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Question: 1 Discuss the essential differences and similarities between the

hydraulic binders, later hydraulic binders and pozzolanic materials in civil


Engineering.
Give examples of each class of materials and their important engineering
properties. Under what circumstances would you favour the usage of the different
classes.?

a) Hydraulic Cements/Binders

“Cements or binders which, when mixed with water, set or harden in air or water by a process of
hydration, forming compounds which are volumetrically stable, durable, and increase in strength with
age”.

 Basic constituents are oxides of Ca, Si, Al, Fe


 Ca0/Si02 ratio ≈ 2,6 – 3,6, typically 2,8
 Implies excess of calcium in the system

Most common example of Hydraulic Cements/Binders: Portland Cement

b) Latent Hydraulic Binders


“Binders which, when mixed with water, will harden very slowly (generally too slowly for engineering
purposes), and therefore require an activator to accelerate the hydration.”

 Comprise same basic oxides as hydraulic binders, but in different proportions.


 Ca0/Si02 ratio ≈ 0,92 – 1,05, typically 1,02 – therefore a “deficiency” of calcium to form
calcium silicates

Most common example:


i. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag or GGBS
ii. Ground Granulated Corex Slag (GGCS)

Suitability for use in:

i. Mass concrete pours


ii. Shotcrete Chloride exposure
iii. Sulphate exposure
iv. ASR conditions

c) Pozzolanic Materials
“Materials which are siliceous or alumino – siliceous and in themselves possess little or no cementitious
properties, but can react with lime in the presence of water to form stable hydrated cementitious
compounds”.

Examples:
Volcanic ashes and earths; calcined shales and clays; fly ash (FA); condensed silica fume (CSF).

In common use in concrete in SA: FA (CSF rarely used).


 For FA: Ca0/Si02 ratio ≈ 0,09 to 0,13, but can vary widely.
 For CSF: Ca0/Si02 ratio ≈ 0,01, very low Ca0 content.

QN.2 Discuss the hydration of Portland cement from the points of view of
i. Influence of water /water ratio
ii. Achievement of durability and strength
iii. Effects of curing

Ans.
Qn2(i) Influence of water /cement ratio

(1) Limits of Hydration

1. The Condition of Limiting Space – water-cured concrete.


2. The Condition of Limiting Water – sealed concrete (e.g. large members, mass concrete).

 These lead to a ‘critical’ w/c of approx. 0.40 (range 0.36 - 0.42)


 Below this ‘critical’ w/c: capillary porosity is minimized
 Above this ‘critical’ w/c: the system increasingly is governed by capillary porosity

(2) Role of capillary pores


 Capillary porosity is a major factor influencing strength
 Fine pores and gel pores contribute to shrinkage and creep
 Porosity influences permeability and diffusivity. Large
 pores increase permeability

(3) Concept of ‘degree of hydration’


This is the degree to which the cement has hydrated at any given time - critically influenced by
curing.
 Curing is the combination of temperature, moisture, and time effects – coupled with the type of
binder (e.g. fast or slow hydration)
 In essence, time and temperature are interchangeable (see later lecture on concrete strength –
the Maturity Concept)
 This means that at lower curing temperatures, one needs to cure for longer
 This is also true for blended cements due to their slower hydration characteristics
 Temperature of curing is also important – influences rate of hydration and therefore rate of
strength development

Qn2(ii) Achievement of durability and strength

 The achievement of durability and strength of hydration of Portland cement it influence by


water /cement ratio, temperature effect and curing time.

Note : Strength increases with decreasing porosity

The factors which influence the achievement of durability and strength of hydration of Portland cement
are as follows:

 Concrete penetrability
 Binder type
 Binder content
 Water/ binder ratio
 Other constituents: aggregates
 admixtures, etc
 Design mix proportioning

The strength of concrete is time-dependent. Provided adequate moisture is available and that an
appropriate temperature is maintained, concrete gains strength with time at an ever decreasing rate.
Concrete strength is therefore generally specified and measured at a specific age.

Qn2(iii) Effects of curing

Curing is the combination of temperature, moisture, and time effects – coupled with the type of binder
(e.g. fast or slow hydration)

QN.3 Provide an account of the mechanisms by which fly ash addition can enhance the
strength and durability of concrete.

Ans.
QN.4 a) Describe the failure process in concrete subjected to compressive loading.
Ans.

QN.4 b) Would this process be different under pure tensile loading? Elaborate your answer.
Ans.
 Direct tensile strength – very difficult to do successfully
 Used for research mainly
The relationship between compressive and tensile strength

The compressive strength of concrete is much higher than its tensile strength. Furthermore, there is also
no specific or simple relationship between tensile and compressive strength.
The reason is that factors such as cement: water ratio, curing conditions, age, mix proportions and
properties of the aggregate do not affect tensile strength and compressive strength to the same degree.
It is also important when comparing compressive and tensile strength to bear in mind that different test
methods give different results.

QN.5 Describe various approaches to estimating the elastic modulus of concrete for design
purposes. What is a suitable predictive equation for South African conditions, and what is the
significance of the various terms in the equation.?
Ans.

Elastic modulus (Ec)


This is defined as the ratio of uniaxial stress to the resultant axial strain. Because strain is
dimensionless, the dimensions of elastic modulus are the same as those of stress. Elastic modulus
represents the material stiffness of the concrete to an imposed stress.
Practical approaches
The relationship between elastic modulus and compressive strength is the most practical approach,
since engineers will almost always possess a knowledge of concrete strength at the design stage.
Many attempts have been made to correlate the modulus of elasticity and the strength of concrete. The
factors that affect the modulus of elasticity of concrete do not always have a correspondingly similar
effect on concrete strength.
For example, the use of an aggregate with a higher modulus of elasticity does not necessarily produce a
concrete of greater strength although it will increase the modulus of the concrete. The work of
Kaplan[8.9] showed conclusively that different aggregates and mix proportions affect the relationship
between dynamic modulus and strength.
BS 8110-2:1985[8.2]
The 28-day elastic modulus of concrete, Ec,28, is estimated from the 28-day characteristic cube
strength, fcu,28, from theexpression
Ec,28 = Co + 0,2 fcu,28................................................................(1)

A Co value of 20 GPa is suggested for concrete of normal density, and 10 GPa for low-density concrete.
It is also advised to consider a range of values of concrete E based on Co varying from 14 GPa to 26
GPa. This approach recognises the important role aggregates play in governing concrete elastic
modulus.
For ages other than 28 days, the code gives the formula

Et/E28 = 0,4 + 0,6 ft/f28............................................................ (2)

where subscript t refers to the required age in days (t > 3d) and f to characteristic cube strength.

BS EN 1992:2004[8.6]
The EN expression which is essentially identical to the CEBFIP MC 90 relationship (eg 5) is:
Ecm = 22 [(fck + 8)/10]0.3......................................................... (6)

where Ecm is the modulus of elasticity and fck is the characteristic cylinder strength (MPa) at 28 days.
The code makes allowance for different aggregates. For limestone and sandstone aggregates the value
should be reduced by 10% and 30% respectively. For basalt aggregates the value should be increased
by 20%. For ages other than 28 days, the code gives the relationship

Et/E28 = (ft/f28)0.3.....................................................................(7)

Figure 8.3 illustrates the above time-dependent development of the modulus of elasticity in comparison
to the development of compressive strength (based on typical strength development

QN.6 a) explain the physico-chemical mechanisms taking place in fresh concrete when superplasticizer
is added to the mix.
b) Give some practical examples for concerete construction where you would you use a superplasticizer
c) what might be the consequences of under-over –dosage of superplasticizers?

ANS. 6(a)
Superplasticisers or highrange water reducers are commonly used to reduce the water and cement
contents to acceptable levels.
Superplasticiser is an essential ingredient in high-performance concrete.
The compatibility of the specific cement and superplasticiser is important

Admixtures used for HPC include superplasticisers, accelerators, retarders, and air-entraining agents.

Admixtures
Sand: required low water contents and low water/binder ratios

The plasticising effects of superplasticisers can mainly be ascribed to a combination of the following
mechanisms: [17.4]
 Creation of electrostatic repulsion between particles, hence deflocculating and dispersion of fine
particles, resulting in higher mobility of these constituents
 Reduction in the surface tension of the mixing water and hence better lubrication of fine and
coarse mix ingredients
 Retardation of the hydration reaction on the surface of cement particles, resulting in an increase
in available water for lubrication
 Change in the morphology of hydration products Suitable superplasticisers for the manufacture
of HPC are commonly based on the older sulphonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF) and
sulphonated napthtalene formaldehyde (SNF), or on the newer polycarboxylate acid (AP) and
polycarboxylate ester (PCE). In an experimental comparison, the new generation
superplasticisers AP and PCE were found to have higher efficiency and longer slump retention
time, compared to SMF and SNF, especially for low w:c ratio mortars or concretes.

Superplasticiser essential
Mechanisms:

 Electrostatic repulsion between particles


 Reduction in surface tension of mixing water (hence better lubrication of fine and coarse
particles)
 Retardation of hydration reaction (more water available for lubrication)
 Check compatibility admixture – cement

ANS. 6(b)

(i) The workability of concretes with low water:binder ratioscan only be improved to a certain limiting
value. This limiting value is termed “saturation point”, beyond which an increase in superplasticiser
dosage will not increase workability any further. Addition of superplasticiser beyond the
saturation point may cause segregation of the mix and should be avoided.
Typical superplasticiser dosages for the manufacture HPC are about 2 to 7% by mass of
cementitious materials using older types of admixture and about 2 to 4% by mass of cementitious
materials using PCE.

(ii) If HPC is produced as readymix, the expected duration of transport and placement needs to be
considered when designing for a particular setting time. In most cases, retarding admixtures are not
required, since high dosages of superplasticisers also have a retarding effect. To achieve the
required consistency it is often necessary to add further superplasticiser to the ready-mixed
concrete just before casting. The quantity of extra admixture should however be kept to a minimum
and it must be ensured that dispersion of admixtures is achieved through sufficient mixing time. A
minimum additional mixing time of eight minutes in the readymix truck is, for example,
recommended in German guidelines for high-strength concrete
(iii) The use of cement extenders of high fineness together with superplasticisers, which help to
evenly disperse fine particles in the mix, increases packing density and hence reduces pore
volume and pore size in the cement paste. Of even greater importance for the properties of HPC
is the improvement of the ITZ between coarse aggregate and cement paste, which also results
mainly from reduction in the water:binder ratio and the use of cement extenders.

ANS. 6(c)

Increasing the deformability of the paste by:


 Adding superplasticisers (increasing flowability without significantly decreasing viscosity)
 Balancing the water:powder ratio (a water:powder ratio that is too large may result in
segregation, while a water:powder ratio that is too low will decrease the flowability of the mix)

Addition of superplasticiser beyond the saturation point may cause segregation of the mix and
should be avoided

QN.7 a) which instrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the development and magnitude of creep in
concrete?
b) Discuss how creep deformations can be minimized by the choice of mix constituents and mix
parameters
c) Give two examples of structures or structures members whose performance might be influenced by
creep deformations and what the nature of the influence might be?

ANS. 7(a).

Creep mechanisms
Despite considerable work over the years, the mechanisms of creep are not yet fully understood.
Reviews are given in references . Possible hypotheses are:

Recoverable or reversible creep (or delayed elastic strain)


• Diffusion of water from areas of hindered to unhindered adsorption which reduces swelling pressure
leading to a reduction in inter-particle spacing.
• Diffusion of water from high- to low-pressure areas causing gradual load transfer from liquid to solid
phase (hence a delayed elastic-type strain).
• Removal of interlayer and intralayer water, under the action of external load, causing reduction in layer
thickness and spacing.

Irrecoverable or irreversible creep


• Weakening of interparticle bonds by disjoining pressure facilitating relative sliding of the layers.
• Displacement of gel layers relative to each other, introducing a process of breaking and remaking of
interparticle bonds.
• Formation of new bonds as particles are brought into close contact for the first time.
The above remarks apply to stresses in the concrete not exceeding about 40% of ultimate strength
(compressive).
At higher stress levels, progressive microcracking occurs, resulting in additional components of strain
which are very much larger than the normal moisture-related creep strains at lower stresses.
7.bDiscuss how creep deformations can be minimized by the choice of mix constituents and mix
parameters?

ANS.

Creep
Changes in the pore structure, the increase in density, and the homogenisation of cement matrix and
aggregate stiffness result in the somewhat different creep characteristics of HPC, compared to
conventional concrete. In HPC, creep strains decrease with an increase in concrete strength and,
compared to normal-strength concrete, the final creep strain is reached at earlier ages. The influence of
member dimensions (cross-sectional area) on time-dependent deformations of HPC is typically smaller
than experienced in conventional concrete, which may need to be considered in the estimation of strain
values.

7.C Give two examples of structures or structure members whose performamnce might be influenced by
creep deformations and what the nature of the influence might be .
Ans.

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