CHAPTER 1

INRODUCTION

1.1 Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (hydrogen, natural gas,
methanol, gasoline, etc.) and an oxidant (air or oxygen) into electricity. In principle, a fuel
cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery however, a fuel cell does not run down or require
recharging. It will produce electricity and heat as long as fuel and an oxidizer are supplied.

Both batteries and fuel cells are electrochemical devices. As such, both have a positively
charged anode, a negatively charged cathode and an ion-conducting material called an
electrolyte. Fuel cells are classified by their electrolyte material. Electrochemical devices
generate electricity without combustion of the fuel and oxidizer, as opposed to what occurs
with traditional methods of electricity generation.

Fuel cell construction generally consists of a fuel electrode (anode) and an oxidant electrode
(cathode) separated by an ion-conducting membrane. Oxygen passes over one electrode, and
hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water and heat. Fuel cells chemically combine
the molecules of a fuel and oxidizer without burning or having to dispense with the
inefficiencies and pollution of traditional combustion.

1.2 Fuel Cell Functionality

Fuel cells generate electricity from a simple electrochemical reaction in which an oxidizer,
typically oxygen from air, and a fuel, typically hydrogen, combine to form a product, which is
water for the typical fuel cell. Oxygen (air) continuously passes over the cathode and
hydrogen passes over the anode to generate electricity, by-product heat and water. The fuel
cell itself has no moving parts – making it a quiet and reliable source of power.

The electrolyte that separates the anode and cathode is an ion-conducting material. At the
anode, hydrogen and its electrons are separated so that the hydrogen ions (protons) pass
through the electrolyte while the electrons pass through an external electrical circuit as a
Direct Current (DC) that can power useful devices. The hydrogen ions combine with the
oxygen at the cathode and are recombined with the electrons to form water. The reactions are
shown below:

Anode Reaction : 2H2 => 4H+ + 4e-

Cathode Reaction : O2 + 4H+ + 4e- => 2H2O
Overall Cell Reaction : 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O

Individual fuel cells can then be combined into a fuel cell "stack." The number of fuel cells in
the stack determines the total voltage, and the surface area of each cell determines the total
current. Multiplying the voltage by the current will yield the total electrical power generated.

Power (Watts) = Voltage (Volts) X Current (Amps)

Page 1
 CHAPTER 2

BASIC CHARACTERISTIC

2.1 Charge Carrier

The charge carrier is the ion that passes through the electrolyte, and for several types of fuel
cells, the charge carrier is a hydrogen ion, H+, which is simply a single proton. The charge
carrier differs between different types of fuel cells.

2.2 Poisoning by Contamination

Fuel cells can be "poisoned" (experience severe degradation in performance) by different

types of molecules. Because of the difference in electrolyte, operating temperature, catalyst
and other factors, different molecules can behave differently in different fuel cells. The major
poison for all types of fuel cells is sulfur-containing compounds such as hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) and carbonyl sulfide (COS). Sulfur compounds are naturally present in all fossil fuels,
and small quantities remain after normal processing and must be almost completely removed
prior to entering the fuel cell.

2.3 Fuels

Hydrogen is the current fuel of choice for all fuel cells. Some gases, such as nitrogen from the
air, have only a dilution effect on the performance of the fuel cell. Other gases, such as CO
and CH4, have different effects on fuel cells, depending on the type of fuel cell. For example,
CO is a poison to fuel cells operating at relatively low temperatures, such as the Proton
Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC). However, CO can be used directly as a fuel for the
high-temperature fuel cells such as the Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC). Each fuel cell with its
specific electrolyte and catalysts will accept different gases as fuels and experience poisoning
or dilution. Therefore, the gas supply systems must be tailored to a specific type of fuel cell.

Page 2
2.4 Performance Factors

The performance of a fuel cell depends on numerous factors. The electrolyte composition, the
geometry of the fuel cell (particularly the surface area of the anode and cathode), the
operating temperature, gas pressure and many other factors. For reference material that covers
introductory to highly technical information on different types of fuel cells, refer to the Fuel
Cell Handbook, Fifth Edition, published by the U.S. Department of Energy in October 2000.

2.5 Fuel Reformers

Low-temperature fuel cells (&lth;200ºC, 390 ºF) operate on hydrogen as the fuel. At the
present time, there are no readily available sources of hydrogen with widespread delivery
infrastructure. There are two major approaches to solving this issue. In the shorter term, use of
fossil fuels to generate the hydrogen is required.

The transformation of fossil fuels to hydrogen is generally called fuel reforming. Steam
reforming is one example in which steam is mixed with the fossil fuel at temperatures around
760ºC. The chemical formula of this reforming reaction for natural gas composed primarily of
methane (CH4) is:

CH4 + 2 H2O => CO2 + 4 H2

In the high-temperature fuel cells (MCFC and SOFC), CO in the fuel stream acts as a fuel.
However, it is likely that the water-gas shift reaction is occurring and the fuel for the actual
fuel cell is actually hydrogen.

CO+ H2O => CO2 + H2

Fuel reforming can be done in facilities of different scales. The reforming can be done at a
large scale in a central facility like a chemical plant. This can result in pure hydrogen, either
as a high-pressure gas or as a liquid. This would then be delivered to fuel cell users.

The fuel reforming can also be performed on an intermediate scale in a location such as a
gasoline station. In this example, gasoline or diesel fuels would be refined and delivered to the
station with the current infrastructure. Onsite equipment would reform the fossil fuel into a

Page 3
mixture composed primarily of hydrogen, but could include other molecular components such
as CO2 and N2. The purity of this hydrogen will depend on ongoing developments in
techniques to cost-effectively separate H2 from other gases. This hydrogen would likely then
be delivered to customers as a high-pressure gas.

Finally, the fuel reforming process can be performed on a small scale on an as-needed basis
immediately before its introduction into the fuel cell. One example would be for a fuel cell-
powered vehicle to have a gasoline tank on board that would use the existing infrastructure of
gasoline delivery. An on-board fuel processor would reform the gasoline into a hydrogen-rich
stream that would be fed directly to the fuel cell. At the present time, it is not practical to
perform separation of other products of the reforming process from the hydrogen at this small
scale.

In the longer term, most, if not all, of the hydrogen used to power fuel cells could be
generated from renewable resources such as wind or solar energy. The electricity generated at
a wind farm could be used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This electrolysis process
would produce pure hydrogen and pure oxygen. The hydrogen could then be delivered by
pipeline to all end-users. Such a shift in source of energy has been described as a hydrogen
economy. Much has been written about the future potential of this energy use.

Page 4
 CHAPTER 3

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

A fuel cell generates electrical power by continuously converting the chemical energy of a
fuel into electrical energy by way of an electrochemical reaction. The fuel cell itself has no
moving parts, making it a quiet and reliable source of power. Fuel cells typically utilize
hydrogen as the fuel, and oxygen (usually from air) as the oxidant in the electrochemical
reaction. The reaction results in electricity, by-product water, and by-product heat.

Because the fuel is converted directly to electricity, a fuel cell can operate at much higher
efficiencies than internal combustion engines, extracting more electricity from the same
amount of fuel.

When hydrogen gas is introduced into the system, the catalyst surface of the membrane splits
hydrogen gas molecules into protons and electrons. The protons pass through the membrane
to react with oxygen in the air (forming water). The electrons, which cannot pass through the
membrane, must travel around it, thus creating the source of DC electricity.  

Individual fuel cells can be then combined into a fuel cell "stack". The number of fuel cells in
the stack determines the total voltage, and the surface area of each cell determines the total
current. Multiplying the
voltage by the current yields the
total electrical power
generated.

Page 5
 CHAPTER 4

TYPES OF FUEL CELLS

4.1 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)

Alkaline fuel cells (AFC) are one of the most

developed technologies and have been used
since the mid-1960s by NASA in the Apollo
and Space Shuttle programs. The fuel cells on
board these spacecraft provide electrical
power for on-board systems, as well as
drinking water. AFCs are among the most
efficient in generating electricity at nearly
70%.

Alkaline fuel cells use an electrolyte that is

an aqueous (water-based) solution of
potassium hydroxide (KOH) retained in a porous stabilized matrix. The concentration of KOH
can be varied with the fuel cell operating temperature, which ranges from 65°C to 220°C. The
charge carrier for an AFC is the hydroxyl ion (OH-) that migrates from the cathode to the
anode where they react with hydrogen to produce water and electrons. Water formed at the
anode migrates back to the cathode to regenerate hydroxyl ions. Therefore, the chemical
reactions at the anode and cathode in an AFC are shown below. This set of reactions in the
fuel cell produces electricity and by-product heat.

Anode Reaction: 2 H2 + 4 OH- => 4 H2O + 4 e-

Cathode Reaction: O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e- => 4 OH-

Overall Net Reaction: 2 H2 + O2 => 2 H2O

One characteristic of AFCs is that they are very sensitive to CO2 that may be present in the
fuel or air. The CO2 reacts with the electrolyte, poisoning it rapidly, and severely degrading
the fuel cell performance. Therefore, AFCs are limited to closed environments, such as space

Page 6
and undersea vehicles, and must be run on pure hydrogen and oxygen. Furthermore,
molecules such as CO, H2O and CH4, which are harmless or even work as fuels to other fuel
cells, are poisons to an AFC.

On the positive side, AFCs are the cheapest fuel cells to manufacture. This is because the
catalyst that is required on the electrodes can be any of a number of different materials that
are relatively inexpensive compared to the catalysts required for other types of fuel cells.

AFCs are not being considered for automobile applications. Their sensitivity to poisoning,
which requires use of pure or cleansed hydrogen and oxygen, is an insurmountable obstacle at
the present time. Conversely, AFCs operate at relatively low temperatures and are among the
most efficient fuel cells, characteristics that would enable a quick starting power source and
high fuel efficiency, respectively

4.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC) were the

first fuel cells to be commercialized.
Developed in the mid-1960s and field-tested
since the 1970s, they have improved
significantly in stability, performance, and
cost. Such characteristics have made the
PAFC a good candidate for early stationary
applications.

The PAFC uses an electrolyte that is

phosphoric acid (H3PO4) that can approach
100% concentration. The ionic conductivity
of phosphoric acid is low at low temperatures, so PAFCs are operated at the upper end of the
range 150ºC–220ºC.

The charge carrier in this type of fuel cell is the hydrogen ion (H+, proton). This is similar to
the PEFC where the hydrogen introduced at the anode is split into its protons and electrons.
The protons migrate through the electrolyte and combine with the oxygen, usually from air, at
the cathode to form water. The electrons are routed through an external circuit where they can

Page 7
perform useful work. This set of reactions in the fuel cell produces electricity and by-product
heat.

Anode Reaction: 2 H2 => 4 H+ + 4 e-

Cathode Reaction: O2(g) + 4 H+ + 4 e- => 2 H2O

Overall Cell Reaction: 2 H2 + O2 => 2 H2O

The PAFC operates at greater than 40% efficiency in generating electricity. When operating
in cogeneration applications, the overall efficiency is approximately 85%. Furthermore, at the
operating temperature of PAFCs, the waste heat is capable of heating hot water or generating
steam at atmospheric pressure.

The high efficiency of the PAFC when operated in cogeneration mode is one advantage of
this fuel cell type. In addition, CO2 does not affect the electrolyte or cell performance and can
therefore be easily operated with reformed fossil fuel. Simple construction, low electrolyte
volatility and long-term stability are additional advantages.

Approximately 75 MW of PAFC generating capacity has been installed and is operating.

Typical installations include buildings, hotels, hospitals, and electric utilities in Japan, Europe
and the United States. One particular program sponsored by CERL was to demonstrate 30
PAFCs generating 200 kW apiece at military installations. The objective of this program was
to gain experience with PAFC operation for maintenance, reliability and performance.

4.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) are in the class

of high-temperature fuel cells. The higher operating
temperature allows them to use natural gas directly
without the need for a fuel processor and have also been
used with low-Btu fuel gas from industrial processes

Page 8
and other sources and fuels. Developed in the mid 1960s, improvements have been made in
fabrication methods, performance and endurance.

MCFCs work quite differently from other fuel cells. These cells use an electrolyte composed
of a molten mixture of carbonate salts. Two mixtures are currently used: lithium carbonate
and potassium carbonate, or lithium carbonate and sodium carbonate. To melt the carbonate
salts and achieve high ion mobility through the electrolyte, MCFCs operate at high
temperatures (650ºC).

When heated to a temperature of around 650ºC, these salts melt and become conductive to
carbonate ions (CO32-). These ions flow from the cathode to the anode where they combine
with hydrogen to give water, carbon dioxide and electrons. These electrons are routed through
an external circuit back to the cathode, generating electricity and by-product heat.

Anode Reaction: CO32- + H2 => H2O + CO2 + 2e-

Cathode Reaction: CO2+ 1/2O2 + 2e- => CO32-

Overall Cell Reaction: H2(g) + ½O2(g) + CO2 (cathode) => H2O(g) + CO2 (anode)

The higher operating temperature of MCFCs has both advantages and disadvantages
compared to the lower temperature PAFC and PEFC. At the higher operating temperature,
fuel reforming of natural gas can occur internally, eliminating the need for an external fuel
processor. Additional advantages include the ability to use standard materials for construction,
such as stainless steel sheet, and allow use of nickel-based catalysts on the electrodes. The by-
product heat from an MCFC can be used to generate high-pressure steam that can be used in
many industrial and commercial applications.

The high temperatures and the electrolyte chemistry also has disadvantages. The high
temperature requires significant time to reach operating conditions and responds slowly to
changing power demands. These characteristics make MCFCs more suitable for constant
power applications. The carbonate electrolyte can also cause electrode corrosion problems.
Furthermore, since CO2 is consumed at the anode and transferred to the cathode, introduction
of CO2 and its control in air stream becomes an issue for achieving optimum performance that
is not present in any other fuel cell.

Page 9
4.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) is

currently the highest-temperature fuel cell in
development and can be operated over a wide
temperature range from 600ºC–1000ºC
allowing a number of fuels to be used. To
operate at such high temperatures, the
electrolyte is a thin, solid ceramic material
(solid oxide) that is conductive to oxygen
ions (O2-). The SOFC has been in
development since the late 1950s and has two
configurations that are being investigate-
planar (flat panel) and tubular.

As a solid electrolyte, it is impervious to gas cross-over from one electrode to another when
liquid electrolytes usually consist of the electrolyte contained in some porous supporting
structure. The charge carrier in the SOFC is the oxygen ion (O 2-). At the cathode, the oxygen
molecules from the air are split into oxygen ions with the addition of four electrons. The
oxygen ions are conducted through the electrolyte and combine with hydrogen at the anode,
releasing four electrons. The electrons travel an external circuit providing electric power and
producing by-product heat.

Anode Reaction: 2 H2 + 2 O2- => 2 H2O + 4 e-

Cathode Reaction: O2 + 4 e- => 2 O2-

Overall Cell Reaction: 2 H2 + O2 => 2 H2O

The operating efficiency in generating electricity is among the highest of the fuel cells at
about 60%. Furthermore, the high operating temperature allows cogeneration applications to
create high-pressure steam that can be used in many applications. Combining a high-

Page
10
temperature fuel cell with a turbine into a hybrid fuel cell further increases the overall
efficiency of generating electricity with a potential of an efficiency of more than 70%.

SOFCs operate at extremely high temperatures (600ºC–1000ºC) resulting in a significant time

required to reach operating temperature and responding slowly to changes in electricity
demand. It is therefore considered to be a leading candidate for high-power applications
including industrial and large-scale central-electricity generating-stations.

The very high operating temperature of the SOFC has both advantages and disadvantages.
The high temperature enables them to tolerate relatively impure fuels, such as those obtained
from the gasification of coal or gasses from industrial process and other sources. However,
the high temperatures require more expensive materials of construction

4.5 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) are

believed to be the best type of fuel cell as the vehicular
power source to eventually replace the gasoline and diesel
internal combustion engines. First used in the 1960s for the
NASA Gemini program, PEMFCs are currently being
developed and demonstrated for systems ranging from 1W
to 2kW.

PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer membrane (a thin

plastic film) as the electrolyte. This polymer is permeable to
protons when it is saturated with water, but it does not
conduct electrons.

The fuel for the PEMFC is hydrogen and the charge carrier is the hydrogen ion (proton). At
the anode, the hydrogen molecule is split into hydrogen ions (protons) and electrons. The
hydrogen ions permeate across the electrolyte to the cathode while the electrons flow through
an external circuit and produce electric power. Oxygen, usually in the form of air, is supplied
to the cathode and combines with the electrons and the hydrogen ions to produce water. The
reactions at the electrodes are as follows:

Page
11
Anode Reactions: 2H2 => 4H+ + 4e-

Cathode Reactions: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- => 2 H2O

Overall Cell Reactions: 2H2 + O2 => 2 H2O

Compared to other types of fuel cells, PEMFCs generate more power for a given volume or
weight of fuel cell. This high-power density characteristic makes them compact and
lightweight. In addition, the operating temperature is less than 100ºC, which allows rapid
start-up. These traits and the ability to rapidly change power output are some of the
characteristics that make the PEMFC the top candidate for automotive power applications.

Other advantages result from the electrolyte being a solid material, compared to a liquid. The
sealing of the anode and cathode gases is simpler with a solid electrolyte, and therefore, less
expensive to manufacture. The solid electrolyte is also more immune to difficulties with
orientation and has less problems with corrosion, compared to many of the other electrolytes,
thus leading to a longer cell and stack life.

One of the disadvantages of the PEMFC for some applications is that the operating
temperature is low. Temperatures near 100ºC are not high enough to perform useful
cogeneration. Also, since the electrolyte is required to be saturated with water to operate
optimally, careful control of the moisture of the anode and cathode streams is important.

4.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC)

The technology behind Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC) is still in the early stages of
development, but it has been successfully demonstrated powering mobile phones and laptop
computers—potential target end uses in future years.

DMFC is similar to the PEMFC in that the electrolyte is a polymer and the charge carrier is
the hydrogen ion (proton). However, the liquid methanol (CH3OH) is oxidized in the presence
of water at the anode generating CO2, hydrogen ions and the electrons that travel through the
external circuit as the electric output of the fuel cell. The hydrogen ions travel through the
electrolyte and react with oxygen from the air and the electrons from the external circuit to
form water at the anode completing the circuit.

Page
12
Anode Reaction: CH3OH + H2O => CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-

Cathode Reaction: 3/2 O2 + 6 H+ + 6e- => 3 H2O

Overall Cell Reaction: CH3OH + 3/2 O2 => CO2 + 2 H2O

Initially developed in the early 1990s, DMFCs were not embraced because of their low
efficiency and power density, as well as other problems. Improvements in catalysts and other
recent developments have increased power density 20-fold and the efficiency may eventually
reach 40%.

These cells have been tested in a temperature range from about 50ºC-120ºC. This low
operating temperature and no requirement for a fuel reformer make the DMFC an excellent
candidate for very small to mid-sized applications, such as cellular phones and other
consumer products, up to automobile power plants.

One of the drawbacks of the DMFC is that the low-temperature oxidation of methanol to
hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide requires a more active catalyst, which typically means a
larger quantity of expensive platinum catalyst is required than in conventional PEMFCs. This
increased cost is, however, expected to be more than outweighed by the convenience of using
a liquid fuel and the ability to function without a reforming unit.

One other concern driving the development of alcohol-based fuel cells is the fact that
methanol is toxic. Therefore, some companies have embarked on developing a Direct Ethanol
Fuel Cell (DEFC). The performance of the DEFC is currently about half that of the DMFC,
but this gap is expected to narrow with further development.

4.7 Regenerative Fuel Cells (RFC)

The Regenerative Fuel Cell (RFC) is a system that can operate in a closed loop and could
serve as the basis of a hydrogen economy operating on renewable energy. Fuel cells
generating electricity, heat, and water from hydrogen and oxygen would be used throughout
the economy, powering factories, vehicles, and houses. The hydrogen would be generated

Page
13
from the electrolysis of water, splitting it into its constituent components of hydrogen and
oxygen, using renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, or geothermal.

Such a system would not require any specific type of fuel cell, but would need an
infrastructure to deliver hydrogen to the many fuel cells in use. Little to no new technology is
required to implement a renewable-based system. However, there currently does not exist the
infrastructure for hydrogen delivery. Also, the cost of electricity would be high, but will
decrease as costs decrease for each of the components: fuel cells, hydrogen storage, and
delivery, renewable energy collection, etc.

Currently, there is a project led by NASA to develop an efficient and lightweight regenerative
fuel cell system for use on board an airplane called the Helios that can fly at altitudes near
100,000 feet. The predecessor aircraft was powered by photovoltaic solar cells. The goal is to
incorporate both photovoltaic solar cells and a regenerative fuel cell on board. The solar cells
will power the aircraft during the day and generate a supply of hydrogen that would be stored
for use by the fuel cell overnight. Such a system would then be capable of flights lasting many
days.

4.8 Zinc-Air Fuel Cells (ZAFC)

Zinc-Air Fuel Cells (ZAFCs) share characteristics with a number of the other types of fuel
cells as well as some characteristics of batteries.

The electrolyte for a ZAFC is a ceramic solid that employs the hydroxyl ion, OH-, as the
charge carrier. To achieve the high electrical fuel efficiency with hydrocarbon fuels and a
high electrolyte conductivity for the charge carrier, the ZAFC operates at 700ºC. The anode is
composed of zinc and is supplied with hydrogen or even hydrocarbons. The cathode is
separated from the air supply with a gas diffusion electrode (GDE), a permeable membrane
that allows atmospheric oxygen to pass through. At the cathode, the oxygen reacts with
hydrogen to form hydroxyl ions and water.

Anode Reaction: CH4 + H2O => CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-

Zn + OH- => ZnO + H + e-

Cathode Reaction: O2 + 2H+ + 2e- => 2 OH-

O2 + 4H+ + 4e- => 2 H2O

Page
14
Overall Cell Reaction: CH4 + 2 O2 => CO2 + 2 H2O

The high operating temperature of the ZAFC enables internal reforming of hydrocarbons,
eliminating the need for an external reformer to generate hydrogen. An additional advantage
of the high operating temperature is that the by-product heat can be used to generate high-
pressure steam that is useful in many industrial and commercial applications.

The electrolyte for the ZAFC has some advantages over other electrolytes. It does not require
water saturation as does the polymer membrane of the PEMFC and therefore, cannot dry out,
eliminating the need to carefully monitor and control anode and cathode moisture levels.
Additionally, as a solid, no leakage of the electrolyte will occur as can with liquid
electrolytes.

Due to the consumption of the zinc anode, this component requires replacing at intervals.

Page
15
 CHAPTER 5

THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE FUEL CELLS

TYPES OF FUEL CELL ADVATAGES DIS ADVANTAGES

Alkaline Fuel Cells  cheapest fuel cells to  requires use of pure or
(AFC) manufacture cleansed hydrogen and
oxygen
 operate at relatively low
temperatures  limited to closed
environments
 among the most efficient
fuel cells

Phosphoric Acid Fuel  The high efficiency when  Requires a platinum

Cells (PAFC) operated in cogeneration catalyst,has low current
mode and power.

 Simple construction  Easily poisoning (by

carbon monoxide and
 low electrolyte volatility carbon dioxide)
long-term stability
 Less power than other fuel
cells

 Expensive
Molten Carbonate Fuel  At the higher operating  The high temperatures
Cells (MCFC) temperature fuel requires significant time to
reforming of natural gas reach operating conditions

 can be used to generate  suitable for constant power

high-pressure steam applications.

 ability to use standard  electrode corrosion

materials for construction problems

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell  allows cogeneration  operate at extremely high

(SOFC) applications to create temperatures
high-pressure steam
 require more expensive
 among the highest materials of construction
operating efficiency in
generating electricity

 high temperature enables

them to tolerate relatively

Page
16
 impure fuels
Proton Exchange  compact and lightweight.  Temperatures are not high
enough to perform useful
Membrane Fuel Cell
 operating temperature is cogeneration
(PEMFC) less than 100ºC
 the electrolyte is required
 less expensive to to be saturated with water
manufacture to operate optimally

 less problems with

corrosion

Direct Methanol Fuel  low operating  expensive platinum

temperature and no catalyst is required
Cells (DMFC)
requirement for a fuel
reformer

 light weight

Regenerative Fuel Cells  can operate in a closed  the cost of electricity

(RFC) loop would be high

Zinc-Air Fuel Cells  by-product heat can be  need to carefully monitor

(ZAFC) used to generate high- and control anode and
pressure steam cathode moisture levels.
 not require water
saturation

 no leakage of the
electrolyte will occur

CHAPTER 6

Page
17
 SUMMARY

Based on the study case, a fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel and
an oxidant into electricity. Since the fuel cell are electrochemical devices and classified by
their electrolyte material. There are five basic chracteristic of fuel cell which is charge carrier,
poisoning by contamination, fuels, performance factors and fuel reformers.

Basically, a fuel cell operates like a battery. However, a fuel cell does not run down or require
recharging. It will produce electricity and heat as long as fuel and an oxidizer are supplied.
Fuel cells consist of eight types; alkaline fuel cells (AFC), phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC),
molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), proton exchange
membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC), regenerative fuel cells
(RFC) and zinc-air fuel cells (ZAFC).

REFERENCE:

Page
18
Reference from books:

1. Hughes,Edward,(1888).Electrical Technology,7th ed.,London: Parentice Hall

2. G.A.G Bennet,(1971).Elecricity and Modern Physics,United Kingdom:The English

Language Book Society and Edward Arnold.Ltd.

3. Hugh D. Young,Roger A.Freedman,(2004).Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics,11th

ed,London:Pearson

Internet:

1. http://www.fctec.com/
2. http://www.dodfuelcell.com/

Page
19