Fluxo Bifásico Gás-Sólido No Riser de Leitos Fluidizados Circulantes - Modelagem Matemática e Simulação Numérica - Português PDF

5/3/2018 Fluxo bifásico gás-sólido no riser de leitos fluidizados circulantes: modelagem matemática e simulação numérica
Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Ciências Serviços sob demanda

Mecânicas
Versão impressa ISSN 0100-7386 Diário
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J. Braz. Soc. Mech. Sci. vol.23 no.2 Rio de Janeiro 2001
Artigo
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-73862001000200006
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Um modelo matemático é desenvolvido para fluxos gás-sólidos em leitos fluidizados

circulantes. Uma formulação Euleriana é seguida com base na abordagem do
modelo de dois fluidos, onde ambas as fases, fluida e particulada, são tratadas
como um contínuo. A modelagem física é discutida, incluindo a formulação de
condições de contorno e a descrição da metodologia numérica. Resultados da
simulação numérica são apresentados e discutidos. O modelo é validado através da
comparação com o experimento, e a simulação é realizada para investigar os
efeitos sobre a hidrodinâmica do fluxo da viscosidade dos sólidos.
Palavras - chave : Modelo de dois fluidos, modelagem numérica, fluxo gás-sólido
de duas fases, leito fluidizado circulante
Introdução
A fluidização de sólidos gasosos é amplamente aplicada na indústria, incluindo as indústrias
de petróleo, química, metalúrgica e de energia (Kunii e Levenspiel, 1991). As maiores
aplicações de reatores de leito fluidizado ocorrem na combustão de carvão para geração de
energia termoelétrica em larga escala, e craqueamento catalítico de petróleo para produzir
gasolina e outros combustíveis.
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0100-73862001000200006 1/24
Os reatores de leito fluidizado circulante são muito competitivos tecnologicamente e

economicamente para a geração de energia a partir da combustão de carvão, e para a
produção de gás combustível a partir da gaseificação de biomassa. Os combustores de leito
fluidizado circulante (CFBC) apresentam várias vantagens, como flexibilidade de combustível,
ampla faixa de condições operacionais possíveis, alta eficiência de combustão, baixas
emissões de NO e SO e boas taxas de recirculação de sólidos através do riser. Os CFBC
x 2
são chamados de segunda geração de combustores de leito fluidizado (Tsuo, 1989).
Apesar da enorme aplicação, a tecnologia CFBC enfrenta algumas características

problemáticas que precisam ser resolvidas, como a forte erosão nas superfícies internas e o
bloqueio de partículas finas no riser. Além disso, o design do CFBC resulta muito complexo
em vista das dificuldades de expansão, devido à alta sensibilidade do fluxo em termos de
escala e condições operacionais (Ding, 1990).
Estudos hidrodinâmicos podem contribuir significativamente para melhor compreensão e,

assim, resolver os problemas acima. A estrutura dos fluxos multifásicos em colunas de leito
fluidizado circulante é muito complexa, apresentando grandes variações na fração
volumétrica de sólidos através do riser, formação e dissipação contínua de aglomerados, e
uma alta taxa de recirculação de sólidos. Tais condições de fluxo causam um contato
superficial intenso entre gás e sólidos, proporcionando altas taxas de reação. O conhecimento
da hidrodinâmica do fluxo é então de grande importância, permitindo a determinação de
parâmetros relevantes de transporte reativo e de massa.
A modelagem matemática de processos de fluidização de sólidos gasosos representa uma

ferramenta auxiliar para minimizar os esforços experimentais necessários para o
desenvolvimento de plantas industriais. O desenvolvimento de experimentos e protótipos
são, obviamente, os principais requisitos para projetos de engenharia precisos em qualquer
processo industrial. No entanto, modelagem matemática e simulação numérica estão em
contínuo desenvolvimento, contribuindo de forma crescente para o melhor entendimento dos
processos e fenômenos físicos, e consequentemente para o design. Além disso, os modelos
matemáticos requerem experimentos para serem validados e, no que diz respeito à
fluidização, os experimentos necessários envolvem medições complexas de realizações
difíceis. Portanto, a modelagem matemática também representa um incentivo para o
desenvolvimento de novos métodos e técnicas experimentais.
Neste trabalho, a modelagem matemática é desenvolvida para o fluxo gás-sólido através do

riser de leitos fluidizados circulantes usando a abordagem do modelo de dois fluidos.
Características problemáticas relacionadas a esta linha de modelagem incluem o tratamento
da pressão e da viscosidade da fase sólida, a formulação de condições de contorno confiáveis
e aspectos relacionados às instabilidades físicas do fluxo, bem como instabilidades
introduzidas por procedimentos numéricos. Neste trabalho, a simulação é realizada com o
objetivo de estudar os efeitos sobre a hidrodinâmica do fluxo da viscosidade dos sólidos.
Nomenclatura
C Velocidade do som em gás, Uk Velocidade média para a m g, m s Viscosidades

[m / s] fase k, [m / s] dinâmicas das fases de gás e
CD Coeficiente de arrasto Ug, Us Velocidade média das sólidos, respectivamente, [kg
para uma partícula numa fases de gás e sólidos, / ms]
suspensão de partículas respectivamente, [m / s] m k Viscosidade dinâmica da
CD Coeficiente de arrasto Ur Velocidade relativa entre fase k, [kg / ms]
para uma partícula num meio as fases, [m / s] r g, r s Densidades das fases
infinito U0 Velocidade de de gás e sólidos,
dp Diâmetro médio da deslizamento, [m / s] respectivamente [ kg / m3]
partícula, [m] uI Velocidade da interface, r k densidade de fase k, [kg /
D Fase gasosa residual [m / s] m3]
definida na Eq. (57) uk Velocidade instantânea da r densidade p de partículas,
f Função geral definida na Eq. fase k, [m / s]
(7) [kg / m3]

Flutuação da velocidade
força de arrasto Fdrag
média para a fase k, [m / s] viscoso tensor para as
estacionária sobre a
Volume V, [m3] fases de gás e sólidos,
interface, [N]
vk Volume da fase k, [m3] respectivamente, [Pa]
aceleração g gravidade, [m /
W Fator de pesagem, parede
s2] tensor viscoso para fase
x Direção transversal, [m]
g de sólidos de fase do k, [Pa]
Xk Parâmetro de densidade
módulo de elasticidade, [Pa] y k Propriedade intensiva
de fase
Gs sólidos velocidade de conservada
y Direção normal nas Eqs.
massa, [kg / (m2-s)]
(49) e (51), [m] Subscritos
tensor Unitária z direção axial, [m]
Lp Partículas caminho livre g Fase gasosa
médio, [m] Símbolos gregos I Interface
Termo MkI para transferência k Índice de fase (1 gás, 2
a g Fração de vazios a k
de momento da interface sólidos)
Fração volumétrica da fase k
para a fase k, [N / m3] s Fase sólida
a s Fração volumétrica da P Particulado
Força de arrasto de fase de sólidos r Relativo
interface generalizada para
1, 2 Fase de gás e sólidos,
fase k, [N / m3]
respectivamente
Fluxo de massa de b Função de arrasto da
interface para fase k, [kg / interface, [kg / m3-s] Superscripts
(m2-s)] d t Intervalo de tempo, [s]
Vetor unitário normal de f k Termo da fonte cin cinética
superfície externa para fase k volumétrica col Colisão
np Número de partículas por f I Termo da fonte gas Gas
volume unitário, [1 / m3] w Pesando
volumétrica na interface
P Pressão termodinâmica, f s Esfericidade de partículas
® Vector
[Pa] h Coeficiente definido na Eq. Tensor 'Flutuação
Pg Pressão da fase do gás, (58)
[Pa] l g, l s viscosidades de
Ps Pressão da fase sólida, volume das fases de gás e
[Pa] sólidos, respectivamente, [kg
r Raio, vetor da posição do / ms]
ponto, [m] l K viscosidade volumétrica
Rw Raio interno da coluna, de fase k, [kg / ms]
[m] l p distância média entre as
Re Reynolds number partículas, [m]
t Tempo, [s]
T Temperatura, [K]
Tensor de tensão para
fase fase k, [Pa]
Linhas Gerais de Modelagem Matemática em Fluidização Circulante

Harris e Davidson apud Pugsley e Berruti (1996) apresentam uma classificação de modelos
para simular leitos fluidizados circulantes. Segundo os autores, existem três tipos de modelos
matemáticos:
1. Modelos que predizem a variação axial da densidade de sólidos e desconsideram

suas variações radiais.
2. Modelos que predizem a variação radial da densidade de sólidos e as altas
velocidades médias de escorregamento, representando duas ou mais regiões de
diferentes características de fluxo (tais como fluxo anular ou fluxo anular com
aglomerados).
3. Modelos que aplicam as equações conservativas fundamentais da dinâmica dos
fluidos para prever o fluxo de gás-sólido bifásico.
Os dois primeiros tipos de modelos são usados principalmente para design, principalmente
para investigar os efeitos no processo de geometria e condições operacionais. Esses modelos
podem facilmente incluir cinética química para simular o desempenho de reatores (Pugsley e
Berruty, 1996).
Os modelos do terceiro tipo, como por exemplo um modelo de dois fluidos, são mais
adequados para pesquisa permitindo, por exemplo, o comportamento de estruturas locais de
fluxo e os efeitos da geometria local a serem estudados (Pugsley e Berruty, 1996). A figura 1
apresenta linhas e tendências reais para o terceiro tipo de modelagem matemática. Existem
duas tendências principais para a modelagem, seguindo um tratamento ou Euleriano para
ambas as fases (formulação Euleriana) ou Euleriana para a fase fluida e Lagrangiana para a
fase particulada (formulação Euleriana-Lagrangiana).
Na formulação euleriana, ambas as fases são tratadas como um continuum. Cada fase é
modelada separadamente em termos de um sistema de equações conservadoras para massa,
momento e energia. As equações conservativas apresentam os termos responsáveis pela
interação da interface, que estão relacionadas às trocas de massa, momento e energia
através da interface. Em sua formulação tradicional, esses modelos exigem que a viscosidade
dinâmica da fase sólida seja especificada. Um valor constante para a viscosidade dos sólidos
pode ser obtido através de balanços de momentum aplicados a dados experimentais (Miller e
Gidaspow, 1992). A formulação euleriana tradicional tem sido amplamente aplicada à
fluidização (Gidaspow e Ettehadieh, 1983, Syamlal e Gidaspow, 1985, Gidaspow, 1986,
Bouillard et al., 1989 entre outros). Uma nova abordagem foi desenvolvida por um número
de pesquisadores para lidar com a viscosidade da fase sólida (Jenkins e Savage, 1983, Lun et
al.1984, Jenkins e Richman, 1985). Esta é a teoria cinética do fluxo granular (KTGF), que é
baseada na teoria cinética de gases densos (Chapman e Cowling, 1970). Bagnold (1954)
apud Gidaspow (1994) é geralmente creditado com o início da abordagem da teoria cinética
do fluxo granular (Gidaspow, 1994). O KTGF é baseado em uma analogia entre o fluxo de
materiais granulares e o movimento de moléculas de gás (Peirano, 1996). Apesar de permitir
a determinação direta da viscosidade dos sólidos, o KTGF implica em procedimentos
numéricos mais complexos e maiores tempos de computação. Existem dois procedimentos
principais diferentes para aplicar o KTGF, seja considerando (Ma e Ahmadi, 1988, Balzer et
al., 1996) ou não (Ding e Gidaspow, 1990) a presença de gás intersticial entre as partículas.
Gidaspow (1994) foi o primeiro a apresentar uma derivação teórica detalhada do KTGF e a
considerar sua aplicação a fluxos particulados. Peirano e Leckner (1998) apresentaram uma
descrição detalhada referente à modelagem matemática de escoamentos turbulentos gás-
sólidos em leitos fluidizados circulantes utilizando um KTGF. Entre os trabalhos de pesquisa

que aplicam o KTGF à modelagem de fluidização estão Ding e Gidaspow (1990), Boemer et
al. (1995), Kim e Arastoopour (1995) e Samuelsberg e Hjertager (1996).
Na formulação Euleriana-Lagrangeana, somente a fase gasosa é assumida como um

contínuo. Esta abordagem permite uma melhor compreensão das interações partícula-
partícula. Entretanto, a formulação Euleriana-Lagrangeana requer um conjunto completo de
equações (segunda e terceira leis de Newton) a serem escritas para cada partícula no campo
de fluxo, dificultando sua aplicação à fluidização em vista de limitações computacionais. Caso
contrário, é uma ferramenta muito útil para o desenvolvimento de novos modelos reológicos
para suspensões fluidizadas e para aprimorar a formulação das leis de fechamento exigidas
pelos modelos eulerianos de dois fluidos. Uma explicação dos procedimentos gerais em
relação à formulação Euleriana-Lagrangiana é apresentada por Kuipers e van Swaaij (1997).
Formulação Teórica do Modelo de Dois Fluidos

A abordagem formal para a formulação de modelos eulerianos de dois fluidos para
escoamentos bifásicos é bem descrita na literatura (Ishii, 1975, Delhaye e Achard, 1976 e
1977, Delhaye, 1981, Drew, 1983) usando diferentes procedimentos de média. Enwald et al .
(1996) aplicaram o procedimento para os fluxos gás-sólidos de duas fases, como mostrado
na Figura 2. Inicialmente, balanços integrais de massa e momento são realizados em um
volume de controle fixo que compreende ambas as fases. Os teoremas de Leibniz e Gauss
são então aplicados reduzindo os balanços integrais em dois tipos de equações: as equações
conservativas instantâneas locais para cada fase, e as equações de saltos instantâneos locais
que respondem por interações de interface. Em seguida, o procedimento de média de Euler é
aplicado às equações instantâneas locais, eliminando assim as flutuações instantâneas locais
características do campo de fluxo. Como resultado, novas variáveis surgem nas equações
conservativas relacionadas aos termos de interação da interface. Então, leis de fechamento
são aplicadas para modelar termos desconhecidos das equações conservadoras. Finalmente,
condições iniciais e de contorno são formuladas.
Equações instantâneas locais

As equações instantâneas locais são a base fundamental para modelos multifásicos derivados
de procedimentos de média. De fato, quando as diferentes fases separadas por interfaces são
assumidas como contínuas, a formulação instantânea local assume um caráter de extremo
rigor matemático. Portanto, é aconselhável que todos os modelos para fluxos multifásicos
sejam derivados da formulação instantânea local associada a algum procedimento de cálculo

da média. Além disso, as equações instantâneas locais permitem a modelagem direta de
processos de fluxo separados (Ishii, 1975).
Para a obtenção do instantânea locais equações conservadoras e condições de salto, saldos

integrais são executadas para uma variável y em um volume de controlo euleriana para
k
ambas as fases (k = 1 para o gás e k = 2 para sólidos). As fases são separadas por uma
interface da área A (t) que se move a uma velocidade . Os teoremas de Gauss e Leibniz
I
são então aplicados, dando origem às seguintes equações:
Equação instantânea local de continuidade:
Condição de salto de continuidade na interface:
Equação instantânea local momentânea:
Momentum jump condition na interface:
onde R k e são a densidade e velocidade de fase k, é o vector unitário normais externo

para a interface do volume ocupado pela fase k, é o tensor, é a aceleração da gravidade e
é a taxa de fluxo de massa na interface, definida Como:
Procedimento de Média e Equações Médias

The averaging procedure eliminates terms of the local instantaneous formulations which
result from fluctuations characteristic of multiphase flows, and the governing equations
become expressed in terms of mean parameters and properties. So, only the macroscopic
parameters of the flow are modelled, which are the features of major interest in industry
(Ishii, 1975). Multiphase flow simulation is performed by solving the resulting average
conservative equations together with closure laws and initial and boundary conditions.
The procedure followed to obtain the average equations comprise two steps. Firstly, the local
instantaneous equations are multiplied by the phase density function XK, a general average
operator satisfying the axioms of Reynolds. In the second step the averages of products of
dependent variables are transformed into products of averages by applying both Reynolds
decomposition and weighted averaging. The phase density function is given by:
Three types of averaging operators are of common use, i.e. time, volume and ensemble
averaging operators. The last is more representative for unsteady heterogeneous processes
such as gas-solids flows. However, the evaluation of results obtained through statistical
operators becomes almost impossible due to the nonrepetibility of experiments. Nevertheless,
in multiphase flows it is common to assume the ergodicity hypothesis, which states that the
three operators are equivalent for steady homogeneous flows. By enforcing this hypothesis
its is possible to compare, for example, numerical results obtained through the application of
ensemble average operator to time averaged experimental results. A detailed description of
operators and averaging procedures can be found in Ishii (1975), Delhaye and Achard (1976,
1977) and Delhaye (1981).
When applying decomposition of Reynolds new terms are generated involving fluctuations.
For a generical variable f it follows that:
where represents the average weighed value of f and f ' the fluctuation around this
average. In general, the average weighed value of f is defined as:
where W is a weighing factor. There are two different weighing procedures, either through
the phase density function, or through the product of the phase density function to the
density of the phase. They are named, respectively, phase average and mass weighed
average or Favre average, and are given by:
By applying the above described averaging procedures on the conservative local

instantaneous equations, the average conservative equations result:
Average continuity equation:
Average momentum equation:
where represents the mean velocity of the phase k, and represents the fluctuation of
the stress tensor for the phase k, . MkI accounts for the momentum transfer to the phase
k at the interface, and is given by:
A detailed derivation of the above equations can be found in Enwald et al. (1996).
Closure Laws
The closure laws may be classified in three types:
1. Constitutive laws: account for physical properties of the phases by using

experimental data and axioms. Constitutive laws are required for modelling the
stress tensor, the dynamic viscosity, the volumetric viscosity and the pressure for
all phases.
2. Transfer laws: describe different interface interactions between the phases
through empirical correlations. Transfer laws are required for modelling mass,
momentum and energy transfer between the phases at the interface.

3. Topological laws: describe the spatial distribution of a specific flow variable.
The literature presents a great variety of proposals for closure laws. In fact, a suitable set of
closure laws should be specified taking into account the particular physical phenomena to be
described and a mathematical model to be developed. Detailed discussions on this issue can
be found in Arnold et al. (1990), Truesdell and Toupin (1960) and Aris (1962). The closure
laws commonly adopted in the classic two-fluids model for gas-solids flows are presented
next.
Constitutive Laws
Stress tensor:
Despite it is well known that the stress tensor for both phases should be a function of the
void fraction, the spatial derivatives of and memory effects, there is still no available
general formulation providing reliable values for materials constants. In fact, the studies
related to the rheology of fluidized powders have not conducted yet to the proposition of an
unified rheological model (Kuipers et al., 1992). In view of this the viscous stress tensor for
both phases, , is modelled under the assumption of Newtonian fluid having in view the
hypothesis of Stokes as considered in Aris (1962) and White (1992), i.e.:
The stress tensor is given by:
Dynamic viscosity:
There are two procedures for determining the dynamic viscosity of the solids phase, ms
(Gidaspow, 1994 and Kuipers and van Swaaij, 1997). Those are:
1. To assume ms as a constant, considering the solid phase as a Newtonian fluid.

2. To calculate ms from the kinetic theory of granular flows (KTGF).
In the first procedure ms is calculated from experimental data. Integrating the momentum
equation for the mixture in the axial direction over the cross section, Tsuo (1989) and Tsuo
and Gidaspow (1990) obtained:
where Rw is the internal radius of the circulating fluidized bed. Turbulence of the solids phase
is disregarded. The calculation methodology as well as required experimental data are
described in detail by Miller and Gidaspow (1992), who also presented an example of
calculation and a table of compiled results.
The literature presents several formulations for the dynamic viscosity of the solids phase
derived from the KTGF. All of these formulations are based on the composition of kinetic and
collisional effects. Boemer et al. (1995) present a discussion on this subject.
Bulk viscosity:
The bulk viscosity, lk, is determined having in view the hypothesis of Stokes, as follows:
Similar to ms, the bulk viscosity for the solids phase can also be obtained form the KTGF.
Boemer et al. (1995) present a discussion on this issue.
Gas pressure:
The gas pressure is the thermodynamic pressure, i.e.:
Solids pressure:
The physical concept of solids or particulate pressure, Ps, is difficult to define. Boemer et al.
(1995) defined the pressure of the solids phase as the normal force per unit area exerted
over the solids phase due to interactions among particles. Campbell and Wang (1991) defined
Ps as the force per unit area exerted over the surface of the solids phase, reflecting the total
transport of momentum which can be attributed to the motion of the particles and their
interactions.
The literature reports two different general procedures to determine the pressure of the solids
phase. Similarly to the dynamic viscosity of the solids phase, Ps can also be obtained by:
1. Applying the KTGF.

2. Applying the traditional procedure which is based on particle properties and the
local void fraction ag.
The first procedure is described in Gidaspow (1994), Boemer et al. (1995) and Enwald et al.
(1996) among others.
The traditional procedure is followed in this work. It is fully developed in Gidaspow (1994),
Enwald et al. (1996) and Cabezas- Gómez (1999) among others. According to this procedure,
three different effects account for the solids pressure: the transport of momentum due to
fluctuations on particles velocity, ; the collisions among particles, ; and the
contribution of the gas phase pressure, (Enwald et al. 1996). Neglecting the effect due to
the fluctuations on particles velocity, the gradient of the solids pressure results:
where G(ag) is a coefficient of interaction among particles also known as the elasticity
modulus for the particulate phase, which is obtained from experiment. Table 1 presents
literature correlations for G(ag). According to Gidaspow and Ettehadieh (1983) Equation (20)
gives significant results when the void fraction is lower than its value at minimum fluidizing
conditions. This correlation contributes for making more stable the numerical system of
equations, since it turns into real the imaginary characteristic directions. According to
Gidaspow (1986) some calculation is required to adjust G(ag), as done in Syamlal (1985), in
order to prevent the void fraction of reaching too low values causing particle concentrations
higher than the maximum possible. In spite of the fact that Equations (20-27) give very
different predictions for G(ag), this may affect very little the solutions for the time averaged
pressure, velocities and phase volumetric fractions (Enwald et al., 1996). According to
Enwald et al. (1996) this is a subject for further research.
Transfer Laws
In this work only the interface momentum transfer, MkI, is considered. It is modelled through
empirical correlations, where the jump conditions impose the necessary restrictions. Enwald
et al. (1996) present the formulation of MkI in detail. Following the classical theory MkI is
considered to be approximately equal to the so called generalised drag force per unit volume
exerted at the interface of a suspension with particles of mean diameter dp, represented by
. This force comprises various effects, but only the effect due to stationary drag at the
interface is usually considered. The stationary drag force at the interface, , may be
determined through two different procedures:
1. From correlations for the drag coefficient over a single particle in a suspension of
particles, CD.
2. From the pressure drop per unit length through a suspension of particles, DP/L.
The literature presents several models for determining using both the above procedures.
Whatever the model considered, the aim is to express the drag force as a function of the
dependent variables of the conservative equations. In general is defined in function of
the relative velocity between the phases, , and the momentum exchange coefficient at the
interface, b , also known as drag function. MkI is given by:
where np is the number of spherical particles per unit volume. The calculation of the drag
function depends on the adopted procedure. Under the first procedure b results:
where may be either the relative velocity or the drift velocity , depending on which
velocity CD is related to. The literature available expressions for the drag coefficient are valid
for single isolated particles, CDs. In order to account for this Equation (29) includes a function
dependent on the gas volumetric fraction, f(ag), so that the influence of other particles of the
suspension on CD is considered. The drift velocity is defined as:
Following the second procedure for determining the stationary drag force at the interface, the
drag function results:
The above expression results from the application of the momentum conservation equation
for the gas phase under stationary flow condition, disregarding acceleration and neglecting
attrition against the walls and the gravity effect (Gidaspow and Ettehadieh, 1983).
Equations (29) and (31) produce partially general results, depending on the correlations used
to calculate CDs, , f(ag) and DP/L. Cabezas- Gómez (1999) presents a compilation of several
correlations used in the literature for modelling b.
The Closed General PDE System for a Gas-Solids Flow

The closed general PDE system for modelling gas-solids flows considering the adopted
classical formulation procedure results:
Continuity equation
Momentum equation
The above equations where obtained under the following general hypothesis: both phases are
continua; laminar and isothermal flow for both phases; no mass transfer at the interface; the
particulate phase is homogeneously characterized by an average diameter; unreactive flow.
Hydrodynamic Models A and B from IIT/ANL

The IIT/ANL group (Illinois Institute of Technology/Argonne National Laboratory) has
developed modelling of gas-solids flows by applying the above developed procedures, which
they called Model A. From this formulation they derived a second model which they called
Model B. Table 2 presents the equations of both models. In Model A the pressure gradient
arises in the momentum equations for both phases. In Model B, owing to some mathematical
manipulations, the pressure gradient arises only in the momentum equation for the gas
phase, and the expression for the drag function b is modified to account for both the principle
of Archimedes and the usual relation of minimum fluidization given by Kunii and Levenspiel
(1991).
Model B was proposed in view of the conditional numerical stability of Model A owing to the
occurrence of characteristic directions which become complex (Bouillard et al., 1989). It is
recognised that Model B represents the transformation of the conditionally stable equations of
Model A into a well-posed set of equations for initial value unidimensional problems.
However, there is no evidence in the literature to support that the well-posed character
extends to multidimensional problems (Enwald et al., 1996). The procedure for deriving
Model B can be found in Bouillard et al. (1989) and Gidaspow (1994).
In the equations of Table 2, concerning the gas (g) and solids (s) phases, and are
3
mean velocities (m/s), rg and rs are densities (kg/m ), ag and as are volumetric fractions,
and and are viscous stress tensors (Pa). Also, P is the thermodynamic gas pressure
(Pa), is the acceleration of gravity (m/s2), G is the modulus of elasticity of the solids
(N/m2), b is the drag function at the interface (kg/m2-s), CDs is the drag coefficient for a
single particle in an infinite medium, Rep is the number of Reynolds based on the particle
diameter, fs is the sphericity of the particles, m stands for dynamic viscosity (kg/m-s), Rg is
the ideal gas constant (kJ/kg-K) and t is the time (s).
Initial and Boundary Conditions

The initial and boundary conditions commonly used in the classical modelling approach are
formulated below for both phases in a circulating fluidized bed. It is important to note that
the boundary conditions at the walls for the solids phase are not trivial. Basically, velocities
must be established at the walls. For the gas phase the non-slip condition is assumed, i.e.:
For the solids phase the condition defining the tangential velocity at the walls oscillates
between non-slip and free-slip conditions. A possible assumption is that the fine particles
stick to the walls while the coarse particles roll over its surface. According to Soo (1983)
apud Tsuo and Gidaspow (1990) this assumption give rise to:
where Lp is the free mean path of the particles, which is given by:
Ding and Gidaspow (1990) followed a model proposed by Eldighity et al. (1977), and
assumed that, since the particles diameter is usually higher than the characteristic roughness
of the wall, the particles slide in a partial way. They obtained:
where lp is a sliding parameter which represents the mean distance among the particles, and
is given by:
In Equations (49) and (51) y represents the direction normal to the wall. The KTGF can also
be used in order to evaluate the boundary conditions at the wall (Jhonson and Jakcson,
1987). A general discussion regarding initial and boundary conditions, including those at the
entrance and at the exit of a circulating fluidized bed can be found in Tsuo (1989), Gidaspow
(1994), Peirano and Lekcner (1998) and Cabezas- Gómez (1999).
Numerical Solution Methodology
The literature presents several computational codes used for the solution of classical two-
phases gas-solids models (see Kuipers and van Swaaij, 1997). This work uses the MULTIFIX
code developed by Syamlal (1985). It is an extension of the previous K-FIX code, initially
developed for gas-liquid flows (Rivard and Torrey, 1977 apud Syamlal, 1985), and later on
adapted to deal with gas-solids flows (Ettehadieh, 1982). K-FIX is based on a numerical
method developed by Harlow and Amsden (1975), which is an extension of the implicit
continuous-fluid Eulerian technique (ICE) developed by Harlow & Amsden (1971).
A modified version of MULTIFIX is used following Tsuo (1989). The VSSCG procedure is used
for modelling the gas phase stress tensor, while the similar procedure VSSCS is used for the
solids phase stress tensor (Ding, 1990). Equations (51) and (52) are used for the calculation
of momentum boundary conditions for the solids phase at the walls.
Following the procedure, the hydrodynamic conservative equations are discretized in finite
differences. The continuity equations are discretized implicitly, while the momentum
equations are discretized according to an explicit-implicit technique. In the momentum
equations, the terms related to gas pressure, solids pressure and interface momentum
exchange are discretized implicitly, while the remaining terms are discretized explicitly. A
fixed cell 2D computational grid is used. The scalar variables are set at the center of the cell
while the vector variables are placed at the boundaries of the cell.
The discrete continuity equations for the gas and the solids phases result:
The discrete momentum equations for the gas and the solids phases result:
A convergence criterious is defined by writing the gas phase continuity equation as:
where is the residue of the mass conservation equation for the gas phase, which must be
zero for absolute convergence. The subscripts r and z as well as i and j represent respectively
the radial and the axial directions. The superscripts n and n+1 represent the values at the
respective time levels t and t + Dt.
The overall iterative calculation procedure is as follows:
1. The convective explicit terms and are determined.

2. The drag coefficients are explicitly determined.
3. Velocities are calculated for the level n+1 from Equations (55) and (56).
4. The coefficient is calculated as:
where is the velocity of sound in air. The coefficient represents the derivatives of the
residue related to the pressure, and is analytically obtained from the momentum
conservation equations.
5. Pressure is then updated. This is performed through the domain in each computational cell
until the convergence criterious is met, or until the number of iterations exceeds an inner
maximum limit allowed. At the end of such computational sweep, if a pressure adjustment is
necessary in any of the cells, the procedure is repeated until simultaneous convergence in all
the cells is obtained. The number of iterations, however, is restricted by an outer iteration
limit.
The iterative calculation procedure for pressure is as follows:
1. The residue is determined from Equation (57). If the convergence criterious

for is met the calculation is finished, otherwise go to step 2.
2. The pressure is updated. The initial iteration for pressure is performed using the
Newton point iteration method in each cell. This procedure is continued till
changes sign. After this the next pressure correction is done using the secant
method. Thereafter a combination of the secant method and the bisection method
is used (Syamlal, 1985, Ding, 1990).
3. The velocities are calculated from Equations (55) and (56)
4. The mass fluxes of both phases are determined.
5. The volumetric fraction of solids is calculated from Equation (54)
6. ag is found from the following relation:
7. Back to step 1.
Numerical Simulations
Tsuo (1989) developed mathematical modelling using the two-fluids model for studying heat
transfer to surfaces, cluster formation and the structure of the annular flow through the riser
in circulating fluidised beds. The author simulated some installations, including an IIT
transport system which had already been studied before by Luo (1987). This particular IIT
installation is also simulated in this work for studying the effects on the flow hydrodynamics
of the viscosity of the solids phase. The mathematical modelling developed follows model B of
IIT/ANL in a 2D cylindrical coordinate system.
The concerning IIT installation is described in Luo (1987). Figure 3 presents the initial and
boundary conditions taken into account in this work, which are the same considered by Tsuo
(1989). The column geometry was considered symmetrical, allowing the assumption of 2D
cylindrical coordinate system and symmetry condition along the axis.
For computing both the gas and solids phases boundary conditions at the wall the Equations
(48), (51) and (52) were used, respectively.
Figures 4 to 8 show the results of simulation. Figures 4 to 6 show the results for a fixed value
of the solids phase viscosity ms = 0.509 kg/(ms), which was determined by Tsuo (1989) using
Eq. (16) for the same conditions assumed in the present simulations. Figures 7 and 8 show
the results for different values of ms allowing an analysis of its effects on the flow
hydrodynamics.
Results of Simulation for a Fixed ms

Figure 4 shows the time variation of the solids volumetric fraction through riser, where darker
shades of grey mean lower solids volumetric fraction. The figure shows the formation and
dissipation of clusters. The first cluster is formed at 1.5 seconds. The results are qualitatively
similar to those obtained by Tsuo (1989) using a 2D Cartesian coordinate system for the
same installation and conditions. Nevertheless, contrary to the results of Tsuo (1989), who
did not assumed symmetry conditions, the solids accumulate mainly along the axis of
symmetry. Otherwise, Neri and Gidaspow (2000) obtained the same effect obsereved in this
work when simulating the IIT CFB, shown in Miller and Gidapow (1992), using the symmetry
boundary condition at center of the riser. The axis of symmetry acts as a mirror, not allowing
for any mass transfer from one wall to the other (Neri and Gidaspow, 2000).
Figure 5 shows the time variation of the solids phase mass velocity Gs in the riser 5.3 meters
above the entrance. Gs is obtained by integrating the local solids phase mass velocity over
the cross section of the riser. The graph shows the classic behaviour of circulating fluidized
beds, including low frequency oscillations. Tsuo (1989) reported bed oscillations of about 0.2
Hertz. The results of simulation are in good agreement with the empirical data of Luo (1987).
A tendency to a well established stationary regime is not observed, which is in agreement to
practice.
Figure 6 shows radial profiles of the local axial velocities for both phases at 3.4 meters above
the entrance. Simulated profiles averaged over different time intervals are compared with the
experimental data of Luo (1987). For the gas phase the predictions present great deviations
from experimental data. For both phases the profiles show an unreal behaviour close to the
axis, which is possibly due to the adoption of a 2D cylindrical coordinate system and
symmetry around the axis. This suggests that the symmetry boundary condition is not
adequate for vertical gas-solids flows in circulating fluidized beds. It is seen that despite
different time intervals were considered for averaging the velocity profiles, the results show
similar tendencies. This must be emphasized since the flow under consideration is
characterized by great fluctuations of the velocity fields, and in fact never reaches the
condition of stationary flow.
Results of Simulation for Various ms

Results of simulation are generated for various ms keeping all the remaining conditions as
defined in Figure 3. Values of m s were arbitrarily chosen around the experimental value,
0.509 kg/(ms), established by Tsuo (1989).
Figure 7 shows the time variation of the solids phase mass velocity Gs in the riser 5.3 meters
above the entrance, for various solids phase viscosities. It is seem that the solids phase
viscosity has little effect over Gs. In fact this behaviour was expected in view of the
continuity enforcement. The predictions are in good agreement with the empirical data of Luo
(1987) no matter the value of ms. The low frequency oscillations characteristic of circulating
beds are observed. No tendency is observed towards a well established stationary regime,
which was expected owing to the unstable nature of the flow.
Despite not affecting significantly the solids phase mass velocity, the solids phase viscosity
considerably affects velocity profiles of both phases. Figure 8 shows radial profiles of the local
axial velocities for both phases 3.4 meters above the entrance, for various solids phase
viscosities, in comparison to experiment (Luo, 1987). The predicted profiles were averaged
over the time interval from 10 to 48 seconds for all solids phase viscosities, except for ms =
0.509 kg/(ms) where the time interval was from 10 to 40 seconds (In this case the procedure
diverged for times greater than 42 seconds). The comparison of the profiles for different ms
shows relative deviations of up to 60% for both phases. As ms increases the velocity profiles
become increasingly flat, showing a cross sectional diffusion effect of ms. This effect does not
seem to be a consequence of numerical diffusion since the spreading of the profile for ms =
0.75 kg/(ms) is less than expected (it would be flatter in comparison with the profile for ms =
0.509 kg/(ms) if numerical diffusion was the reason). The results are particularly
unsatisfactory for ms = 0.25 kg/(ms). In this case the influence of the symmetry boundary
condition at the axis seems to become more intense.
It is clear from Figure 8 that the solids phase viscosity considerably affects the hydrodynamic
predictions. Therefore, a more precise theoretical methodology is required for accurately
determining this parameter, such as the kinetic theory of the granular flow.
General Remarks
A number of aspects related to gas-solids two-fluids modelling require further development if
accuracy is to be achieved. Assumed hypothesis such as spherical particles, particulate phase
homogeneously characterized by an average diameter, and treated as Newtonian continuum
fluid are certainly cause of inaccurate predictions. Besides, most of the information required
for establishing reliable closure laws are based upon both theories which need enhancement
and experimental data which are scattered and limited in view of experimental techniques
shortcomings.
The solids phase pressure is modelled through empirical correlations which give predictions
quite different from each other. This seems to be a consequence of the fact that the
parameter is introduced in the conservative equations for numerical stability reasons, as
shown by Gidaspow (1986). The interface momentum transfer is modelled considering only
the effect of stationary drag. According to Enwald et al. (1996) the literature proposed
correlations for the drag function must be used with caution since most of them are derived
from experiments in homogeneous liquid-solids fluidized beds.
Turbulence effects may be accounted for in two-fluids modelling through Reynolds stress
terms. According to Enwald et al. (1996), in bubbling fluidized beds which are characterised
by high solids concentrations, the particulate inertia attenuates the gas phase turbulence.
However, for circulating fluidized beds which are mostly characterised by regions of low solids
concentrations, turbulence becomes significant.
The prescription of entrance boundary conditions for both phases and wall boundary
conditions for the solids phase are not straightforward (Enwald et al., 1996). One-
dimensional plug flow is prescribed for both phases at the column entrance even though it is
known that the entrance flow conditions are in fact dependent upon the particular distributor
plate project. The assumed geometry and symmetry are also sources of inaccuracy. Gas-
solids flows in circulating fluidized beds are characterized by three-dimensional effects due to
non-uniform shapes and sizes distributions of the particles, asymmetric solids feeding,
asymmetric geometry at the exit of the riser, and the presence of solids separators such as
cyclones when the whole installation is modelled.
Conclusions
The predicted time variation of the solids volumetric fraction through the riser of circulating
fluidized beds are indicative of a quite complex hydrodynamic behaviour. There are steep
variations on both radial and axial solids concentration profiles, together with frequent
formation and dissociation of clusters flowing both upwards and downwards.
It is observed a very significant influence of the solids phase viscosity on the predictions. It is
clear that this parameter should be rigorously modelled through a suitable theory which can
accurately characterize the fluids interactions and the physical phenomena involved. The
kinetic theory of the granular flow is a promising theory for this purpose.
The predicted time variation of the solids phase mass velocity is in good agreement with
experiment. However, the predicted time averaged radial profiles of the local axial velocities
for both phases greatly deviate from experiment. This is possibly due to model assumptions
and boundary conditions (specifically the symmetry at the center of the column), which
impose conditions quite different from practice. On the other hand, the uncertainty on the
experimental measurements which are characteristic of gas-solids multiphase flows must be
taken into account.
Results of simulation from literature and presented here strongly suggest that many features
related to two-fluids Eulerian mathematical modelling applied to circulating fluidized beds
need improvement. Special attention should be directed towards interface momentum
transfer, turbulence in both phases, pressure and viscosity of the solids phase, and realistic
boundary conditions. On the numerical side it becomes evident that more refined grids are
required which unfortunately becomes prohibitive in view of the current stage of development
of computers.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of FAPESP (process 98/13812-1) and CNPq for
this work.
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Artigo recebido em junho de 2000. Editor Técnico: Aristeu S. Neto.
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Linhas Gerais de Modelagem Matemática em Fluidização Circulante

1. Modelos que predizem a variação axial da densidade de sólidos e desconsideram

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Na formulação Euleriana-Lagrangeana, somente a fase gasosa é assumida como um

Formulação Teórica do Modelo de Dois Fluidos

Equações instantâneas locais

sejam derivados da formulação instantânea local associada a algum procedimento de cálculo

Para a obtenção do instantânea locais equações conservadoras e condições de salto, saldos

Equação instantânea local de continuidade:

Condição de salto de continuidade na interface:

Equação instantânea local momentânea:

Momentum jump condition na interface:

onde R k e são a densidade e velocidade de fase k, é o vector unitário normais externo

Procedimento de Média e Equações Médias

By applying the above described averaging procedures on the conservative local

Average continuity equation:

Average momentum equation:

1. Constitutive laws: account for physical properties of the phases by using

momentum and energy transfer between the phases at the interface.

The stress tensor is given by:

1. To assume ms as a constant, considering the solid phase as a Newtonian fluid.

The gas pressure is the thermodynamic pressure, i.e.:

1. Applying the KTGF.

The Closed General PDE System for a Gas-Solids Flow

Hydrodynamic Models A and B from IIT/ANL

Initial and Boundary Conditions

Numerical Solution Methodology

The overall iterative calculation procedure is as follows:

1. The convective explicit terms and are determined.

The iterative calculation procedure for pressure is as follows:

1. The residue is determined from Equation (57). If the convergence criterious

Results of Simulation for a Fixed ms

Results of Simulation for Various ms

0.509 kg/(ms), established by Tsuo (1989).

Bouillard, J.X, 1986, "Hydrodynamics of sedimentation, fluidization, and erosion", Ph.D.

Ettehadieh, B., Gidaspow, D. and Lyczkowski, R.W., 1984, "Hydrodynamics of fluidization in a

Gidaspow, D., 1986, "Hydrodynamics of fluidization and heat transfer: supercomputing

Shih, Y.T., Gidaspow, D. and Wasan, D.T., 1987, "Hydrodynamics of electro-fluidization:

Artigo recebido em junho de 2000. Editor Técnico: Aristeu S. Neto.

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