. The value improvement can be between 3% and 5%
depending upon fuel quality and age of equipment, as shown in Table
1 below.
Table 1. Range of Diesel Cost Savings.
Diesel Demand, Diesel Price, Annual Savings Annual Savings
Liters/Month US$/liter US$ @ 3% US$ @ 5%
100,000 0.50 5,302 17,302
500,000 0.50 26,508 86,508
1,000,000 0.50 53,016 173,016
5,000,000 0.50 265,079 865,079
10,000,000 0.50 530,159 1,730,159
50,000,000 0.50 2,650,794 8,650,794

For onsite power generation facilities, the more complete

Figure 7. Engine Combustion Temperatures and Soot Formation.
POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS
Several key ingredients are needed to ensure optimal fuel use,
economize the fuel usage, maximize the amount of useful work
completed, and minimize emissions.
Oxygenation
To reach a more complete combustion of the diesel to extract the
maximum power from the fuel and reduce opacity and unburned fuel,
the fuel additive should have oxygen in liquid form of approximately
30% by volume. With higher fuel combustion comes increased fuel
efficiency and decreased post-combustion by-products including
engine deposits and harmful emissions.
One key to increased combustion with proper oxygenation is to
not increase the temperature in the combustion chamber, thus
optimizing performance, reducing fuel consumption and decreasing
emissions. The cetane number should not be elevated with an additive
to fuel so as not to increase the heat of combustion, while reducing
heat in the post-combustion engine components.
Increased oxygenation without increasing the heat of combustion
is particularly effective in cold weather and at high altitudes which are
low ambient oxygen environments since it aids in starting diesel
engines with a significant oxygen content improvement.
Detergency
As any residual petroleum sludge in the tank will be slowly
incorporated into the fuel mass for burning in the combustion chamber,
the fuel should have a detergency agent to slowly clean and maintain
the entire fuel system from the storage tank through the combustion
chamber. This detergency agent should also disperse water and block
the conversion of SO2 into SO3, prevent the formation of H2SO4
3 Copyright © 2017 by SME
combustion of fuel will lead to lower fuel requirements and its attendant
fuel cost savings.
Additives that increase oxygenation by the introduction of liquid
oxygen into the mixture can greatly reduce emissions during the
combustion process. Although CO2 is directly related to the amount of
fuel savings from a more thorough combustion process, the other
emissions can also be lowered when fuel is consistently dosed with the
proper additive.
Reducing the consumption of diesel fuel through improved
combustion and the reduction of emissions provides an economically
“green” solution in tandem with a green environmental solution for
miners.
Fuel Quality Additive Performance Metrics
1. Disperse water
2. Inhibit bacteria and microbial growth
3. Oxygenate fuel to optimize combustion
4. Increase fuel economy
5. Dissolve gums from fuel injectors and remove combustion
deposits
6. Reduce engine wear
7. Lower emissions including diesel particulate matter
RECOMMENDED TESTING PROCESS
Before the miner tests additives, it must determine the needs and
properties in additives most necessary to improve operations from a
fuel consumption and cost perspective, engine longevity and
maintenance, and fuel emissions.
Fuel Additive Selection Checklist
1. Know the chemical composition of all additives from their
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

2. Identify the impact the chemical compounds have on the fuel
combustion, engine temperature, and emissions
3. Determine what fuel additive attributes best suit the miner’s
needs (i.e. detergency, oxygenation, lubricity, microbial
growth, cold weather start, etc.)
4. Evaluate the prescribed dosage amount
5. Know the impact of cetane-enhancers on engine combustion
temperature, performance and emissions
6. Compare both hydrocarbon-based and synthetic additives
7. Determine ideal engine combustion temperature range for
best performance
8. Identify special handling requirements for hazardous
material
9. Categorize additives based on active ingredients and
chemical composition
10. Determine if the additive is carcinogenic and/or flammable
11. Identify the presence of paraffins and their impact on filters
in cold weather
12. Determine need for fuel surface tension reduction
13. Identify if additive is insoluble in water
14. Determine if additive is biodegradable
Fuel Additive Lab Tests Prior To Field Test
A Flame Modification & Combustion Residue Test compares
diesel burn tests with various selected additives to prove how
combustion changes when fuel additives are introduced to diesel. Ideal
results are to see a smoky flame turn smoke free and stable. After the
mixture is burned out, the best outcome is a clean, residue free finish.
A Water Dispersion Test compares the impact different additives
have on preventing water accumulation in fuel tanks by dispersion. If
an additive cannot mix with water, it will not be able to remove water-
based contamination in fuel tanks, leaving the fuel system only 50%
clean. Since both fuel and water are present and water does great
damage to fuel, it is important that an additive can integrate effectively
by binding with both fuel and water. This will be seen by having fuel
that contains water, but appears “clear and bright” without indications
of actual water presence.
Field Testing
It is difficult to replicate fuel challenges that are seen each day at
the mine site by laboratory test; hence, the need for a compelling, well-
defined, test in the field with haul trucks. The general guideline, as in
any science experiment, is to have a Witness Truck (current business
practice with fuel) and a Test Truck (introducing an additive to fuel for a
desired improvement).
Variables Controlled
The variables that need to be controlled during the field test
include the following:
1. Weather
2. Route distance
3. Route intensity
4. Loads
5. Fuel batch
6. Drivers
7. Total time
8. Engine hours
Control / Test Validation
For testing both the Control Truck and the Test Trucks, they
should be arranged in pairs to level the playing field of comparison and
any question of test validity. The Control Truck does not have an
additive, and the Test Truck does have an additive. The pair of
vehicles must have their routes “tied together” so that one vehicle
follows the other. This allows dispatch to assign the trucks anywhere in
the mine to keep production up, but the trucks must move as pairs for
the entirety of the test. If a mining group chooses to evaluate multiple
fuel additive products then several pairs of trucks may be needed.
Witness Truck / Test Truck pairs need to be of equipment with the
same make and model and with similar engine hours, operating history
and time since maintenance. Historical data should show similar
gallons per hour in order to verify similar engine health. A minimum of
4 Copyright © 2017 by SME
SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 19 - 22, 2017, Denver, CO
two pairs (three is preferred) of equipment must be selected in order to
be able to more confidently ascertain that results are due to the fuel
additive being tested. More so, this allows for vehicles to go into
scheduled maintenance and not disrupt the test as other pairs will be
available for testing.
Since only a part of the fleet of trucks will be testing a product, it is
necessary to utilize a pump system that will treat the fuel going into the
Test Truck and not treat the Witness Truck.
Vehicle emissions should be measured before and after in order
to validate results. A proper fuel additive should lower particulate
matter and reduce toxic gas emissions, in addition to lowering fuel
consumption.
The test should start with five-day baseline testing so Gallons Per
Hour (GPH), Tons Per Gallon (TPG), and Tons Per Hour (TPH)
comparisons can be made between the Witness Truck(s) and the Test
Truck(s) prior to the use of fuel additive. After baseline is solidified, fuel
additive should be added to treat the entire tank of the Testing
Truck(s), and thereafter, only treating proportionately to the amount of
diesel added. A second day testing phase is appropriate in order to
see a margin develop between Witness Truck and the Test Truck.
Since both vehicles experience the same conditions, the Witness
Truck acts as a witness as to what was experienced without a fuel
additive during both phases. Results should come in the form of
Gallons Per Hour, Tons Per Gallon, and Tons Per Hour. Emissions
results should show a change on the Test Truck(s) and little to no
change on the Witness Truck(s).
FUEL QUALITY ANALYSIS CHECKLIST:
While evaluating the fuel quality and its impact upon mining
operations, consider these key questions:
1. What fuel savings are being foregone through incomplete
fuel combustion?
2. Can we extend maintenance intervals on key, expensive
equipment through better fuel quality?
3. Can we reduce operating downtime for unplanned
maintenance?
4. Do our operations have problems with engine startup in
harsh climates and/or visible black smoke emissions?
5. Is our company evaluated on its carbon footprint, and do we
have an active environmental emissions monitoring
program?
6. Do our backup generators experience problems at infrequent
startups?
7. What are reduced emissions worth to our company?
8. Can we reduce fuel tank cleaning costs and frequency?
9. Do we have a moisture issue within our fuel storage tanks?
10. Are we getting the promised power from our equipment as
guided by original equipment manufacturers?
SUMMARY
The advantages of better fuel quality, in-tank fuel conditioning,
and more complete fuel combustion are the following:
1. Longer intervals between engine maintenance yielding lower
operating expense
2. Less engine downtime from elimination of fuel startup issues
providing greater reliability
3. Lower engine operating temperatures reducing engine wear and
tear
4. Increased power output from engine on the same fuel quantity
5. Lower fuel consumption, costs, and emissions
Newer, innovative, and disruptive technology that reduces fuel
consumption during the combustion process, lowers emissions, and
offers significant fuel cost savings now exist to the mining industry. The
benefits are both green (dollars) and green (improved environmental
stewardship) for the mining industry at a time when diesel use per
ounce of gold produced is increasing both costs and emissions.