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a) Hydraulic Cements/Binders
“Cements or binders which, when mixed with water, set or harden in air or water by a process of
hydration, forming compounds which are volumetrically stable, durable, and increase in strength with
age”.
c) Pozzolanic Materials
“Materials which are siliceous or alumino – siliceous and in themselves possess little or no cementitious
properties, but can react with lime in the presence of water to form stable hydrated cementitious
compounds”.
Examples:
Volcanic ashes and earths; calcined shales and clays; fly ash (FA); condensed silica fume (CSF).
QN.2 Discuss the hydration of Portland cement from the points of view of
i. Influence of water /water ratio
ii. Achievement of durability and strength
iii. Effects of curing
Ans.
Qn2(i) Influence of water /cement ratio
The factors which influence the achievement of durability and strength of hydration of Portland cement
are as follows:
Concrete penetrability
Binder type
Binder content
Water/ binder ratio
Other constituents: aggregates
admixtures, etc
Design mix proportioning
The strength of concrete is time-dependent. Provided adequate moisture is available and that an
appropriate temperature is maintained, concrete gains strength with time at an ever decreasing rate.
Concrete strength is therefore generally specified and measured at a specific age.
Curing is the combination of temperature, moisture, and time effects – coupled with the type of binder
(e.g. fast or slow hydration)
QN.3 Provide an account of the mechanisms by which fly ash addition can enhance the
strength and durability of concrete.
Ans.
QN.4 a) Describe the failure process in concrete subjected to compressive loading.
Ans.
QN.4 b) Would this process be different under pure tensile loading? Elaborate your answer.
Ans.
Direct tensile strength – very difficult to do successfully
Used for research mainly
The relationship between compressive and tensile strength
The compressive strength of concrete is much higher than its tensile strength. Furthermore, there is also
no specific or simple relationship between tensile and compressive strength.
The reason is that factors such as cement: water ratio, curing conditions, age, mix proportions and
properties of the aggregate do not affect tensile strength and compressive strength to the same degree.
It is also important when comparing compressive and tensile strength to bear in mind that different test
methods give different results.
QN.5 Describe various approaches to estimating the elastic modulus of concrete for design
purposes. What is a suitable predictive equation for South African conditions, and what is the
significance of the various terms in the equation.?
Ans.
A Co value of 20 GPa is suggested for concrete of normal density, and 10 GPa for low-density concrete.
It is also advised to consider a range of values of concrete E based on Co varying from 14 GPa to 26
GPa. This approach recognises the important role aggregates play in governing concrete elastic
modulus.
For ages other than 28 days, the code gives the formula
where subscript t refers to the required age in days (t > 3d) and f to characteristic cube strength.
BS EN 1992:2004[8.6]
The EN expression which is essentially identical to the CEBFIP MC 90 relationship (eg 5) is:
Ecm = 22 [(fck + 8)/10]0.3......................................................... (6)
where Ecm is the modulus of elasticity and fck is the characteristic cylinder strength (MPa) at 28 days.
The code makes allowance for different aggregates. For limestone and sandstone aggregates the value
should be reduced by 10% and 30% respectively. For basalt aggregates the value should be increased
by 20%. For ages other than 28 days, the code gives the relationship
Et/E28 = (ft/f28)0.3.....................................................................(7)
Figure 8.3 illustrates the above time-dependent development of the modulus of elasticity in comparison
to the development of compressive strength (based on typical strength development
QN.6 a) explain the physico-chemical mechanisms taking place in fresh concrete when superplasticizer
is added to the mix.
b) Give some practical examples for concerete construction where you would you use a superplasticizer
c) what might be the consequences of under-over –dosage of superplasticizers?
ANS. 6(a)
Superplasticisers or highrange water reducers are commonly used to reduce the water and cement
contents to acceptable levels.
Superplasticiser is an essential ingredient in high-performance concrete.
The compatibility of the specific cement and superplasticiser is important
Admixtures used for HPC include superplasticisers, accelerators, retarders, and air-entraining agents.
Admixtures
Sand: required low water contents and low water/binder ratios
The plasticising effects of superplasticisers can mainly be ascribed to a combination of the following
mechanisms: [17.4]
Creation of electrostatic repulsion between particles, hence deflocculating and dispersion of fine
particles, resulting in higher mobility of these constituents
Reduction in the surface tension of the mixing water and hence better lubrication of fine and
coarse mix ingredients
Retardation of the hydration reaction on the surface of cement particles, resulting in an increase
in available water for lubrication
Change in the morphology of hydration products Suitable superplasticisers for the manufacture
of HPC are commonly based on the older sulphonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF) and
sulphonated napthtalene formaldehyde (SNF), or on the newer polycarboxylate acid (AP) and
polycarboxylate ester (PCE). In an experimental comparison, the new generation
superplasticisers AP and PCE were found to have higher efficiency and longer slump retention
time, compared to SMF and SNF, especially for low w:c ratio mortars or concretes.
Superplasticiser essential
Mechanisms:
ANS. 6(b)
(i) The workability of concretes with low water:binder ratioscan only be improved to a certain limiting
value. This limiting value is termed “saturation point”, beyond which an increase in superplasticiser
dosage will not increase workability any further. Addition of superplasticiser beyond the
saturation point may cause segregation of the mix and should be avoided.
Typical superplasticiser dosages for the manufacture HPC are about 2 to 7% by mass of
cementitious materials using older types of admixture and about 2 to 4% by mass of cementitious
materials using PCE.
(ii) If HPC is produced as readymix, the expected duration of transport and placement needs to be
considered when designing for a particular setting time. In most cases, retarding admixtures are not
required, since high dosages of superplasticisers also have a retarding effect. To achieve the
required consistency it is often necessary to add further superplasticiser to the ready-mixed
concrete just before casting. The quantity of extra admixture should however be kept to a minimum
and it must be ensured that dispersion of admixtures is achieved through sufficient mixing time. A
minimum additional mixing time of eight minutes in the readymix truck is, for example,
recommended in German guidelines for high-strength concrete
(iii) The use of cement extenders of high fineness together with superplasticisers, which help to
evenly disperse fine particles in the mix, increases packing density and hence reduces pore
volume and pore size in the cement paste. Of even greater importance for the properties of HPC
is the improvement of the ITZ between coarse aggregate and cement paste, which also results
mainly from reduction in the water:binder ratio and the use of cement extenders.
ANS. 6(c)
Addition of superplasticiser beyond the saturation point may cause segregation of the mix and
should be avoided
QN.7 a) which instrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the development and magnitude of creep in
concrete?
b) Discuss how creep deformations can be minimized by the choice of mix constituents and mix
parameters
c) Give two examples of structures or structures members whose performance might be influenced by
creep deformations and what the nature of the influence might be?
ANS. 7(a).
Creep mechanisms
Despite considerable work over the years, the mechanisms of creep are not yet fully understood.
Reviews are given in references . Possible hypotheses are:
ANS.
Creep
Changes in the pore structure, the increase in density, and the homogenisation of cement matrix and
aggregate stiffness result in the somewhat different creep characteristics of HPC, compared to
conventional concrete. In HPC, creep strains decrease with an increase in concrete strength and,
compared to normal-strength concrete, the final creep strain is reached at earlier ages. The influence of
member dimensions (cross-sectional area) on time-dependent deformations of HPC is typically smaller
than experienced in conventional concrete, which may need to be considered in the estimation of strain
values.
7.C Give two examples of structures or structure members whose performamnce might be influenced by
creep deformations and what the nature of the influence might be .
Ans.