MAPPING ALTE RED ANO MINERALIZED ROCKS

an introduction to

THE "ANACONDA METHOD"

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Marco T. Einaudi
Stanford University
1997
~ MT E1naud1. 1007
 l\JAPPING ALIERED & MINERALIZED ROCKS
THE "A:SACONDA MEJHOD"

l. lotroduction
U. Mappin¡: Vertical Faces; trencbes. road cuis. tunnds. bencbes
A. General Aspects
B. Key Features of :\1apping Scheme
(1) Tbc "basetinc"
(2) Use gridded ficld sneets
(6) The rock side
ütJ.10 contacts. faults, vcins, density (vol%) of qtz veins
(8) The air side
Background aherauon.
Alteration haíos,
C. Organízational hints for efficient mapping
(1) Use a double-sided aluminum clipboard
(2) Tbe importance of bard-lead color pencils
(3) Mapping vcsts
(5) Make several mapping passcs
(6) Stand up. facing the rocks
IIJ. J\tapping outcrops: use multiple overlay"
A. Base Map.
B. Alteration Overlay.
C. Lírnonite O verla)'.
IV. Color Codes (Fij:s. 3 & 4)
A. Lilhologic contacts and structure (rccorded on rock side. plot true strike. dip)
B. Hypogene mineralization (veins/veinlets & disseminauons). (Plot on rock sjdc)
sulfides/oxides (Fig. 3)
Veinlet/vein fillings other tban sulfides/oxídes
C. Leacbed/oxidelsupergene sulfldes (plot on rock sjde).
Mine ratogy
Symbols for degrce of leaching
D. Alteration of bomblende (and/or biotite) sites (plot on air sjdc)
E. Alteration of feldspar sítes (piel on ajr sjdc)
V, Weatberjn~ products¡ bow to map and rcco~njze tbem.
A. Dístinguishíng between Hypogene and supergene alteration.
B. Leached and oxidízed outcrops.
(1) Keeping track of lhe degree of leaching of primary sulfude siles
(2) "Glassy limonite", indigenous limonites
(3) Relict sulfides locked in quartz
(4) Exotic límonítes
VI. Reconnaissance; Wbat to retajo Crom tbe Detailed !\1appin2 Scheme.
A. Rock description,
B. Quartz veíns and veinlets
C. Limonite assemblages
D. Relative abundance of indigenous and exotic Fe and Cu oxides
E. Biotite dístribution patterns, especiaUy of "sbreddy biotite"
F. Magnetite abundance
VD. Postín¡: Sheets <Fact Ma¡is) and lntrrprrtatlons; Ibe "Folio"
A. Posting sheets and Iollow-up interpretation
B. Tbe Folio.
C. Composite maps: exploration models and drill targeting.
 MAPPING ALTERED & MINERALIZED ROCKS
THE "ANACONDA METHOD"
M.T. Einaudi, Stanford University, March 1997

L lntroduction
Color-coded mapping of key features of alteration/mincralization, augmented by quantitative estimares of
mincral/vcin abundance, measurement of altitudes (strikc & dip, or core-axis angle), and relative age between features
(different vein-types, or veins/intrusivc contacts) is critica! to successful exploration, mine development, and accurate
dcscriptions for a genetic understanding. This stylc of mapping should be used to complement standardizcd numerical
mapping designed for computcr data bases. A gcologist who draws what s/he sees in the rocks has greater flexibility and
freedom of thought than one who is forced to pigeon-hole everything into a numerical category. Further, at the stage of
map compilation there is no substitute for the detailed, color-coded, geological and mineralogical notes compiled on
posting sheets ("fact maps"), whose color and textura! distinctions allow quick visual correlation of common features
between outcrops, mine benches, or drill holes. The use of standardized colors also allows a given exploration team or
research group to read and understand each other's maps.
Although this tract focuses on rnapping in igneous rocks of porphyry-type environrnents, the approach is easily
modified for application in any deposit type or any geological environment. The approach presented here is a direct
evolution of mapping schemes devised by Anaconda geologists at El Salvador, Chile, and Yerington, Nevada during the
l 960's; it represents in large parta melding of ideas generated during field work and discussions with John Proffett, John
Hunt, Bill Atkinson, and John Dilles.

!!. Mappin¡: vertical Faces: trenches. road cuts. tunnels. benches

A. General Aspects
The most efficient approach to mapping vertical walls is to project everything to a horizontal plane (for
example, al chest height). The hundreds of strike & dip measurements that are taken during a day's mapping are ali
plotted directly on the map; in other words, the map js beine produced as you map. Confusion about srrikes of faults,
contacts, etc, doesn't arise as often as it does when drawing in vertical view or when recording data in a notebook.
Because you carry past mapping sheets with you as you start a fresh sheet, you know exactly whcre to go in the next
cross-cut or trcnch to find that fault, and geology can be drawn across the drift from one wall to the othcr or from outcrop
to outcrop. (NOTE: ( 1) sorne features will not project to chcst hcight, c.g., a flat fault at anklc levcl; thcse require notes,
a quick sketch, ora projection (see below). (2) When mapping an undcrgrounddccline ora surfacc trench upa hill,
continue to map at chest height; your map will be an inclined planc, which later can be correctcd to a different datum
plane depending on the ultimate goal).
The essential idea is to record by means of a color code the various features of rock typc, strucrure, veins,
alteration minerals and ore minerals (see Fies. 1 & 2). Color coding is a means of rcducing notc-taking to sorne degree,
but, more importantly, to force the geologist to Jook more critically at the rocks. Color also serves as a visual stimulant
during mapping and afterwards during the compilation process.
Another importan! aspect of the mapping scheme is that while mapping altcred wall rocks, you are mappine
minerals. not alteration types. This means that you are not classifying alteration types as you map (think of ali the
variations on the theme of advanced argillic or of potassic alteration types!) and, tberefore, you are coming closer to the
ideal of recordine observations rather than interpretations. Map what you see.
Notes are used for those features that cannot be recorded in the drawing, such as rock descriptions, relative ages
between features (e.g., between faults, veins, veinlets, intrusive contacts), percent total sulfides, percent magnetite,
sulfide ratios, and veinlet abundance (e.g., vol % estimate). Notes are written for intervals of the bench face or tunnel
where such features are relatively uniform in character (Eies, 1 & 2).

/L. KeY Eeatures q(Mqwine Scheme

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the style of mapping being dcscribed here. Figure 1 represents a map of sulfide-
bearing rocks, whereas Figure 2 represents a map of the oxidized (weathered) equivalent. The various aspects of the
mapping scheme are illustrated by these figures and discussed in the paragraphs that follow. Comparison of the two
figures (and Figures 5) also will allow you to visualize thc results of oxidation/weathering of hypogene ores.
(1) The "baseline" consists of the tape laid out at chest height along a drift or trench wall. This
baseline is surveyed by brunton and plotted on the ficld sheet (taking account of irregularities in the face relative to the
straight line of the tape).
 p. 2of10

(2) Use gridded field sheets to enable rapid plotting of strikes and dips with a plastic scale/protractor.
The grids represen! N-S and E-W lines, not lines parallel to the rock face you are mapping. Assign the E-W line to the
long dimension of your map sheet (the north arrow points toward the long dimensión of your sheet) for ease of use of
your clipboard and for interna! consistency.
(3) Locate your baseline in thc center of the field sheet to allow working room (notes and drawing) on
ali sides. Start a new field sheet before you run out of room toward the edge of the sheet.
(4) Before you start mapping, be sure to include coordinates, survcy points, locality, scale, the date,
and your name.
(5) Notes and sample locations are written directly on the mapping sheet, rathcr than in the field
notebook. This ensurcs that this information is never separated from the rnap.
The baseline serves to separare your map sheets into two areas: the "air side" and the "rock side" (see Figs. 1-5).
(6) The rock sidc is used to record faults, vein minerals, veinlet mincrals, disseminations of "ore"
minerals, and lithologic contacts (Fig. 3 and right-hand side of Fig. 4). Ali through-going features are plotted with true
strike, and the dip is indicated.
(7) Because of the close relation between the distribution of guartz veins and Cu-Au grades in many porphyry-type
deposits, a method of quantifying the density (vol %) of these veins is highly useful. Experience has shown that
consistency between different geologists can be achieved by estimating (for a given set of veins and a given bench
interval where the veins are of relatively constan! spacing and width): 1) the average width of the veins, and 2) the
average spacing between center lines. Write these down in your notes as a fraction (e.g., "0.5/6" would indicatc 0.5 cm
average width and 6 cm average spacing between center lincs). Dividing out the fraction yields percent of the rock that
is constituted by this vein set (0.5/6= 8 vol%). This approach works well for porphyry deposits where veins occupy
definite sets; the estímate is rnade for each set. The approach also is better than counting vein widths along a tape or
number of veins within a fixed square area, because such a count has to be corrected for the true width and doesn't record
vein widths and spacing. Clearly, thc approach is difficult to apply in rocks where the veins are truly random, but this is
less common than is generally bclicved. For A-B quartz veins, which rnost likely (at least the B's) represen! open-space
filling, you are recording the volurne percent of quartz that filled open spaces. For D veins (pyrite veins with quartz-
sericite-pyrite , QSP, halos), record the "vein width" as the distance between outer edges of the QSP halo: the fraction
will represent thc vol % of the rock that ís altered to QSP.
(8) The ~is uscd to record alteration minerals and rock type (Icft-hand side of Fig. 4). Alteration
mincrals are rccordcd by color code in two ways.
Back1nound alteratjon. Narrow "imaginary columns" along thc baseline (muchas the
columns uscd for diffcrcnt mincrals in logging core) are uscd to record "background" alteration minera Is. "Background"
alteration is defined here as any alteration minerals that occur throughout a given volume of rock and do not appear to be
relatcd as halos to individual veins. Pervasive biotitization of andesite at El Salvador is one example of background
alteration. Note that the term "background" has no temporal connotation.
Alteration halos. If distinct alteration halos are present on the margins of fractures and vein
fillings, these are shown as color-coded Jines drawn along the strike of the particular vein, but on the air side of the map
sheet. For example, a sericitic envelope on a pyrite vein would be shown as a brown line on the air side..

C. Orga11izatio11al hints for efficient mappi11g

(1) Use a double-sided aluminum clipboard the size of the mapping sheet (8.5 X 11 inches in the U.S.)
with leather pencil holders riveted to one or both sides. Ali pencils and scales are kept in this clipboard for easy access.
Place rubber erasers on the ends of each pencil for easy retrieval of pencils out of their leather sleeves!
(2) The importance of a hard-lead color pencils whích can be sharpened to a fine point cannot be
overemphasized. Pencils available in the U.S. which meet these standards include Eagle Yerlthln (or Berol Verithin) and
Staedtler Mars-Luniochrom.. [Caveat: in tropical climates, leads tend to become soft; in field mapping, rain obviously
places severe limitations on the quality of your drawing even if water-proof paper is used. But, try anyway ! Keep a
~in your aluminum clip-board facing your map sheet, and keep the clipboard closed and in your mapping vest
when not in use). Sharpenin2 pencils is an art: keep a sharp knife (sarne one you use to scratch rocks) to expose a length
of lead, tape a piece of sandpaper to the back inside of your clipboard for sharpening the point, and do final sharpening
by rubbing the point ata small angle on a piece of paper within your clipboard.
(3) Mappin2 vests that have pockets lar~e enou2h for an aluminum clipboard to fit in loosely are
critical to the success of thc mapping method described above. Loosc fit is importanl because the mapping method
rcquircs a constant back-and-forth betwecn map sheet and rocks: every time you havo finished marking a fcature on your
map sheet, the clipboard is "dumped" back into its pockct, your hands are free, and you can get back to brcaking rocks.

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 p. 3of10

Your vest "organizes" your work environment, muchas the "desktop" on your computer. The clipboard is never dumped
on the ground,
(4) Applyjn~ color. Features recorded on the rock side can become very densely spaced (especially in
highly mineralized zones) and great care needs to be taken to maintain color separation with very sharp pencils. A key
technique in this regard is to map the youo¡iest features first (e.g., post-ore faults, youngest veins), then follow with
mapping the older features. In this way, offsetting of older features by younger features can be shown easily as you map
and much less erasing is involved! Also, as you apply color to representa vein, apply first the color of the most
abundan! mineral as a dashed line; the lesser mineral colors are then applicd bctwecn thc dashes of thc first and no color
is applied on top of another,
(5) Make severa! mapping passes for any given outcrop or length of bench face or core; in other words,
partition your work. 1 find that I need at leasr three passes to complete ali the observations and note-tak ing that l need.
The first pass should be the one in which you get down on paper the majar features of the outcrop: descriptions of
lithology, lithologic contacts (indicate whether intrusive, conforrnable, stratigraphic, or faulted), rnajor faults, and rnajor
through-going veins. In subsequent passes you begin to add detail. In a second pass, rnap veins and veinlets,
diagrarnmatically showing the relative age of different vein types (plot the youngest veins first), and add alteration
haloes, and background alteration. The third pass can be devoted to sulfide (or oxide) rninerals, their abundance, and
relative proportions.
(6) Stand up, facing the rocks, while marking a feature on your map sheet. This reduces the odds of
plotting a wrong strike, because you are oriented with your rocks and your map sheet. Fast, efficient, and accurate
mapping is your goal; to achieve this goal, the best mappers do no! sit down with their backs to the face. (saves time and
saves your pants!)
(7) In regional exploration, l recommend that prior to cornmencing a rnapping project ata srnall
scale (say, 1 :5,000) that sorne key representative outcrops be mapped first ata lar¡¡e scale (say, 1 :250). The reason
is that rnapping ata large scale gives the geologist the opportunity to spend sorne time looking at the rocks in detail
and this enables hirn to develop an idea of the key features of a given prospect. Arrned with this information, he can
then move out more confidently at higher speed ata srnaller scale.

W. Mapojog outcrops; use multjple overlays

In rnapping sub-horizontal exposures (i.e., outcrops), color codes for alteration, veins, and ore minerals
(lirnonites) are used as above but are applied to successive overlays. Color separation is maintained by plotting:
• lithologic contacts, faults, veins, and other srructure on a base map (Fig. 6, Base Map);
• pervasive (or background) alteration and alteration halos on the first overlay (Fig, 6, Overlay # 1 );
• and ore minerals or their oxidation products on a second overlay (Fig. 6, Overlay #2).
Notes for these various fearures are written on their respective overlays.

d.,BaseMap.
The lirnit of outcrop is sketched first on the base map (along with any additional "culture" such as trenches,
paths, adits, mine durnps, etc) and the rnajor features of structure and lithology are mapped in. Rock-type symbols can
be assigned to various units, and these syrnbols can be applied in black pencil (rather than assigning a color-code to rock
types) along the outer perimeter of the outcrop outline. Veins are plotted directly on the base map, using color codes for
dominant vein-filling minerals. Notes can be written outside the outcrop area.

B. Alteration Over/ay.
On Overlay # 1, lines are u sed to identify alteration halos on veins shown on the base map. Care should be
taken to ensure that the alteration color-code is applied directly over the vein shown on the base. This points out the
need to plot the veins first on the base map, then quickly apply the alteration-halo color over that vein on overlay #l. For
example, on Fig. 6, the NE-dipping qtz-(Kspar-mag) veins at the north end of the outcrop (base map) have Kspar
alteration halos (alteration overlay).
Background alteration not related to individual veins is shown next by color-ceded dots for the minerals
present, Because only one overlay is used for alteration, feldspar sites and mafic mineral sites are difficult to keep
sepárate .. This turns out not to be a rnajor disadvantage, because, for cxample, a mix of brown dots and olive green
dots irnplies clay in the feldspar si tes and secondary biotitc in thc rnafic mineral sitcs. The dcnsity of dots should rcflcct
the relative abundance of alteration rninerals secn in the outcrop. For cxample, in Fig. 6, background scricitic altcration
incrcases in intensity southwcstcrly and thcn declines abruptly into a zone with rninor epidotc and chloritc. As another
exarnple, an intenscly silicified rock would be represcnted as a solid orange color on overlay #L (but, apply the color of
any minor rnincrals first as dots, then color-in the orangc around the dots in ordcr not to gct superposition of colors).

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 p. 4of10

An alternative approach (John Dilles, pers. comm., 1997) is to place major alteration halos (color ceded) on the
base sheet, and save the alteration overlay for background alteration. This allows the distinction to be maintained
between mafic and feldspar mineral site, in the following manner: 1) diagonal NE-SW lines represent alteration of
rnafics, and 2) diagonal NW-SE lines represent alteration of feldspars, The lines are color-coded following the normal
codes. The degrce of alteration of individual mineral sites are denoted by how hcavily you apply the color: solid lincs
denote 100 to 80% of that mineral site is altered, dashed lincs indicare 5-80% of that mineral site is altercd, and doued
lines indicatc <5% to trace amounts of that mineral site are occupicd by hydrothermal alteration products.

C. Limo11ite Overlav,
This is a key overlay, because ultimatcly it will allow you to draw a map that displays the distribution and
relative abundance of the oxidation products of sulfidcs. The key rninerals whose distribution and abundance need to be
mapped include the green copper carbonates and silicates, black copper pitch (tenorite), glassy limonite (pitch limonite),
goethite, earlhy hematite, and jarosite. Together with the alteration and vein maps, the distribution of these minerals will
allow you to say something about original sulfide zoning and about secondary dispersion of metals. Without such
information and ¡:eolo¡:jcal interpretation. ~eochemical assays of soil aod rock chip samples cannot be properly
interpreted.
The color codes and symbols used in mapping limonite minerals are summarized on the right-hand-side of
Figure 3 and detailed in section IV.C and VI.B (below). An comparison ofsulfide distribution patterns with distribution
of Cu and Fe-oxides resulting from weathering can be seen by comparing the two rnaps of Figures 3 and 5.

IV. Color Codes <Fies. 3 & 4)

The separation of the mapping sheet into air side and rock side (or overlays for outcrop mapping) allows for
efficient use of colors: in the list below, 12 colors are used to record sorne 40 different mineralogical features and
structural features. The list is instructive because it indicates those features that can be mapped continuously by hand-
lens inspection of freshly-broken rock surfaces in igneous rocks related to porphyry systems. Colors are identificd by
"Eagle Verithin" (or "Berol Verithin") numbers. Simplification of lhe color coding for regional mapping is discussed in
Section VI below.

d.. Litholnic contacts a11d str11ct11re (rccorded on rock side, plot true strike, dip)

black 1. Lithologic contacts: use your lead pencil (black).

dark bluc 2. Faults (breccias, clays, shears) and fault contacts: use índigo blue (741 ).
black 3. Foliation, joints, bedding: use your lead pencil (black).

B. Hypoee11e mineralizatio11 (veins/veinlets & disseminations). (Plot on rock sjde). Schematic representation
of mineral distribution in appropriate color (Fig. 3 & 4). Dots for disseminations, random sbort lines far random veinlets
(e.g., A-vnlts) or fracture coatings, continuous lines for lhrough-going veins (e.g., B- and D-veins). Care should be taken
to approximate relative vein densities and relative abundance of disseminated sulfides/oxides along the face by the
density of color added to map. Plot veins and veinlets with true strike and indicate dips. Yeins are drawn with color of
dominant mineral; additional minerals indicated by dots along line; a vein-filling consisting of 50% quartz and 50%
chalcopyrite, would be drawn as a dashed orange and red line.

sulfides/oxides (Fig. 3, right side)

purple 1. bornite: purple (752)
red 2. chalcopyrite: carmine red (745)
dark green 3. molybdenite: green (739)
med yellow 4. pyrite: canary yellow (735)
black 5. magnetite, hematite: mapping pencil)
gray 6. specular hematite

Yeinlet/vein fillings other than sulfidcs/oxides

oran ge 1. quartz: orange (737)
dark green 2. chlorite: green (739)
olive green 3. biotite: olive green (739 1/2)
yellow-green 4. epidotc: light green (738 112)

4
 p. 5 of 10

C.. Leacliedloxidelsuperge11e sulfides (plot on rock sjde). Schematic drawings of textures, abundance,
mineralogy, and degree of leaching. (Fig. 3, right side)

Mineralogy
red I. glassy limonite (conchoid fract, red interna! reflectíons): carmine red (745)
pastel green 2. oxide Cu minerals (rnalachite, tenorite, etc): true green (751)
dark brown 3. goethite (orange streak): brown (756)
reddish brown 4. earthy hematite (red streak); tuscan red ( )
med yellow 4. jarosite (yellow to honey yel'w x'als; pale yel'w streak): canary yellow (735)
med blue 5. supergene chalcocite: medium blue

Symbols for degree of leaching in former sulfide sites (the most useful minerals are glassy
limonite, goethite, and hematite; jarosite and Cu oxide generally are transported/exotic and
less useful):
black l. total leacbing, empty leached cavities (no Fe-oxide left): black circles
brown 2. moderate leacbing (limonite-rimrned cavities): brown circles
brown 3. weak leacbing (limonite pseudomorphs and/or boxworks): brown dots
red 4. very weak leacbing of chalcopy siles (glassy limonite): red dots
Exotic oxides on fractures are denoted by randorn, short, lines (brown for goethite, true green
for copper oxides).

12. Alteratjo11 q.f homblen<le (a11dlor biotite) sires. (recorded on a.ir...s.kl.s< in innerrnost column next to baseline;
if alteration occurs as a distinct halo on a fracture or veinlet, plot the alteration color as a line extending outward frorn
base line on air side.) Fig. 4, left side.

black 1. frcsh hornblende (dark black, glassy, good cleavage visible): write lower case .!!.'..s. a long
baseline.
dark green 2. chloritized hornblende (no shrcddy tcxture that might imply that the hbl had first becn
biotitized): green (739) (pcrvasive chloritization use solid green line; partially chloritizcd use
dashed green linc; local chloritc use dots).
yellow-green 3. cpidotized hornblende: use light green (738 1/2).
olive green 4. biotized hornblende (shreddy biotite occupying the hbl sitc): olive green (739 112) (solid,
dashed and dotted to indicatc degree of biorization).
dark green 5. chloritized bíotized-hornblende (chloritic alt'n superimposed on biotitic; this can be a
tough call!): olive green (7391/2) with dark green dots (739)
dark brown 6. sericitized and/or argillized mafic minerals (tan- or white-colored pseudomorphs after
mafic mineral sites including mixtures of sericite, clays, leucoxene): brown (756)
black 7. mafic sites absent or only leucoxene visible: use lead pencil (black).

lb. Alteration qf fe/4spar sites. (recorded on ~. outer column; intensity of color application in this
column denotes degree of alteration; if alteration occurs as a distinct halo on a fracture or veinlet, plot the alteration
color as a line extending outward from base line on air side.) Fig. 4, left side.

magenta 1. of plagioclase to secondary K-spar (pinkish-lavender hue in groundmass and in

plagioclase sites): magenta (759)
med yellow 2. of orthoclase and plagioclase to secondary Na-spar (hard, white feldspars with cleavage
preserved: yellow (735)
(NOTE: feldspar color is not in evcry case diagnostic of feldspar type! Use thin-sections as
back-up. Even if that white feldspar turns out to be Kspar, you will have recorded the
distribution of white Ksparl).
yellow-green 3. of feldspars to epidote: use lieht green (738 1/2)
dark brown 4. of feldspars to sericite and/or clays: use brown (756)
none 4a. fresh feldspars: if feldspar is hard, clear, glassy, dark, good cleavagc: leave colurnn
blank.

5
 p. 6 of 10

dark brown 4b. incipiently ser'd feldspars: if moderately hard, pale-colored, good cleavage (e.g.,
"bleached", but hard): sparse brown (756) dots.
(NOTE: incipient alt'n of feldspars to "clays" is difficult to distinguish from albitization and
these two alt'n types can occur together; use thin-section back-up)
dark brown 4c. moderately ser'd feldspars: if partially soft, white to pale colors, cleavage present:
closely spaced brown (756) dots.
dark brown 4d. highly ser 'd feldspars: if soft, whitc to pale colors, no clcavage, but outline of original
fcldspar is prcserved (rock-tcxturc prcservcd): continuous brown (756) linc applied ligbtly.
dark brown 4c. pervasive and total hydrolysis: if soft, whitc to palc colors, rock tcxture largely
oblitcrated: continuous brown (756) line applied heavily.
(NOTE: in rocks containíng both plagioclasc and orthoclase phcnocrysts, because these react
differently to acidic solutions, keep track of orthoclase sires separatcly (in a third column).
This allows the distinction to be made between intcrmediate argillic and advanced argillic
alteration),

V. Weathering products: how to map and recognize them.

In mapping altercd rocks in surface exposures, most of the time we are struggling toread through surface
weathering to understand 1) the degree to which metals have been leached, transported, and redeposited by surface
waters, and 2) the original hypogene (hydrothermal) distributions of wall-rock alteration and ore minerals. How do we
read through ali that punky clay?

d.. Djsti11euishi11e betwee11 Hypoeene versus superee11e alteration.

lt is especially difficult to differentiate between hypogene and supergcne alteration types in weathered rocks
that contained abundan! pyrite. This is because the sulfuric acid generated by oxidativc wcathering of pyrite attacks
minerals (especially plagioclase) and converts thern to various new mineral assemblages that can be similar to forms of
hypogene intermediare argillic alteration (e.g., montmorillonite, kaolinite) or even advanced argillic alteration (e. g ..
kaolinite, alunite). The latter is especially true in rocks that originally contained pyritc vcins wirh qtz-ser-py halos (e.g.,
Dvveins), but where the halos do not overlap. On weathering, the rock in-bctween thc halos can be con verted to a
supergenc qtz-kaolinite assemblage and alunite may precipitare in open fractures. The end rcsult, a rock containing
quartz, kaolinitc, sericite, and alunite, can be mistaken for hydrothcrmal advanced argillic alteration. How, then, can onc
distinguish betwcen hydrothermal argillic alteration and argillic weathering? Although not in every case definitive, the
following obscrvations can help in making the distincrion:
( 1 ). in igncous rocks with original alkali-fcldspar, the presence of relic cores of alkali feldspar
phenocrysts would suggest that the rock had not undcrgonc pcrvasjve advanced argillic or pervasjve sericitic alteration.
Alkali feldspar does not survive in these acidic environments at hydrothermal temperatures. However, even in very
acidic weathering environments, alkali feldspar comrnonly survives (in contrast with plagioclase, which goes readily to
smectite or kaolinite. One always needs to consider veins halos and background alteration separately in making these
distinctions.
(2) in igneous rock lacking alkali feldspar, the call is much more difficult. In such rocks, the presence
of moderate to abundant amounts of smectite (rather than sericite-kaolinite) would indicate lack of intense hypogene
sericitic or advanced aq~illic alteration because smectites are not stable in these types of alteration, The smectite could
be the result either of hypogene intermediare argillic alteration or weathering. Again, rnake separate observations for
halos and background alteration.
(3) The presence of magnetite in punky clay-rich rocks is suggestive of clay alteration dueto
weathering because hypogene clay alteration (e.g., intermediate argillic) generally converts magnetite to hematite+rutile
and/or pyrite. This underlines the importance of mapping magnetite abundance in ali outcrops (also serves as a basis for
interpretation of geophysical data).
(4) In rocks that originally contained relatively coarse-grained biotite (e.g., book biotite), the presence
of fresh-looking brown bjotite in otherwise argillized rock is suggestjve of weathering. Líke rnagnetite, biotite can
survive weathering relatively unscathed, but is readily converted to chlorite+clays during intermediare argillic alteration
at hydrothermal temperatures.
(5) Intense sericitic alteration occurring as halos generally can be recognized even in intensely
wcathered outcrops. This is because the mixture of sericite and quartz in such halos is very resistan! to weathering (it is
stable in acid cnvironments) and stands out as resistant, gray ribs in punky clay-altcrcd rocks. On first inspcction, these
ribs may look like gray quartz veins, but rccognition of relict rock texturc and the fact that it can be scratched (though
much harder than punky argillized rock) gives them away.

6
 p. 7of10

(6) the presence of high-temperature forms of clay minerals, such as~ (well-crystallized
kaolinite) and pyrophyllite are diaenostic of hydrothermal advancecl aceillic alteration because they are stable only at
temperatures above about 270ºC. This underlines the importance of petrographic study backed by XRD (pluck out the
clay-rich portions of the rock, or actual feldspar sites, and X-ray those, rather than X-raying the whole-rock).
(7) hypoeene versus sypereene aíunue. Textures and association of alunite can be diagnostic of
hypogcne versus supergene origin of this mineral.:

FEATURE SUPERGENE HYPOGENE

velns alunite in open fractures without othcr alunitc in association with hydrothermal
minerals (e.g., monomineralic mincrals in veins (c.g., with quartz,
alunite, possibly with chalcedonic or pyrophyllite, barite, etc)
opaline silica & jarosite.

alteration halos lack of halos on alun ite veins presence of hydrolytic alteration halos on
alunite-bearing veins

sulfides lack of evidence of former sulfides evidence that sulfides were present
associated with alunite intergrown with alunite e.g., boxworks, pyrite
casts)

textures massive, porcelanous fine- and coarse-grained

color white, yellow, mixed with jarosite white, yellow, pink

R. Leached and oxiáized outcrops.

In addition to the factors outlined above, therc are techniques focused on the "limonites" that are very
useful in broadly outlining original, hypogene patterns of alteration and mineralization.

( 1) Keepin2 1rack of the deeree of leachine of primary sylfide sjtes is very useful in reconstructing patterns
of distribution of hypogcne sulfides and alteration types. Sericitic zones leach to a greaier degree than potassic
zones. The degree of leaching can be recorded during mapping (see section IV.C): increasing degrees of leaching
are rccognized by thc scqucnce:
• 2lassy limonitc: lowcst degree of leaching; copper still present in glassy limonite and in malachite and/or
tenorite; indicatcs absence of abundan! pyrite and neutral surface waters; potassic or propylitic alteration
typical.
• ¡:oethite pseudomorphs: low degree of leaching of Cu and Fe in near-neutral environments associated with
potassic protores (oc propylitic fringes, but these with less orno glassy limonite, lack of A,B veins, etc);
• ¡:oethite boxworks: leaching increasing
• partly leachecl cavjtjes (rimmed with 2oethite or hematite): indicative of high pyrite:chalcopyrite ratios, likely
that sericitic alteration is present; Cu-oxides and carbonates unlikely.
• partly leached cavities. increasin¡: hemati1e:¡:oethite ratios indicates increasingly acid conditions; ali Cu leached,
most of the Fe leached.
• leached cavities (in sorne cases filled with jarosite or alunite) represent high degree of leaching in very acid
environments that are characteristic of sericitic or advanced argillic alteration, vuggy quartz, and quartz-pyrite-
alunite ledges. Cu-oxides & carbonates are typically absent in such environments,
Ali of the forms of limonites named abo ve (but mainly glassy limonite and goethite) are termed "jndi¡:enous", on the
basis of texture that indicate in-situ oxidation of original sulfides.

(2) "Glassy limonjte" is a term applied to amorphous Fe-hydroxide that commonly contains significant
copper; this phase is important because it denotes very Jow degrees of leaching (coppcr still present) and is
characteristic of weathering of potassjc protores (lots of K-spar and little orno pyrite, hence little acid generation).
Mapping the distribution of glassy \imonite can help to delineate the chalcopyrite-(bornite) zone and commonly this
represents the zone of highest hypogene Cu-(Au) grade. It is an indigenous limonitc.
Glassy limonite has the following characteristics:
• glassy looking, like obsidian
• conchoidal fracture
• dark blackish brown to black

7
 p. 8 of 10

• bright ruby-red interna! reflections in sunlight

• grain size and morphology that mimics chalcopyrite.

(3) Reljct sylfides locked jn guanz An aid in delineating original distributions of sulfide assemblages is to
makc polished scctions of quartz collccted throughout the leached cap. Study under the microscope in reflected
light may rcveal unoxidized sulfides that have survived thc leaching process.

(4) Exotjc ljmonites are ali the limonitcs that do not rcprescnt original sulfide sitcs. Thc iron has becn
transportcd in solution in surfacc watcrs and prccipitated a long fractures in thc rock or has soakcd in plagioclasc.
Exotic limonitcs can be distinguishcd from indigcnous limonites by the lack of pseudomorphs or boxworks after
sulfidc, by thcir prescncc on random fractures that are part of the regol ith and that cut ali hydrothcrmal fractures, and
by their charactcristic appcarance as massivc coatings and "paints", commonly with botryoidal and chatoyant
surfaces (if goethite). Sorne exotic goethite takcs on a glassy appearance, but these can be distinguished from glassy
limonite by the observation that the glassy material is only on the surface of the coating (you can't "see" into it).
An importan! point is that mapping of total abundance of limonites does not revea! !he original sulfide
content of the rock (a rock with 10% exotic limonite contained less sulfide than a rock with 1 % indigenous
limonite); keep track of relative abundance of indigenous and exotic limonites and their mineralogy.

VI. Reconnaissance: What to retain from tbe Detajled Mappin¡: Scheme.

Reconnaissance mapping for porphyry-type deposits needs to focus on the standard features of lithology
and structure and on some additional key features. These are listed below in order of importance. The list largely is
based on those features that survive weathering, even in highly acid-generating environments. Wall-rock alteration,
especially the "argillic" types, needs to be de-emphasized! Recon mapping focused on porphyry targets can be done
efficiently with only five color pcncils : blue for faults, red for porphyries, orange for quartz veins, green for shreddy
biotite, and brown for limonites.

d.. Rock (/escri1Jtjo11, espccially "productjye" porphyries. including color, textures, and grain sizc and o/o of
each mineral in the rock.
In porphyry exploration, thc characteristics of thc "productive porphyry" have to be undcrsiood and looked
for: -50% fine-graincd (<0.2 mm) aplitic (more rarcly aphanitic) groundmass, -50% phcnocrysts ranging from 1 to
3 mm, if quartz phcnos are prescnt they are rounded and embayed (qtz cyes). The significance and importancc of
this rock tcxturc nccds more cmphasis. It is so irnportant, that you could consider assigning a spccial color (red?) to
this rock typc!

B. Ouartz veins and vei11lets, including their abundance and structural altitudes. At 1 :5000 scale, one
obviously cannot "map ali the veinlets", but the key sets have to be identified and reprcsentative strikes and dips
plotted on the map. Abundance can be estimated and written down for each outcrop. The importance of quartz
veins and veinlets in regional recon stems from two factors: one, we know the close correlation between grade and
quartz veins in porphyry-type deposits, and two, quartz veins survive weathering and remain in outcrop as
unambiguous evidence of hydrothermal activity. Quartz veins are so importan! that lhey also are worthy of a special
color during mapping (orange?).

C.. Limonite assemblages need to be emphasized. Each outcrop should be assessed for proportions of
glassy Iimonite, goethite, earthy hernatite, jarosite, tenorite, and green Cu carbonates/silicates. Proportions can be
visually recorded by a color code for each of these rninerals, or by assigning ratios in pre-assigned order. In recen, 1
would choose the latter approach. In mapping a prospect that is being drilled, l would use color codes. Limonites
typically are well-zoned and represen! an excellent targeting tool.

ll.... Relative abu11da11ce ofi11digenous and uotic Fe a11d Cu oxides also needs to be estirnated. Each
outcrop needs to receive a number that indicates the geologist's assessment of whether the Cu assays represen!
transported copper or "in-place" copper.

E. Biotite distributio11 ¡zatterns. especia/ly o.f "sl!red<ly biotite". are useful to delineatc zones of potassic
altcration, which in many porphyries can represen! the ore target. Biotitc in fine-grained biotizcd andcsite may not
out-live weathering, but coarser-graincd biotite that has replaced hornblendc in hornblende andesitcs or in hbl-

8
 p. 9 of lO

bearing tonalite porphyries commonly survives weathering. In the case of hbl sites, if the biotite doesn't survive, its
characteristic "shreddy" texture may survive,

F. Mag11etite abunda11ce needs to be recorded by visual estímate and magnetic susceptibility

measuremcnts.

YIL. Posting Sheets and lntcrpretations; Tbe Folio

Ficld sheets are transferred to three scparatc posting sheets, A base posting-shcet serves as thc basis for
drawing an intcrprctivc gcological map with lithologics, structure, and veins; an altcration posting-shecr serves as the
basis for drawing an alteration map, anda "limonitc'' or "ore" posting-sheet serves as the basis for drawing a
mineralization map. The posting sheets and the intcrpretive maps drawn from the posting sheets should retain al! of the
structural information shown on the original field sheets. Transfer of dips of veins and faults to the alteration and
mineralization overlays is especially important, as this allows the geologist to document the third dimension and to
explore the structural control of alteration/mineralization paneros and the possibility of post-ore offsets on faults. A....ID1m
without any strike and dip symbols is not a geolo¡:jcal map.

A. Posting sheets and follow-up illtergretation are two steps that go hand-in-hand with field mapping.
Both of these steps need to be taken routinely and in a tjmely fashjon. The mapping project should not be
considered complete until such time as the posting sheet has been used to construct interpretive geologic base maps
and relevant overlays. A rough estímate is that 3 days offield mapping requires l day of transferring the mapping to
a posting sheet and doing the interpretive work.
(1) posting sheets should be kept up-to-date on a daily (or at least weekly) basis
(2) once a significant area has been mapped, but well befare mapping of the chosen area has been
completed, the geologist should begin to make interpretive overlays. These will be workin¡¡ hypQ(heses that will aid
him/her as s/he continues to map.
(3) interpretation based on posting sheets should be done at tbe same Scale as the posting sheets
and should retain ali the structural detail rccorded in the field. Ultimately, these working sheets will be reduced in
arder to generate a larger-scale map, but the irnportant structural detajls need to be preserved atal! scales (l have
seen too many geological maps that have no dip symbols, and that display photo linears instead of faults actually
mapped in the field).
(4) The Interprctivc maps should be done by hand in full color.
(5) The hand-drawn posting sheets, fully color-coded, reprcsent a major invcsrmcnt of time and
money. They should be carefully archjvecJ, and the name(s) of the geologist(s) and dates of work should be written
on each.

B. The Folio.
The following types of information should be displayed in a folio set derived from the field mapping phase:
(1) base map: lithologies, strike and dips of bedding, faults, contacts, major veins.
(2) each overlay is drawn on a gray-scale version of the base map, so that they "stand alone" (e.g.,
lithologic contacts, faults, etc, are visible without having to overlay the overlay on the base map).
(3) vein overlªy: all large ~ and representativeveinlet sets (color-coded to dominant mineral)
plotted to true strike, illustrative dips indicated; vein abundance contoured.
(4) limonite overlay: distribution of glassy limonite, goethite, earthy hematite, jarosite, tenorite,
and green copper oxides. Color applied to indicate relative abundance (absent, low, moderate, high). Areas of
dominantly exotic versus dorninantly indigenous limonites and Cu-oxides should be identified. Based on rnapping
of limonites, areas of py-dorninance versus cp-dominance should be outlined.
(5) mainetjte overlay: Illustrate the distribution of magnetite, disseminated, vein/veinlet, or
replacement, and con tour for abundance,
(6) alteration overlay: emphasis on minerals rather than alteration types; try simply showing
limits of minerals such as secondary biotite, chlorite, epidote, clays, sericite, silica ledges, jasperoids, etc.
Finally, with regard to folios, a complete folio also includes topography, geochemical and geophysical data
and data intcrprctations. In their relation to thc geological rnaps, the following points are irnportant:
(7) the magnetite overlay produced during the field mapping phasc (and which could include
magnetic susceptibility measurernents on thc outcrop) can be used to intcrprct ground and airbome magnetics.
(8) the raw geochernical data on soil, stream sediment, or rock-chip samples, should be
geologically intcrpreted and hand-drawn by thc gcologist who generated the gcological maps and overlays discussed

9
 p.lOoflO

above. The patterns of grade distribution should reflect his/her concepts of grade control. Computer generated
contour rnaps of assay results should be used only if there is no geological mapping available. Try metal ratios (e.g.,
Cu:Au, Ag:Au, Cu:Pb) as a means of illustrating zoning or srnoothing Lhe effects of extreme variations in the
absolute grades of individual metals.

C. Comgositemqos: exp!oratiofl mode/s a11d drW targeti11g. The final and very important product of the
folio is the composite of key features. Simple examples of this approach are givcn by Figures 7 (Pancho, Maricunga
rcgion, northern Chile) and 8 (Batu Hijau, Surnbawa Is., Indonesia).

Refu¡:io district. Figure 7 is rc-drawn from portions of a folio that was complcted during mapping of thc
porphyry Au-Cu prospect at Pancho (Refugio district, Maricunga región, Chile) by John Muntean in 1994-95. The
folio displays the following features: lithologies, faults, alteration types, vein abundance (A-B veinlets, banded
veinlets), and hand-contoured rock-chip geochemistry for gold. We attempted to pull out of this data set the key
features that would help target a drill hole into the center of the ore zone. It is clear from Figure 8 that the outer
limit of banded veinlets outlines the +0.5 ppm Au zone. Additionally, the following is evident: the innermost 1/2 of
the gold zone is identified by rhe presence of potassic alteration and AB quartz veinlets and the outer l /2 of the gold
zone is identified by the disappearance of AB quartz veinlets and appearance of abundant banded veinlets, Further,
quartz-alunite veins lie outside the zone of +0.5 ppm Au, and sericitic & intermediate argillic alteration does not
serve as a useful targeting tool. The result is a composite map that displays the main features of the prospect that
would hclp to target on the gold zone. The composite becomes a useful tool not only in further exploration at
Pancho, but in further exploration in the Maricunga area and in establishing a genetic model for these unusually high
Au/Cu porphyries.

Batu Hjjau. Figure 8 is redrawn from portions of a folio that was one of the projects completed during a
mapping course held at Batu Hijau in Match 1996. The folio displays the following features: lithologies, faults,
three classes of quartz vein abundance, and hand-contoured soil geochemistry for copper and for gold. Additionally,
we had available a 1: 10,000 scale alteration map. We attempted to pull out of this data set the key features that
would help target a drill hole into the center of the ore zone. It is clear from Figure 8 that thc outer limit of abundant
quartz veins (-+5 vol%) outlines thc +0.5 %Cu zone at depth. Additionally, the following is evidcnt:

djstance from +0.5% Cu

• outcrmost cdgc of sccondary biotitc 300-400 m
• outer limit of rare quartz veins 200m
outer limit of moderare quartz vcins ( 1-2%) 150m
• outer limit of abundan! qtz vcins (+5%) Om
• presence of porphyrics Om

In the absence of a drilled-out reserve, the composite map could show the limit of glassy limonite.
Additional features that should be displayed on a composite would be structural directions of quartz veins, limits of
sericitic alteration and other hydrothermal alteration types, and lirnits of indigenous limonites.
A final exercise that can be done to aid in targeting is to generate a "coincidence" map. By this 1 mean that
there are certain features whose coincidence in space yields stronger evidence for a targer than any individual feature
by itself. Obviously, GIS software can do this with complex data sets, but a thoughtful hand-drawn approach is still
a valid exercise and can be done in the field without computers. As a simple example, the following coincidences
were used as indicators of the most favorable drill targets at Batu Hijau (listed in order of increasing favorability):

• A: coincidence of abundant quartz veins and highest copper in soil

• B: coincidence of abundant quartz veins and highest gold in soil
• C: coincidence of A and B

The rationale for coincidence A is that a copper anomaly associated with abundant quartz veins is more likely to
represent indigenous (rather than transponed) copper. Had we had the data, wc would havc uscd coincidence of
quartz veins with glassy limonite and with highest rock chip coppcr. Coincidence C reinforces A and B. All the
targcts based on coincidcnce C overlie thc +0.5 %Cu zone at dcpth. Thc approach can be rcfincd by giving diffcrent
weights to diffcrcnt fcaturcs.

10
 KEY TO ANACONDA GEOLOGY. ALTERATION, ANO MINERALIZATION

MAPPING SYSTEM

# Color Mineralization Alteration

Hypogene Supergene Vein Feldspars Mafics
(rock side) (rock side) rock (air side:outer e) (air side:inner colum)
735 yellow pyrite jarosite HT albite/plag
737 orange quartz supergene clay tan mica(=sericite?)
738112 light green epi dote epidote epidote (hbl)
739 green molybdenite chlorit chlorite (hbl), CB
739112 olive green biotite HT biotite
741 indigo blue chalcocite pale
745 carmine red chalcopyrite glass limonite
751 true green Cu oxides actinolite, diopside
752 purple bornite Bn/tm tourmaline
756 brown sphalerite goethite Sericite ±clays Sericite ± clays
759 magenta HT K-feldspar
pencil black magnt,hemat mafics absent(leucox)
leached: blk clrcle blank = fresh h = fresh hbl
mod lea: brw b = biotite
circle
weak lea: brw CB= chl'd bio'd hbl
dots

Sericjte (and/or clay) key (brown 756)

fresh (hard, clear, good cleavage) blank

bleached (hard, white, good cleavage) dots (scant)
sericite moderate (feldspar cleavage present) dots (scads)
sericite strong (rock texture preserved) light line
uartz-sericite rock (rock texture obliterated) dark line

Mineralization (rock side) Veins (filling:rock side; selvage: air side)

disseminated = dots Plot strike of veins, using color of dominant

mineral(s) on rock side of baseline
stockwork veinlets = random short lines lf vein has alteration selvage, use color of
dominant alteration mineral(s) as continu-
ation of vein on air side of baseline

Contacts (sharp black pencil)

plotted with true stike and dip on rock side, projected to air side, showing correct
relative a e relations to other contacts and faults

Faults (índigo blue 741)

sketched to scale, plotted with true strike; fault breccias shown with triangle pattern,
showin correct relative a e relations to other contacts and faults
JHDilles 6/96
~·
1
 Fig. 1 Bench Map
In sulfld&bearlng
rocks(unoxldlzed)
a ir sid e H6 1 mafic mineral alteration column
Locahty
Geok>gin
lnclude wrltten notes ¿,~¡. da1e
lor observetlons on sea~
rock texturas, 1ulllde
ratloa end abundance,
and qtz vn abundance feldspar alteration column ~ SOft

ton•hte, 4S% opli1;c O.OSmm g.m.• 10 % hbl phenos. 3·5% qlZ eyes.
40% 2-3 mm plag pheoos; no qtz vnlts; tr cp;local fresh hbl; u epid m
lelds shes,
. VJ baseline 1

rock side
lncludewrltten notes
for key observationsrelating
tooalite, as abv; A vnlts 0.05/1;A-B vnlts to structures,contacts,andvelns
1/10;overall 10%cplbn1; ksphalosonall
qtt vnlts; t• mag In A; 4·5 % mag ovetall

tonalite. as abv; A-8 vnlts 0.2/4 w/cp;

overall 3-4 % cp; 1 % mag.
mtruswe contact
tona lite. 50'0 aplilk g.m .• 1 so;, hbl phenos,
no qtz eyes; 35 % 3-S mm plag phenos; 3%
pyin D·vns l / I O; 101 py S-8%; no mag.

----i
72

alteration halos on veins •#<!f. 73 ~A vein-fillings minerals

.. - py Dvvn swarm; 1 flO:cp
__, •--... • common.trsl;O-vnscut
tonaüte, 45%aplrtic g.m.10% hbl • • ..,:~ .. < intru~lvf'contact.A-8 qtx vnlu
phenos. S-6% qtz oyes,·~ 3-4 mm 73
~, ~/ ;....; 23' ~S cut by late porph,
plag phenos; A-8 vnlts w/ cp 0.1/20,
0-vns off.. t 0-vns: overaU S<ló
cp1py2;no mag.
• • J9 • - \ 78 -~- '_1 abundant structural info 1 ~

Fig. 2 Bench Map

in oxidized rocks.
air side maflc mineral alteratlon column localiry
lnclude wrltten notes ge<>logost
lor observatlona on date
rock texturas, llmonlte se ale
characterlstlcs,
and qtz vn abundance fe 1 d s p a r alteration column
so 11

tonalite. 45% aplitic o.os mm g.m. 10% hbl phenos.

3-S%Qtz eyes.40% 2-3 mm plag phenos;noqtz
vnlts; t< goeth; local fresh hbl; u epid In felds sues

side
ncludewritt.ennotes
for key observatíonsrefatíng
to structures,contacts,andvelns

tonahte; A·B vnlts O 2/4 w/ gl llm: u Cu-o<;

felds fresh; mies bio"d & chlor'd

1onalite;noqtzvnlts;O~vn~1/10: ~.
local lresh hbl. but mostly "'' d; abund leached cavs w/ r
ea• hm + g~th: local }otoslt•;no mag ~_..,.,.,...,.,~~---
meg intrU\ive contcKt

veln·fllllngs mlnerals
1 alteratlon halos on velns
0-vn swatm; 1 /10; 0-vns cut
tonalne; A·B vnhs O 1/20: O vns lnuuswe comact. A•B qrz vnhs
offset A-8 vnlts, goethne only; cut by late potph.
nomt

abundant structural info 1

 Fig. 3 Color codes
and styles for mapping
hypogene and supergene
"ore" minerals.

"ORE" MINERAL$
PLOTTED ON ROCK SIDE

HYPOGENE SUPERGENE
/ A
VEIN/VNLT DISS'D SULFIDE OXIDE DISS'D VEIN/VNLT 1

••••• ••••
•
~~' •••••• pyrite jarosite ~/'
I -
NONE earthy hematite •••••
o o
/- 1 '/
NONE goethite ••••• o oºº
ºº ºº {1~1~
increased leaching

•• ,:!/ <:
NONE copper oxides

1/ ~í •••••
•••••• chalcopyrite glassy limonite •• •••
1/ ~ í
1)(.»./' •••••
•••••• bornite NONE

') ,':,-- •••••

•••••• magnetite magnetite ••••• ') \:::
1...-¡"-
,__..
(relict) '-/

1>----¡"- •••••
•••••• specular hm specular hematite
(relict)
•••••

HYPOGENE SULFIDES OXIDIZED EQUIVALENT

ROCKSIDE • ROCKSIDE
glass limonite,
Cu-ox,
chalcopyrite +
goethite
bornite

•
goethite pseudo-
morphs & goethite-
•
. .. • lined cavities

:-""'
• -..,-

• ~·'
•
.......
- ~

~·
<,

•
• <, ••
• - •
 ) . I•

Fig. 4 Color codes

and styles for mapping
alteration and vein
minerals.

NON-ORE MINERALS
AIR SIOE ROCK SIOE
WALL-ROCK ALTERATION MINERALS VEIN-FILLING MINERAL$
VEIN HALOS PERVASIVE

'/ rI -, silica quartz ///"I -

1-
///' !-
?//'1-
_ _........
--·····.
.......
• biotite

• K-feldspar
biotite

K-feldspar ~/¡\
1 ..

\-
1J /
1/ ~~ - .......
//~ \ Na-feldspar Na-feldspar.
\. /
_J

1/ ~~
1 \/ - ........
epidote epídote

1 \/ _........
.:r- • chlorite chio rite
1/ ~ í
') \ z:
.r- • sericite, clays
DECREASING INTENSITY
sericite, clays
'-/

PERVASIVE AL T'N & VN HALOS VEINS, VEIN-FILLING MINERAL$

AIR SIDE epidote ROCKSIDE

Kspar

• ----=-.:::--....:.:..:...... ' ---- .--

bio-mag vnlts • -
_,,_... .........

qtz-mag-(Ksp)
veins
.
I ' < /

.
---
sericite, clays \
~

I
'
shreddy biotite
,, <,
........ '::::..
'
qtz vns

<,
....

'
 Fig. 5 Examples of
color codes and styles
for mapping unox'd
(hypogene) and ox'd
(supergene) exposures.

HYPOGENE
(not oxidized)
notes

notes

•
.s:
notes 88

notes

.¿
35
• 7' 76
•

ROCKSIDE
SUPERGENE
(oxidized)
EQUIVALENT
notes

notes

notes
 Fig. 6 Overlays
for Outcrop Mapping

BASE MAP: LITHOLOGY, STRUCTURE, VEINS

X

qtz-kspar-(glass
limonite) vns X QTZ
X
DIORITE
X

íntrusive X
contact
X

TONALITE ,--··-···
PORPH

bio halos

42
e-
V .¿
35
V

ANDESITE
V V
V

. . . ·~
._,~
• ••
•
• •

OVERLAY #1: ALTERATION

OVERLAY #2: LIMONITES

 Fig. 7

sericite,
kaolinite D
feldspar
stable D-
>0.5 ppm
Au IIIill
limito!~
abundant AB qtz
vnlts

limit of
banded

. vns
~

100m

.f

PANCHO, Chile
key zoníng features. Based on
mapping by J. Muntean, 1994-95.

,-,
' '\
Fig. 8
/
/ /
;-""' \
/outer limít of 1 2l
o \
{ secondary biotite

\
\ 03 \

'
02 location of first
three drill holes
(discovery holes)

NOTE:
coincidence of
abundant qtz vns &
high soil anomalies of
gold, and coincidence of

N
BATU HIJAU, Indonesia:
key zonlng features based on
mapplng by R. Gonzalez and Batu
Hljau Mapping Course, March 1996. 500 meters
t